# data[].attributes.body
1. Oral literature: epic narratives, creation myths, stories, poems, songs.

2. Use stories to teach moral lessons and convey practical information about the natural world.

3. Deep respect for nature and animals.

4. Cyclical worldview.

5. Figurative language/parallelism.

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Euro-American depictions of Native Americans and their cultures

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Native Americans have inhabited the Americas for thousands of years, long before European colonization. The term "Indian" was a misnomer given by Christopher Columbus, who mistakenly believed he had reached the East Indies.

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There are 574 federally recognized Native American tribes in the United States.

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies 1600-1800: Period Characteristics

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies 1600-1800: Period Characteristics

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1. Wrote mostly diaries and histories, which expressed the connections between God and their everyday lives.
2. South to "purify" the Church of England by reforming to the simpler forms of worship and church organization described in the New Testament.
3. Saw religion as a personal, inner experience.
4. Believed in original sin and "elect" who would be saved.
5. Used a plain style of writing.

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies 
1600-1800: Authors and Works

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Puritanism and Early Settlement  of First "American" colonies 
1600-1800: Authors and Works

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William Bradford
-"Of Plymouth Plantation"

Anne Bradstreet (poetry)

John Edwards
-"Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God"

Edward Taylor
-"Huswifery"

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1507: Early Settlement of the first American colonies - Jamestown

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1507: Early Settlement of the first American colonies - Jamestown

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1741: Jonathan Edwards "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" 

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1741: Jonathan Edwards "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" 

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Puritanism and Early Settlement of First "American" colonies: Fact #1

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Puritanism and Early Settlement of First "American" colonies: Fact #1

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Many Puritans migrated to the New England colonies, starting in the 1620s and 1630s, to flee persecution

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Puritanism

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Puritanism and Early Settlement of First "American" colonies: Fact #2

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Puritanism and Early Settlement of First "American" colonies: Fact #2

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Puritans believed that it was necessary to be in a covenant relationship with God in order to be redeemed from one’s sinful condition

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Puritanism

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1. Mostly comprised of philosophers, scientists, writing speeches and pamphlets

2. Human beings can arrive at truth (God's rules) by using deductive reasoning, rather than relying on the authority of the past, on religious faith, or intuition

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The Enlightenment: Famous Authors and Works

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The Enlightenment: Famous Authors and Works

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Benjamin Franklin
—Autobiography

Patrick Henry
—"Speech to the Virginia Convention"

Thomas Paine
—"The Crisis"

Phyllis Wheatley
—poetry

The Constitution

The Bill of Rights

The Declaration of Independence

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The Enlightenment had its roots in the past. Three of the chief sources for Enlightenment thought were the ideas of the ancient Greek philosophers, the Renaissance, and the Scientific Revolution that began in the 16th century.

https://www.britannica.com/summary/The-Enlightenment-Key-Facts

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List of important facts regarding the Enlightenment. This European intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries gained wide acceptance in the West and instigated revolutionary developments in art, philosophy, and politics. Central to Enlightenment thought were the use and celebration of reas…

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The Enlightenment was especially prominent in France, where its leaders were known as the philosophes.

https://www.britannica.com/summary/The-Enlightenment-Key-Facts

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List of important facts regarding the Enlightenment. This European intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries gained wide acceptance in the West and instigated revolutionary developments in art, philosophy, and politics. Central to Enlightenment thought were the use and celebration of reas…

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René Descartes was the first of the modern rationalists.

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/rationalism/

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For Enlightenment thinkers themselves, however, the Enlightenment is not an historical period, but a process of social, psychological or spiritual development, unbound to time or place.

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/enlightenment/

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1. Everything in the world, including human beings, is a reflection of the Divine Soul.

2. People can use their intuition to behold God's spirit revealed in nature or in their own souls.

3. Self-reliance and individualism must outweigh external authority and link conformity to tradition.

4. Important social and political movements include the Abolitionist, Utopian, and Women's Suffrage Movements

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Ralph Waldo Emerson
—Nature
—"Self-Reliance"

Henry David Thoreau
—Walden
—Life in the Woods

Louisa May Alcott
—Little Women

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During the transcendentalism time period, United States was also pursuing a policy of expansion based on “manifest destiny,” the ideology that Americans were in fact destined to extend their nation across the continent.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/foreword#:~:text=the%20full%20notice.-,1830%E2%80%931860%3A%20Diplomacy%20and%20Westward%20Expansion,their%20nation%20across%20the%20continent.

