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Introduction

When you feel included and engaged, do you do a better job? Do you think teams in which people work well together produce much better results? Have you noticed the best ideas often come from unexpected sources? Do you want to work at the top of your intelligence and give the same opportunity to others?

If YES, we have found this is the kind of organization and community that people want to be part of. AND, Liberating Structures help make it happen.

So why is it that so many organizations of all stripes are filled with disengaged workers, dysfunctional groups and wasted ideas?

While there will always be some justification for blaming leaders (or professors and administrators in education), the more compelling and useful explanation is not that people involved are bad, stupid or incompetent, but rather that the practices they have all learned are neither adapted to today's realities nor designed to achieve the ideals listed above.

Unwittingly, the conventional structures used to organize how people routinely work together stifle inclusion and engagement.

Conventional structures are either too inhibiting (presentations, status reports and managed discussions) or too loose and disorganized (open discussions and brainstorms) to creatively engage people in shaping their own future. They frequently generate feelings of frustration and/or exclusion and fail to provide space for good ideas to emerge and germinate. This means that huge amounts of time and money are spent working the wrong way. More time and money are then spent trying to fix the unintended consequences.

Liberating Structures start with something so simple and essential as not to seem worth doing and end with something so powerful and profound that it hardly seems possible.

This website offers an alternative way to approach and design how people work together. It provides a menu of thirty-three Liberating Structures to replace or complement conventional practices.

Liberating Structures used routinely make it possible to build the kind of organization that everybody wants. They are designed to include everyone in shaping next steps.

Liberating Structures introduce tiny shifts in the way we meet, plan, decide and relate to one another. They put the innovative power once reserved for experts only in hands of everyone.

This alternative approach is both practical and feasible because Liberating Structures are quite simple and easy to learn. They can be used by everyone at every level, from the executive suite to the grassroots. No lengthy training courses or special talents are required. Mastery is simply a matter of practice. LS routinely unleash a vast reserve of contributions and latent innovations waiting to be discovered.

Every person interested in leading change-in schools, hospitals, foundations, agencies, and businesses-can use Liberating Structures to generate innovation and great results.

Liberating Structures are easy-to-learn microstructures that enhance relational coordination and trust. They quickly foster lively participation in groups of any size, making it possible to truly include and unleash everyone. Liberating Structures are a disruptive innovation that can replace more controlling or constraining approaches.

Click on any Liberating Structure below.

Leaders know that they would greatly increase productivity and innovation if only they could get everyone fully engaged. The challenge is how. Liberating Structures are novel, practical and no-nonsense methods to help you accomplish this goal with groups of any size.

Liberating Structures spark inventiveness by minimally structuring the way we interact while liberating content or subject matter. Very simple constraints unleash creative adaptability, generating better than expected results. Individual brilliance and collective wisdom are unbridled. Such a dramatic shift cannot be THAT simple, engaging, and powerful but it is. Read Getting Started if you are ready to liberate yourself.

By design, Liberating Structures distribute control so that participants can shape direction themselves as the action unfolds.

Learning Events

Immersion workshops are a great way to get started. Like a foreign language immersion course that temporarily relocates you away from a familiar culture, a LS immersion experience is a very effective way to learn. There are no presentations, facilitated discussions, status reports, brainstorming sessions, or open discussions. Only Liberating Strucutres arepracticed. Organizing a workshop for people in your working group can accelerate "fluency."

Check out News and Events for more immersion workshops and LS User Group meetings. Subscribe to LS News & get access to archives here.

Liberating Structures are immeasurably practical. Our world is increasingly complex, interdependent, and culturally diverse. Many of our most pressing challenges cut across geographic, cultural, and technical boundaries. Simple methods that help us work together productively are central to making progress.

Helpful Analogies
Like Wikipedia, LS create simple rules to guide and liberate everyone's contributions. Wikipedia's must-dos and must-not dos specify how anyone can write articles, edit content, reach consensus about the facts, and share with attribution. This structure makes it possible for a diverse community to generate and sustain accurate content that compares favorably with professionally edited encyclopedias. Like Wikipedia, LS is a disruptive innovation in regard to how we engage people in organizations.