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Besides expanding westward, the U.S. was also expanding economically during this time period and began to turn to the Pacific for new economic opportunities, establishing a presence in China, and opening Japan and Korea to western commercial interests.

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/foreword#:~:text=the%20full%20notice.-,1830%E2%80%931860%3A%20Diplomacy%20and%20Westward%20Expansion,their%20nation%20across%20the%20continent.

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1. Valued feeling, intuition, idealism, and inductive reasoning.

2. Placed faith in inner experience and the power of the imagination.

3. Shunned the artificiality of civilization and sought unspoiled nature as a path to spirituality.

4. Championed individual freedom and the worth of the individual

5. Saw poetry as the highest expression of the imagination

6. Dark Romantics: used dark and supernatural themes/settings (Gothic style)

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Washington Irving
—"Rip van Winkle"

Emily Dickinson
—poetry

Walt Whitman
—Leaves of Grass

Edgar Allan Poe
—"The Raven"

Nathaniel Hawthorne
—The Scarlet Letter

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Romanticism: California Gold Rush (1848-1855)

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Romanticism: California Gold Rush (1848-1855)

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Romanticism emerged as a rejection to the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and the scientific rationalisation of nature. https://www.britannica.com/art/Romanticism

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A notable by-product of the Romantic interest in the emotional were works dealing with the supernatural, the weird, and the horrible

https://www.britannica.com/art/Romanticism

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Romanticism | Definition, Characteristics, Artists, History, Art, Poetry, Literature, & Music

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Romanticism is the attitude that characterized works of literature, painting, music, architecture, criticism, and historiography in the West from the late 18th to the mid-19th century. It emphasized the individual, the subjective, the irrational, the imaginative, the personal, the emotional, and the…

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The name “Puritans” was a term of contempt assigned to the movement by its enemies.

https://www.history.com/articles/puritanism

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In keeping with their focus on the home, Puritan migration to the New World usually consisted of entire families, rather than the young, single men who comprised many other early European settlements.

https://www.history.com/articles/puritanism

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The events in Salem in 1692 were but one chapter in a long story of witch hunts that began in Europe between 1300 and 1330 and ended in the late 18th century (with the last known execution for witchcraft taking place in Switzerland in 1782).

https://www.britannica.com/event/Salem-witch-trials

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The Salem witch trials and executions came about as the result of a combination of church politics, family feuds, and hysterical children, all of which unfolded in a vacuum of political authority.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Salem-witch-trials

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Frost first achieved professional publication in 1894 when The Independent, a weekly literary journal, printed his poem “My Butterfly: An Elegy"

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Frost

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Frost was fighting discouragement by 1911 because poetry had always been considered a young person’s game, and Frost, who was nearly 40 years old, had not published a single book of poems and had seen just a handful appear in magazines.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Frost

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A top student in his class, he shared valedictorian honors with Elinor White, who would be his future wife.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Frost

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Robert Frost | Biography, Childhood, Poems, Awards, & Facts

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Robert Frost, American poet who was much admired for his depictions of the rural life of New England, his command of American colloquial speech, and his realistic verse portraying ordinary people in everyday situations. Learn more about his life and career in this article.

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Only 10 of Emily Dickinson’s nearly 1,800 poems are known to have been published in her lifetime.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Emily-Dickinson

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Dickinson was influenced by both the Transcendentalism of Ralph Waldo Emerson and the mid-century tendencies of liberal Protestant orthodoxy.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Emily-Dickinson

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The second of three children, Dickinson grew up in moderate privilege and with strong local and religious attachments.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Emily-Dickinson

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Emily Dickinson (born December 10, 1830, Amherst, Massachusetts, U.S.-died May 15, 1886, Amherst) was an American lyric poet who lived in seclusion and commanded a singular brilliance of style and integrity of vision. With Walt Whitman, Dickinson is widely considered to be one of the two leading 19th-century American poets.

Only 10 of Emily Dickinson's nearly 1,800 poems are known to have been published in her lifetime. Devoted to private pursuits, she sent hundreds of poems to friends and correspondents while apparently keeping the greater number to herself. She habitually worked in verse forms suggestive of hymns and ballads, with lines of three or four stresses. Her unusual off-rhymes have been seen as both experimental and influenced by the 18th-century hymnist Isaac Watts. She freely ignored the usual rules of versification and even of grammar, and in the intellectual content of her work she likewise proved exceptionally bold and original. Her verse is distinguished by its epigrammatic compression, haunting personal voice, enigmatic brilliance, and lack of high polish.

Early years

The second of three children, Dickinson grew up in moderate privilege and with strong local and religious attachments. For her first nine years she resided in a mansion built by her paternal grandfather, Samuel Fowler Dickinson, who had helped found Amherst College but then went bankrupt shortly before her birth. Her father, Edward Dickinson, was a forceful and prosperous Whig lawyer who served as treasurer of the college and was elected to one term in Congress. Her mother, Emily Norcross Dickinson, from the leading family in nearby Monson, was an introverted wife and hardworking housekeeper; her letters seem equally inexpressive and quirky. Both parents were loving but austere, and Emily became closely attached to her brother, Austin, and sister, Lavinia. Never marrying, the two sisters remained at home, and when their brother married, he and his wife established their own household next door. The highly distinct and even eccentric personalities developed by the three siblings seem to have mandated strict limits to their intimacy. "If we had come up for the first time from two wells," Emily once said of Lavinia, "her astonishment would not be greater at some things I say." Only after the poet's death did Lavinia and Austin realize how dedicated she was to her art.

As a girl, Emily was seen as frail by her parents and others and was often kept home from school. She attended the coeducational Amherst Academy, where she was recognized by teachers and students alike for her prodigious abilities in composition. She also excelled in other subjects emphasized by the school, most notably Latin and the sciences. A class in botany inspired her to assemble an herbarium containing a large number of pressed plants identified by their Latin names. She was fond of her teachers, but when she left home to attend Mount Holyoke Female Seminary (now Mount Holyoke College) in nearby South Hadley, she found the school's institutional tone uncongenial. Mount Holyoke's strict rules and invasive religious practices, along with her own homesickness and growing rebelliousness, help explain why she did not return for a second year.

At home as well as at school and church, the religious faith that ruled the poet's early years was evangelical Calvinism, a faith centred on the belief that humans are born totally depraved and can be saved only if they undergo a life-altering conversion in which they accept the vicarious sacrifice of Jesus Christ. Questioning this tradition soon after leaving Mount Holyoke, Dickinson was to be the only member of her family who did not experience conversion or join Amherst's First Congregational Church. Yet she seems to have retained a belief in the soul's immortality or at least to have transmuted it into a Romantic quest for the transcendent and absolute. One reason her mature religious views elude specification is that she took no interest in creedal or doctrinal definition. In this she was influenced by both the Transcendentalism of Ralph Waldo Emerson and the mid-century tendencies of liberal Protestant orthodoxy. These influences pushed her toward a more symbolic understanding of religious truth and helped shape her vocation as poet.

Development as a poet

Although Dickinson had begun composing verse by her late teens, few of her early poems are extant. Among them are two of the burlesque "Valentines"-the exuberantly inventive expressions of affection and esteem she sent to friends of her youth. Two other poems dating from the first half of the 1850s draw a contrast between the world as it is and a more peaceful alternative, variously eternity or a serene imaginative order. All her known juvenilia were sent to friends and engage in a striking play of visionary fancies, a direction in which she was encouraged by the popular, sentimental book of essays Reveries of a Bachelor: Or a Book of the Heart by Ik. Marvel (the pseudonym of Donald Grant Mitchell). Dickinson's acts of fancy and reverie, however, were more intricately social than those of Marvel's bachelor, uniting the pleasures of solitary mental play, performance for an audience, and intimate communion with another. It may be because her writing began with a strong social impetus that her later solitude did not lead to a meaningless hermeticism.