Like improv jazz, LS sparks freedom that arises from shared understanding of simple rules. Great jazz comes from playing creatively within the context of melodic and harmonic structure. Like water in a river, LS takes the shape of the banks that it touches: adapting a similar pattern at every scale and in each local setting.

Below: watch this inspired video by Professor Arvind Singhal talking about liberating education and the role of changemakers. UnScripTED: Liberating Structures

Read this practical article "Tiny Tweaks That Help You Use LS" by Barry Overeem.

Simple Ways to Engage Everyone on Zoom: Learn Several Liberating Structures in 30 minutes from Media Changemakers on Vimeo.
Unscripted #2 Liberating Structures with Dr. Arvind Singhal from Media Changemakers on Vimeo.
Lisa Gill is a fabulous writer and top drawer interviewer. Her Leadersmorphosis series dives deeply into self organizing @ work. Put your ear to this interivew she conducts with Henri and Keith.

Below, enjoy scenes from the LCJP Restorative Justice Summit. Liberating Structures were used to organize a three day event full of learning, designed to advance the Restorative Justice movement. Restorative Justice (RJ) aims to create communities in which people feel safe by carefully structuring opportunities for offenders to make amends and victims to regain their personal power. Restorative Justice practitioners found Liberating Structures to be highly structured, liberating better than expected results.

2012 CO RJ Summit Video from LCJP on Vimeo.

LS were used to design the Transformation of Nursing summit. Coalitions from all 50 states and DC came together to advance the cause.

For the United Nations ITC-ILO, Henri and Keith offered a Liberating Structures immersion workshop and follow-up consulting sessions. (The Centre is in Turin Italy.) The focus was how to organize for promoting decent work and sustainable development by not over-helping but rather facilitating networked self-organization.

Ten Principles

While the individual LS microstructures are powerful separately, they function as an interrelated set which can transform an entire organization. The LS repertoire is inspired by ten liberating principles.

When we decide we belong together, LS principles help to guide behavior and leadership actions. Detailed descriptions here.

The Surprising Power of Liberating Structures book! Preview and buy on Amazon. The color paperback ($49.95 USD), black&white ($19.95 USD) and e-book are now available on the Amazon website. Amazon offers deep discounts and free shipping to some customers.

The development team at Holisticon is happy to announce that the Liberating Structures App is now available in the Google Play and Apple App Stores. A deep bow to their creative genius. Happy downloading!

Audio: A very playful Brave New Work podcast with Aaron Dignan and Rodney Evans. On Liberating Structures with Lorenz Sell of Sutra and Keith. Lorenz asks the deepest questions about collective intelligence, generativity, and complexity science. (50 minutes) Coaching Zone Podcast with Keith and Dr. Krister Lowe. The focus is on how leaders and teams can develop more productive habits with LS. [45 minutes] Radio Interview with Meisha Rouser, organizational psychologist. The focus is on groups working at the top of their intelligence and imagination. And a third podcast interview with Amiel Handelsman that dips into specific LS microstructures and their use by groups to generate innovative cultures. [60 minutes].

Check out Falling Off the Horse while faciliating & leading with Liberating Structures. This article by Keith McCandless describes a personal path forward. It includes what is possible to stop doing when LS is integrated into your practice.

LS are inspired by complexity science. Listen to this entertaining RadioLab program on Emergence to learn about some of the underlying concept of complexity science.

LS User Groups (inventing and enlivening a new way to organize) Open Letter from a Grateful Student to All Educators
Rhapsody for Strings!

Below: early LS users and co-developers in Latin America, Europe, Canada and the USA.