Until Dickinson was in her mid-20s, her writing mostly took the form of letters, and a surprising number of those that she wrote from age 11 onward have been preserved. Sent to her brother, Austin, or to friends of her own sex, especially Abiah Root, Jane Humphrey, and Susan Gilbert (who would marry Austin), these generous communications overflow with humour, anecdote, invention, and sombre reflection. In general, Dickinson seems to have given and demanded more from her correspondents than she received. On occasion she interpreted her correspondents' laxity in replying as evidence of neglect or even betrayal. Indeed, the loss of friends, whether through death or cooling interest, became a basic pattern for Dickinson. Much of her writing, both poetic and epistolary, seems premised on a feeling of abandonment and a matching effort to deny, overcome, or reflect on a sense of solitude.

Dickinson's closest friendships usually had a literary flavour. She was introduced to the poetry of Ralph Waldo Emerson by one of her father's law students, Benjamin F. Newton, and to that of Elizabeth Barrett Browning by Susan Gilbert and Henry Vaughan Emmons, a gifted college student. Two of Barrett Browning's works, "A Vision of Poets," describing the pantheon of poets, and Aurora Leigh, on the development of a female poet, seem to have played a formative role for Dickinson, validating the idea of female greatness and stimulating her ambition. Though she also corresponded with Josiah G. Holland, a popular writer of the time, he counted for less with her than his appealing wife, Elizabeth, a lifelong friend and the recipient of many affectionate letters.

In 1855 Dickinson traveled to Washington, D.C., with her sister and father, who was then ending his term as U.S. representative. On the return trip the sisters made an extended stay in Philadelphia, where it is thought the poet heard the preaching of Charles Wadsworth, a fascinating Presbyterian minister whose pulpit oratory suggested (as a colleague put it) "years of conflict and agony." Seventy years later, Martha Dickinson Bianchi, the poet's niece, claimed that Emily had fallen in love with Wadsworth, who was married, and then grandly renounced him. The story is too highly coloured for its details to be credited; certainly, there is no evidence the minister returned the poet's love. Yet it is true that a correspondence arose between the two and that Wadsworth visited her in Amherst about 1860 and again in 1880. After his death in 1882, Dickinson remembered him as "my Philadelphia," "my dearest earthly friend," and "my Shepherd from 'Little Girl'hood."

Always fastidious, Dickinson began to restrict her social activity in her early 20s, staying home from communal functions and cultivating intense epistolary relationships with a reduced number of correspondents. In 1855, leaving the large and much-loved house (since razed) in which she had lived for 15 years, the 25-year-old woman and her family moved back to the dwelling associated with her first decade: the Dickinson mansion on Main Street in Amherst. Her home for the rest of her life, this large brick house, still standing, has become a favourite destination for her admirers. She found the return profoundly disturbing, and when her mother became incapacitated by a mysterious illness that lasted from 1855 to 1859, both daughters were compelled to give more of themselves to domestic pursuits. Various events outside the home-a bitter Norcross family lawsuit, the financial collapse of the local railroad that had been promoted by the poet's father, and a powerful religious revival that renewed the pressure to "convert"-made the years 1857 and 1858 deeply troubling for Dickinson and promoted her further withdrawal.

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Emily Dickinson | Biography, Poems, Death, & Facts

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Emily Dickinson, American lyric poet who lived in seclusion and commanded a singular brilliance of style and integrity of vision. With Walt Whitman, Dickinson is widely considered to be one of the two leading 19th-century American poets. Learn more about her life and works in this article.

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After graduating from Dartmouth College (B.A., 1925), Geisel did postgraduate studies at Lincoln College, Oxford, and at the Sorbonne

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dr-Seuss

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What was Dr. Seuss's education?

What made Dr. Seuss famous?

What is Dr. Seuss most famous for?

Which Dr. Seuss books will no longer be published?

Dr. Seuss, pseudonym of Theodor Seuss Geisel, (born March 2, 1904, Springfield, Massachusetts, U.S.-died September 24, 1991, La Jolla, California), American writer and illustrator of immensely popular children's books, which were noted for their nonsense words, playful rhymes, and unusual creatures.

Early career and first Dr. Seuss books

After graduating from Dartmouth College (B.A., 1925), Geisel did postgraduate studies at Lincoln College, Oxford, and at the Sorbonne. He subsequently began working for Life, Vanity Fair, and other publications as an illustrator and humorist. In addition, he found success in advertising, providing illustrations for a number of campaigns. Geisel was especially noted for his work on ads for Flit insect repellent. Some of his characters later appeared in his children's works.

After illustrating a series of humour books, Geisel decided to write a children's book, which was reportedly rejected by nearly 30 publishers. After his chance meeting with a friend who was an editor at Vanguard Press, And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street was finally released in 1937. The work centres on a young boy who transforms his ordinary walk home from school into a fantastical story. Later, however, he describes only the facts of his walk to his father, who frowns on the boy's imaginative nature. Geisel used the pen name Dr. Seuss, planning to publish novels under his surname; the Dr. was a tongue-in-cheek reference to his uncompleted doctorate degree. However, his first book for adults, The Seven Lady Godivas (1939), fared poorly, and thereafter he focused on children's books, which he preferred. According to Geisel, "Adults are obsolete children, and the hell with them."

After publishing several more children's works, Geisel released Horton Hatches the Egg in 1940. With it, he introduced the features that would come to define his books: a unique brand of humour, playful use of words, and outlandish characters. It centres on an elephant who is duped into sitting on the egg of a bird who goes on vacation. Despite various hardships, Horton refuses to leave: "I meant what I said, and I said what I meant. An elephant's faithful one hundred percent!" In the end, he is rewarded when the egg hatches, and a creature with bird wings and an elephant's head emerges.

World War II and documentaries

During World War II Geisel's focus shifted to politics. In the early 1940s he was an editorial cartoonist at PM magazine in New York City. He then served (1942-46) in the U.S. Army, where he was assigned to the documentary division. In 1945 he wrote Your Job in Germany, which was directed by Frank Capra; it was later remade as the Academy Award-winning Hitler Lives (1945), though Geisel was not credited. After his service ended, he continued to make films. With his first wife, Helen Palmer Geisel, he wrote the Oscar-winning documentary feature Design for Death (1947). His animated cartoon Gerald McBoing-Boing (1950) also won an Academy Award.

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Dr. Seuss | Biography, Books, Characters, Movies, & Facts

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Dr. Seuss, pseudonym of Theodor Seuss Geisel, (born March 2, 1904, Springfield, Massachusetts, U.S.-died September 24, 1991, La Jolla, California), American writer and illustrator of immensely popular children's books, which were noted for their nonsense words, playful rhymes, and unusual creatures.

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Geisel first started working with Life, Vanity Fair, and other publications as an illustrator and humorist. In addition, he found success in advertising, providing illustrations for a number of campaigns. Geisel was especially noted for his work on ads for Flit insect repellent. Some of his characters later appeared in his children’s works.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dr-Seuss

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After illustrating a series of humor books, Geisel decided to write a children’s book, which was reportedly rejected by nearly 30 publishers.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Dr-Seuss

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Amazon engineer Tim Bray quits and takes a stand after he ‘snapped’ when the company fired workers who called for coronavirus protections

https://www.cnbc.com/2020/05/04/amazon-engineer-resigns-over-companys-treatment-of-workers.html

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U.S. cosmetic brand Glossier took a stand and teamed up with the New York Times to amplify its support for women’s rights in the lead up to the 2024 US elections

https://cosmeticsbusiness.com/glossier-unveils-us-presidential-election-advert

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1. Feelings of disillusionment.
2. Common subjects: slums of rapidly growing cities, factories replacing farmlands, poor factory workers, corrupt politicians.
3. Represented the manner and environment of everyday life and ordinary people as realistically as possible (Regionalism).
4. Sought to explain behavior (psychologically/socially).