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liberating structures, social invention.net, microstructures, disruptive innovation, behavior change, collaboration, social invention, diffusion of innovation, strategy, transformation, heuristics, complexity science, emergence

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Designing for Care – Simple Book Publishing

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Designing for Care – Simple Book Publishing

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Authors: Jerod Quinn; Martha Burtis; Surita Jhangiani; and Catherine J. Denial

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Designing for Care – Simple Book Publishing

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Authors: Jerod Quinn; Martha Burtis; Surita Jhangiani; and Catherine J. Denial

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College Student Development – Educational Psychology for Academic Librarians

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College Student Development – Educational Psychology for Academic Librarians

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College Student Development – Educational Psychology for Academic Librarians

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This chapter was originally published as Black, S., & Allen, J. D. (2017). Insights from educational psychology part 3: College student development. Reference Librarian, 58(3), 214–228. https://doi.org/10.1080/02763877.2016.1276505

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Neurodiversity Hub - Resources for Universities — Neurodiversity Hub

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Neurodiversity Hub - Resources for Universities — Neurodiversity Hub

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The opportunity for universities and colleges to participate in this community of practice, contribute resources to the community and use resources from the community - ultimately facilitating greater student inclusiveness and success.

1. TRANSITION TO UNIVERSITY

This information pertains to supporting autistic students in academic settings and comes from a variety of sources including local and international information, peer reviewed research and research conducted at OTARC (Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre), La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia (funded by DHS, Victoria).

Please note, while this information is designed to support autistic students, a lot of the information and resources also apply to students with other neurodiverse variations. In the "Resources for Students, Parents & Carers", there is material for students, parents/carers and staff. Each section has been tailored to best meet the needs of each group.

We use 'university' as a generic term referring to tertiary providers including universities, colleges and vocational training providers (and, for Australia: TAFEs).

STAFF TRAINING SESSION: "Workshop on supporting autistic students in tertiary education settings"
As an additional resource, there is a downloadable PowerPoint presentation for a staff training session. This is a generic presentation that can be adapted for use in your institution. It includes speaker notes and handout exercises to be worked through during the session.

2. SUPPORTING AUTISTIC STUDENTS - RESOURCES FROM 'STAIRWAY TO STEM'

Stairway to Stem is an organization, based in the United States, that provides resources to autistic students, their families, and tertiary instructors. The goal of Stairway to STEM is to improve awareness of academic STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) programs and careers. Stairway to STEM supports students as they transition to university and then to the world of work.

Autism 101: Autism Cultural Responsiveness for Improved Interactions
Are you a staff member at a tertiary institution (University, College, TAFE, Community College)? If so, read the following about how you can best support autistic students. It is important to know how to cater to different learning and processing styles, so students can benefit the most from their education.

Autistic students often struggle with communication. It is important not to use metaphors, jargon language, etc. when communicating with autistic students. Autistic people often take what someone says very literally and have trouble picking up on non-verbal ques. It is important you adjust your communication style to be more conducive to your autistic student's needs. Unfortunately, the media often portrays autistic people as savants, violent, or having extreme meltdowns, which is unfair and untrue. There are many myths and unjust stereotypes about autistic people that can be very damaging to autistic people.

Click the link below to learn about autism - including what it is, how to best communicate with autistic students, and disability myths. https://www.stairwaytostem.org/educators/autism-101-autism-cultural-responsiveness-for-improved-interactions/

3. STUDENT CHECKLISTS - MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY "ON YOUR MARQ" PROGRAM

The "On Your Marq" Program at Marquette University has developed the following checklists for use by its students during their initial period at university.

Rutgers University Center for Adult Autism Services has created a great booklet to prepare students for their first semester at university.

4. Neurodiversity Hub PROJECT AT LA TROBE UNIVERSITY

Beth Radulski, La Trobe University PhD Candidate & Project Officer: Neurodiversity, has developed a number of useful resources as part of the Neurodiversity Hub project at La Trobe University. She also speaks about her experiences as an autistic learner and offers tips to make teaching inclusive for all neuro-types. (Note: The video may not play in Safari.)

5. LIVED EXPERIENCE VIDEO FROM AN AUTISTIC STUDENT

"Why I dropped out of Law School - The diary of an autistic law student" - Orion Kelly, That Autistic Guy
Orion reveals his own personal insights, thoughts and experiences from studying law at university. He highlights the issues and barriers that, as an autistic person, impaired his ability to reach his potential and complete the degree. See Orion's other YouTubes here.

6. STUDENT COACHING and Mentoring PROGRAMs

Coaching and mentoring can help neurodiverse students thrive in the university setting. These programs are designed to assist students with the transition from secondary education and success in tertiary education.

Navigating university life is challenging for all students. This is especially so for neurodiverse students, as they may lack certain social and life skills. Coaches and mentors can support and advise students to help them improve their academic and life skills. The purpose of these programs is to help students achieve their goals and reach their full potential. A successful program will build the self-esteem of the students and give them the tools and resources to succeed in the university setting and set them up for future success.

A recent panel session at the ADCET conference focussed on the growing interest of how peer mentor programs can support students on the autism spectrum in their tertiary studies.

This implementation guide refers to materials from Curtin University's mentoring program - the generic version of which is available on the Autism CRC website.

"I Can't Thank You Enough" is a contemporary guide for peer mentors hoping to make a difference in the lives of autistic college students. Downloadable supporting worksheets are also provided. (Developed by Sylvia Cusack Johnson - The City University of New York (CUNY) Project REACH)

7. "BE YOUR BEST" LIFE SKILLS AND WORK-READY SKILLS TRAINING

"Be Your Best" is an educational curriculum of materials to support life skills learning within neurodiverse populations in their transition to study and transition to work. The materials are evidence-based, researched topics with therapeutic aims for engaged learning. Some of the topics covered include organizational skills, cooking and health and presentation skills.

These materials can be undertaken individually or in a group. Groups could include interest groups at universities or in the work place. For groups, there is also a facilitator's guide available to support the learning objectives.

Follow the link to the learning platform where you can access these great course materials.

8. CAREER FAIRS / EMPLOYER EXPOS - MAKING THEM MORE INCLUSIVE

Employer Expos or Career Fairs can be daunting events for many students and job seekers. Given their current structure, they are also not accessible to some neurodiverse or sensory sensitive people. The following guide gives the host organisation some strategies to ensure the event is more inclusive.

9. TOOLS AND MATERIALS FOR STUDENTS

Job readiness workbook - Traditional interview and recruitment processes can be challenging for autistic candidates. Interviewers evaluate a candidate's social and communication skills and their ability to answer behavioural style interview questions, which is not really suited to the autistic style of thinking. This workbook is designed as a guide to prepare autistic jobseekers in seeking a job.

10. autism-friendly university - Dublin city university, Ireland

DCU is the world's first designated autism-friendly university. They are committed to supporting and celebrating their students and staff who are on the autism spectrum. They are adapting the environment, raising awareness and acceptance, and building initiatives to make it as easy as possible for autistic community members to participate fully in all aspects of university life.

11. university of Delaware spectrum scholars

Accessing the student voice in creating autism support initiatives in higher education - poster from INSAR 2020.

12. College Autism NETWORK - Improving the university experience for neurodiverse students

College Autism Network is a U.S.-based organisation run by higher education professionals who all have experience working with neurodivergent students and students with other learning and developmental differences. This is a great resource for students as they transition to university and then on to work.

Is your institution trying to improve the university experience for neurodiverse students? Refer to the curation of useful resources below.

13. A GUIDE FOR HIGHER EDUCATION PROFESSIONALS
(Rochester Institute of Technology - Spectrum Support Program)
This guide incorporates the ideas and successful practices of higher education professionals at postsecondary institutions who have worked with their universities to establish effective supports for students with ASD. (Published 2014). There is also a link to a one page Autism Spectrum Disorders Fact Sheet for Faculty.

Dear Dyslexic is a foundation that helps people with learning differences achieve their full potential. This is done by bringing awareness and educating the population about Dyslexia, sharing personal stories and engaging in research. Click on the link below for a curation of some great resources.

15. ADHD

ADDITUDE - This is an excellent website that provides strategies and support for Attention Deficit and related conditions.

ADHD Australia is an organization that is working to improve the quality of life for people with ADHD. The link below provides information on ADHD that would be useful to university staff who are looking to learn about this neurodiverse variation.