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Mark Twain
-Huckleberry Finn

Jack London
-Call of the Wild
-"To Build a Fire"

Stephen Crane
-"The Open Boat"

Ambrose Bierce
-"An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge"

Kate Chopin
-"Story of an Hour"
-The Awakening

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Civil War
1861-1865

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Reconstruction Era
1865-1877

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Art during the realism period rejects imaginative idealization in favor of a close observation of outward appearances. https://www.britannica.com/art/realism-art

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Gustave Courbet was the first artist to self-consciously proclaim and practice the realist aesthetic.https://www.britannica.com/art/realism-art

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His real name was Samuel Clemens, and he was relatively poor in health as a child, and was constantly coddled because of it

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mark-Twain/Old-age

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Places he visited leisurely as a youth, such as Glasscock’s Island in the middle of the Mississippi River or the labyrinthine McDowell’s Cave, became iconic settings within his books such as Huckleberry Finn and Tom Sawyer

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mark-Twain/Old-age

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His real name was Samuel Clemens

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mark-Twain/Old-age

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Clemens was bitter and lonely during his last years. He took some solace in the grandfatherly friendships he established with young schoolgirls he called his “angelfish.” His “Angelfish Club” consisted of 10 to 12 girls who were admitted to membership on the basis of their intelligence, sincerity, and good will, and he corresponded with them frequently https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mark-Twain/Old-age

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Won the Pulitzer Prize & National Book Award for The Color Purple (1983)

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She was an activist and took part in Mississippi's 1960s Civil Rights Movement

https://english.colostate.edu/news/black-history-month-alice-walker/

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Black History Month: Alice Walker - English | Colorado State University

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Author, civil rights activist, and women’s rights activist Alice Walker was born in Putnam County, Georgia in 1944. Born into a family of sharecroppers, she was the youngest of eight children. She grew up surrounded by oral tradition, hearing stories […]

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She was accidentally shot in the right eye with an air rifle by her brother, resulting in permanent blindness in that eye, which was what led her to become a writer

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Modernism (1900-1950): Period Characteristics 

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Modernism (1900-1950): Period Characteristics 

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1. Sense of disillusionment and loss of faith in the "American Dream": the independent, self-reliant, individual will triumph.
2. Emphasis on bold experimentation in style and form over the traditional.
3. Interest in the inner workings of the human mind (ex. Stream of consciousness).

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Lorraine Hansberry
-A Raisin in the Sun

F. Scott Fitzgerald
-The Great Gatsby

William Faulkner
-"A Rose for Emily"

Eudora Welty
-"A Worn Path"

Robert Frost
-poetry

T. S. Eliot
-The Waste Land
-"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock"

John Steinbeck
-Of Mice and Men
-The Grapes of Wrath

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World War I
1914-1918

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The Great Depression
1929-1939

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World War II
1939-1945

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The Modernist impulse is fueled in various literatures by industrialization and urbanization and by the search for an authentic response to a much-changed world.

https://www.britannica.com/art/Modernism-art

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Modernism, in the fine arts, a break with the past and the concurrent search for new forms of expression. Modernism fostered a period of experimentation in the arts from the late 19th to the mid-20th century, particularly in the years following World War I.

In an era characterized by industrialization, the nearly global adoption of capitalism, rapid social change, and advances in science and the social sciences (e.g., Freudian theory), Modernists felt a growing alienation incompatible with Victorian morality, optimism, and convention. New ideas in psychology, philosophy, and political theory kindled a search for new modes of expression.

Modernism in literature

The Modernist impulse is fueled in various literatures by industrialization and urbanization and by the search for an authentic response to a much-changed world. Although prewar works by Henry James, Joseph Conrad, and other writers are considered Modernist, Modernism as a literary movement is typically associated with the period after World War I. The enormity of the war had undermined humankind's faith in the foundations of Western society and culture, and postwar Modernist literature reflected a sense of disillusionment and fragmentation. A primary theme of T.S. Eliot's long poem The Waste Land (1922), a seminal Modernist work, is the search for redemption and renewal in a sterile and spiritually empty landscape. With its fragmentary images and obscure allusions, the poem is typical of Modernism in requiring the reader to take an active role in interpreting the text.