16. NEURODIVERSITY HUB MODEL

Operating model for the Neurodiversity Hub initiative and Proposed Charter for NDH Advisory Group.

Developed by Mitch Butler and Chris Rogers, two interns from Cornell University ILR School - K. Lisa Yang and Hock E. Tan Institute on Employment and Disability (Jan-May 2018) - in collaboration with Swinburne University of Technology.
Neurodiversity Hub model Neurodiversity Hub Advisory Group Charter

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Neurodiversity Hub - Resources for Universities - Neurodiversity Hub

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The opportunity for universities and colleges to participate in this community of practice, contribute resources to the community and use resources from the community - ultimately facilitating greater student inclusiveness and success.

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Teaching, Engaging, and Thriving in Higher Ed Series - University of Oklahoma Press

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Teaching, Engaging, and Thriving in Higher Ed Series - University of Oklahoma Press

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The Scientist Spotlights Initiative | San Francisco

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The Scientist Spotlights Initiative | San Francisco

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The Scientist Spotlights Initiative

The Scientist Spotlights Initiative empowers middle/high school, college, and university science educators to implement inclusive curricula that help ALL students see themselves in science. We provide access to easy-to-implement assignments/activities that link course content to the stories of counter-stereotypical scientists. About Us +

Featured Scientist Spotlights

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The Scientist Spotlights Initiative | San Francisco

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The Scientist Spotlights Initiative empowers middle/high school, college, and university science educators to implement inclusive curricula that help ALL students see themselves in science. We provide access to easy-to-implement assignments/activities that link course content to the stories of counter-stereotypical scientists. About Us + Featured Scientist Spotlights

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350. Nudging, not Judging - Sarah Rose Cavanagh
349. Growth-Mindset Messaging - Elizabeth Canning, Makita White, and William B. Davis
348. Active Learning Initiative at UGA - Megan Mittelstadt and Leah Carmichael
347. CATs and AI - Todd Zakrajsek
346. Classroom Assessment Techniques - Thomas A. Angelo
345. New Era - New Urgency - Deborah Pomeroy and F. Joseph Merlino
344. Failing Our Future - Josh Eyler
343. Writers' Groups - James Lang, Sarah Rose Cavanagh, and Mike Land
342. Infographics - Michelle Kukoleca Hammes
341. Learning Losses - Peace Bransberger
340. The Alan Alda Center - Brenda Hoffman
339. Industry to Faculty - Kevin McCullen and Michael Walters
338. Diversifying the Education Pipeline - Laura Spenceley
337. Pre-College Programs - Sally Starrfield
336. The Multi-Disciplinary Instructional Designer - Chris Gamray and Megan Kohler
335. The Abundant University - Michael D. Smith
334. Journey Toward UDL - Jeanne Anderson
333. High Structure STEM Classes - Justin Shaffer
332. Challenges and Opportunities - SUNY Chancellor John B. King Jr.
331. Not Your Mother's Dorm Room - Shelagh McCartne
330. Educational Developers' Praxis - Constanza Bartholomae and Terri Hasseler
329. Admission to Highly Selective Colleges - John Friedman
328. MicroSkills - Adaira Landry and Resa Lewiss
327. Attacks on Education - Kevin Gannon and Cyndi Kernahan
326. UDL in Action - Lillian Nave
325. Looking Forward to 2024 - Rebecca Mushtare and John Kane
324. Unmaking the Grade - Emily Pitts Donahoe
323. Explore First Study Abroad Program - Sue Roberts, Marianne Young, and Beth Hanneman
322. Accessibility Challenge - Michele Thornton, Laura Harris, and Kate DeForest
321. College Students with Disabilities - Amy Fisk
320. Gender Differences in Faculty Retention - Aaron Clauset and Katie Spoon
319. AI in the Curriculum - Mohammad Tajvarpour
318. Reducing Equity Gaps - Tisha Emerson
317. Beware the Myth - Shaylene Nancekivell and Xin Sun
316. Help-Seeking Behavior - Elizabeth Canning and Makita White
315. Unessays - Jessamyn Neuhaus and Maggie Schmuhl
314. Handbook of Online Higher Ed - Safary Wa-Mbaleka, Kelvin Thompson, and Leni Casimiro
313. Supporting Neurodiverse Students and Faculty - Liz Norell
312. Alice: Finding Wonderland - Rameen Mohammadi
311. Upskilling in AI - Marc Watkins
310. Community Effects of Incarceration - Arpit Gupta
309. Preparing Students for an AI Future - Michelle Miller
308. Design for Learning - Jenae Cohn
307. Career Readiness - Chilton Reynolds and Ed Beck
306. Gender Bias and Timing of SETs - Whitney Buser, Jill Hayter, and Cassondra Batz-Barbarich
305. 80 Ways to Use ChatGPT in the Classroom - Stan Skrabut
304. ChatGPT Inspired Course Redesign - Don Donelson
303. Higher Ed Then and Now - Todd Zakrajsek
302. Flipped Team-Based Learning - Tina Abbate
301. A Return to Rigor? - Kevin Gannon
300. Episode 300 Reflection - John Kane and Rebecca Mushtare
299. My Professor Cares - Michal Kurlaender
298. Sustainable Professional Development - Judie Littlejohn, Jessamyn Neuhaus, and Chris Price
297. The Road Forward - Flower Darby
296. ChatGPT Chat - Betsy Barre
295. Equity-Minded Teaching - Bryan Dewsbury and Mays Imad
294. The Allure of Play - Victoria Mondelli and Joe Bisz
293. Study Like a Champ - Regan Gurung and John Dunlosky
292. From Suarez's Basement - Francisco Suarez
291. Navigating Teaching Inequities - Chavella Pittman
290. Transparency in Learning and Teaching - Mary-Ann Winkelmes
289. The Cognition-Motivation Connection - Michelle Miller
288. Mobile-Mindful Teaching and Learning - Christina Moore
287. COIL Virtual Exchange - Jon Rubin
286. Grading for Growth - David Clark and Robert Talbert
285. The First-Year Experience Movement - John Gardner
284. Learning That Matters - Caralyn Zehnder, Karynne Kleine, Julia Metzker, and Cynthia Alby
283. Neurodiverse Hiring Initiative - Kendra Evans
282. Moving the Needle - Sheela Vermu and Adrienne Williams
281. The New Science of Learning - Todd Zakrajsek
280. Professors at Play - Lisa Forbes and David Thomas
279. First-Year Blues - Tim Nekritz
278. Google Apps and the LMS - Dave Ghidiu
277. Write Like a Teacher - James Lang
276. Teaching at its Best - Linda Nilson and Todd Zakrajsek
275. Improving Learning and Mental Health - Robert Eaton and Bonnie Moon
274. ChatGPT - Robert Cummings and Marc Watkins