Eliot's was not the dominant voice among Modernist poets. In the United States Robert Frost and Carl Sandburg evocatively described the regions-New England and the Midwest, respectively-in which they lived. The Harlem Renaissance produced a rich coterie of poets, among them Countee Cullen, Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, and Alice Dunbar Nelson. Harriet Monroe founded Poetry magazine in Chicago in 1912 and made it the most important organ for poetry not just in the United States but for the English-speaking world. During the 1920s Edna St. Vincent Millay, Marianne Moore, and E.E. Cummings expressed a spirit of revolution and experimentation in their poetry.

A sense of disillusionment and loss pervades much American Modernist fiction. That sense may be centred on specific individuals, or it may be directed toward American society or toward civilization generally. It may generate a nihilistic, destructive impulse, or it may express hope at the prospect of change. F. Scott Fitzgerald skewered the American Dream in The Great Gatsby (1925), Richard Wright exposed and attacked American racism in Native Son (1940), Zora Neale Hurston told the story of a Black woman's three marriages in Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937), and Ernest Hemingway's early novels The Sun Also Rises (1926) and A Farewell to Arms (1929) articulated the disillusionment of the Lost Generation. Meanwhile, Willa Cather told hopeful stories of the American frontier, set mostly on the Great Plains, in O Pioneers! (1913) and My Ántonia (1918), John Steinbeck depicted the difficult lives of migrant workers in Of Mice and Men (1937) and The Grapes of Wrath (1939), and William Faulkner used stream-of-consciousness monologues and other formal techniques to break from past literary practice in The Sound and the Fury (1929).

Across the Atlantic, the publication of the Irish writer James Joyce's Ulysses in 1922 was a landmark event in the development of Modernist literature. Dense, lengthy, and controversial, the novel details the events of one day in the life of three Dubliners through a technique known as stream of consciousness, which commonly ignores orderly sentence structure and incorporates fragments of thought in an attempt to capture the flow of characters' mental processes. Portions of the book were considered obscene, and Ulysses was banned for many years in English-speaking countries. Other European Modernist authors whose works rejected chronological and narrative continuity included Virginia Woolf, Marcel Proust, and the American expatriate Gertrude Stein.

The term Modernism is also used to refer to literary movements other than the European and American movement of the early to mid-20th century. In Latin American literature, Modernismo arose in the late 19th century in the works of Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera and José Martí. The movement, which continued into the early 20th century, reached its peak in the poetry of Rubén Darío. ( See also American literature; Latin American literature.)

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Modernism | Definition, Characteristics, History, Art, Literature, Time Period, Postmodernism, & Examples

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Modernism, in the fine arts, late 19th to mid-20th century, a break with the past and the concurrent search for new forms of expression. It fostered a period of experimentation in literature, music, dance, visual art, and architecture. Learn more about the history of Modernism and its various manifestations.

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In modernistic dance, a rebellion against both balletic and interpretive traditions had its roots in the work of Émile Jaques-Delcroze, proponent of the eurythmics system of musical instruction; Rudolf Laban, who analyzed and systematized forms of human motion into a system he called Labanotation (for further information, see dance notation); and Loie Fuller, an American actress turned dancer who first gave the free dance artistic status in the United States.

https://www.britannica.com/art/Modernism-art/Modernism-in-the-visual-arts-and-architecture

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in the 1920s America seemed to break its wistful attachments to the recent past and usher in a more modern era. The most vivid impressions of that era are flappers and dance halls, movie palaces and radio empires, and Prohibition and speakeasies.

https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/essays/roaring-twenties

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At the turn of the twentieth century the Ku Klux Klan experienced a major revival in the United States. By the early 1920s, nationwide membership reached over two million. The KKK positioned themselves as the guardians of a traditional, prosperous, and homogeneous America, claiming to protect the "American Dream" from what they perceived as threats—immigrants, Catholics, Jews, and African Americans.

https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/essays/roaring-twenties

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Because of the Great Depression, the 1920s focus on material success was replaced by a fight against poverty. Millions lost their homes, farms, and savings as 9,000 banks failed.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Great-Depression

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The American Dream in the 1940s shifted from wartime survival to pursuing stability, suburban homeownership, and rising consumerism

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Often hailed as the Golden Age of American Capitalism, the 1950s was a decade of economic boom in the United States. It was characterized by minimal inflation, low unemployment rates, and high consumerism—a stark contrast from the unstable and turbulent war years prior.

https://www.thecollector.com/american-dream-revisited-1950s-america/

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American Dream Revisited: Affluence & Turbulence in 1950s America

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Following the devastating World War II, the 1950s was a decade of the American dream, growth, and widespread political and socio-economic change in the USA.

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In tandem with the baby boom was the suburban boom as suburban living quickly became a physical manifestation of the American dream in the 1950s. The famous Levittowns—the brainchild of real estate developer William Levitt—sprouted in New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, attracting newlyweds and new parents to call the suburbs home. Complete with built-in television sets, family rooms, and backyards for barbeque and kids to frolic, these suburban homes sold like hotcakes. Best known for the construction of a house every 16 minutes, the Levittown project was initiated in 1947 as a postwar planned community. It was built on the belief that every man returning from the frontlines would require a home as he began rebuilding his life. Levitt and Sons quickly bought up vast swathes of land in Long Island that were once potato and onion fields and embarked on an extensive construction project between 1947 and 1951.

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1.Black cultural movement in Harlem, New York
2.Some poetry rhythms based on spirituals and jazz, lyrics on the blues, and diction from the street talk of the ghettos
3. Other poetry used conventional lyrical forms

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James Weldon Johnson

Claude McKay

Countee Cullen

Langston Hughes (poetry)

Zora Neale Hurston

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Harlem Renaissance: "The Jazz Age""The Roaring 20s" 

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Harlem Renaissance: "The Jazz Age""The Roaring 20s" 

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1920-1940

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"The New Negro Movement"
1919-1925

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Prohibition
1920-1933

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The Harlem Renaissance was the most influential movement in African American literary history.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Harlem-Renaissance-American-literature-and-art

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The social foundations of this movement included the Great Migration of African Americans from rural to urban spaces and from South to North; dramatically rising levels of literacy; the creation of national organizations dedicated to pressing African American civil rights, “uplifting” the race, and opening socioeconomic opportunities; and developing race pride, including pan-African sensibilities and programs.

https://www.britannica.com/event/Harlem-Renaissance-American-literature-and-art

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The 60s was the most consequential and controversial decade of the twentieth century, and it brought major political and cultural shifts to the meaning of the American Dream https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-resources/essays/sixties

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The American Dream in the 70s became less fantastical and more realistic as the 60s was nothing but a decade of dissent and social violence

https://www.nytimes.com/1979/12/16/archives/the-70s-america-learns-to-expect-a-little-less-the-frustrating-70s.html

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In the 1980s, former President Ronald Reagan’s economic policies, known as “Reaganomics,” focused on tax cuts for high-income earners and businesses, deregulation and promoting a market-driven economy to stimulate growth.

https://finance.yahoo.com/news/cost-american-dream-1980-vs-210227616.html

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The era was defined by a focus on "having it all," including luxury items like Rolexes, Ferraris, and large homes.

https://www.amdigital.co.uk/insights/blog/electric-dreams-and-excess-in-the-1980s

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The American Dream in the 1990s was transformed by technology. In business, Silicon Valley was the place to be. The birth of the World Wide Web and rise in internet investments in the late 90s, known as the “dotcom bubble”, marked the point when tech entrepreneurs became billionaires. The American Dream was reborn: computer geeks could get rich seemingly overnight, with the likes of Bill Gates (pictured, right) and Steve Jobs becoming the poster boys for Silicon Valley success.

https://www.lovemoney.com/gallerylist/84477/what-the-american-dream-looked-like-the-decade-you-were-born

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in the 2000s, the first African American President, Barack Obama was elected, marking a huge milestone in American history.

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1. Influenced by studies of media, language, and information technology.
2. Sense that little is unique; culture endlessly duplicates itself.
3. New literary forms and techniques:works composed of only dialogue, or combining fiction and nonfiction, experimenting with physical appearance of their work.

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Contemporary "Postmodernism": Authors and Works

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Contemporary "Postmodernism": Authors and Works

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Alice Walker

Wallace Stevens

e.e. cummings

Maya Angelou

Anne Sexton

James Baldwin

Richard Wright

Sandra Cisneros

Amy Tan

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Korean War
1950-1953

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Vietnam War
1954-1975