273. North of Neutral - Amy Bidwell
272. Mind Over Monsters - Sarah Rose Cavanagh
271. Should I Say Yes? - Kristin Croyle and Kendra Cadogan
270. Fall 2022 Reflection - John Kane and Rebecca Mushtare
269. Faculty Book Clubs - Jessamyn Neuhaus
268. Advancing Inclusivity while Mitigating Burnout - Michelle Miller, Liz Norell, and Kelvin Thompson
267. Fumble Forward - Donna Meija
266. The Secret Syllabus - Jay Phelan and Terry Burnham
265. The New College Classroom - Cathy Davidson and Christina Katopodis
264. Collaborative Rubric Construction - Dr. Fen Kennedy
263. Reflect to Deflect - Melissa Eblen-Zayas
262. What Teaching Looks Like - Martin Springborg and Cassandra Volpe Horii
261. Social Justice Assessments - Judith Littlejohn, Meghanne Freivald, and Katelyn Prager
260. Antiracist Pedagogy - Gabriela Torres
259. Experiential Learning - Breanna Boppre
258. Deconstructing Assumptions - Jesica Fernandez
257. PsycLearn - Anna Yocom, Linda Goldberg, and Alan Strathman
256. Sharing Our Stories - Sarah Mayes-Tang
255. Thriving Through Behavioral Science - Erik Simmons
254. Teaching Up - Celeste Atkins
253. Designing for Trauma - Andrea Nikischer
252. Thriving in Academia - Pamela Ansburg, Mark Basham, and Regan Gurung
251. Where's the Professor? - Reba Wissner
250. Hacking Assessment - Starr Sackstein
249. Winning the first day - Sheri Wells-Jensen and Emily K. Michael
248. Reframing Academic Expertise - Rebecca Scott
247. Picture a Professor - Jessamyn Neuhaus
246. Embedding Career Competencies - Jessica Kruger
245. Higher Ed's Next Chapter - Kevin Gannon
244. Unlearning - Lindsay Masland
243. Trauma Aware Pedagogy - Karen Costa
242. Student Podcasts - Megan Remmel
241. Teaching Matters - Aeron Haynie and Stephanie Spong
240. To Teach or Not to Teach - Kristin Croyle
239. Credential As You Go - Nan Travers and Holly Zanville
238. Engaged Teaching - Claire Howell Major
237. Latina Educational Developers - Carol Hernandez
236. ePortfolios - Nikki Wilson Clasby
235. Pandemic Teaching: Week 109 - John Kane and Rebecca Mushtare
234. Education in Prisons - Em Daniels and William Keizer
233. Guided Notetaking - Tanya Martini
232. The EmTech MOOC - Cherie van Putten and Nicole Simon
231. Include Instructors in Inclusive Instruction - Chavella Pittman and Thomas Tobin
230. Students Who Are Teachers - Kathryn Pole
229. Inclusive History - Vanessa Holden
228. Trauma-Responsive Practice - Em Daniels
227. A COIL Course - Josh McKeown, Jessica Harris, and Minjung Seo
226. Rooted Jazz Dance - Lindsay Guarino, Carlos Jones, and Wendy Oliver
225. A Sea of Troubles - Bill and Elizabeth James
224. Student Mental Health - Katherine Wolfe-Lyga and Kyle Dzintars
223. Remembering and Forgetting - Michelle Miller
222. Interleaved Practice - Josh Samani and Steven Pan
221. Disability and Higher Education - Kat Macfarlane
220. Perceptions of Education - Josh Eyler
219. Rigor - Jordynn Jack and Viji Sathy
218. Blended Learning - Chuck Dziuban and Patsy Moskal
217. Grading Justice - Kristen Blinne
216. Fall 2021 Reflections - John Kane and Rebecca Mushtare
215. Resilient Pedagogy - Travis Thurston
214. Transformative Storytelling - Laura Colket and Tracy Penny Light
213. Wicked Students - Paul Hanstedt
212. Faculty Mindset - Elizabeth Canning
211. What Inclusive Instructors Do - Tracie Marcella Addy, Derek Dube, Khadija A. Mitchell, and Mallory E. SoRelle
210. A Pedagogy of Kindness - Cate Denial
209. Military-Affiliated Students - Kenneth Marfilius
208. Efficient Mentoring and Communication - Adaira Landry and Resa Lewiss
207. Leveraging Disney Magic - Jill Peterfeso
206. U.S. Regulations for Online Classes - Russell Poulin
205. Tutoring - Philip Oreopoulis
204. Preventing Workplace Burnout - Kristin Croyle
203. Critical Race Theory - Cyndi Kernahan and Moira Lynch
202. Returning to the Classroom - John Kane and Rebecca Mushtare
201. Beyond Trigger Warnings - Nicole Bedera
200. Teaching for the Public Good - Robin DeRosa
199. Revisiting Diverse Classrooms - Melina Ivanchikova and Matt Ouelett
198. Active Learning Initiative Revisited - Doug McKee
197. Humanized Teaching - Jesse Stommel
196. The Coffee Shop - Jodi Robson, Brandon McIntire, and Margaret Shippey
195. Supporting Faculty Equity - Chavella Pittman
194. Minding Bodies - Susan Hrach
193. Making Team Projects Work - Lauren Vicker and Tim Franz
192. Skim, Dive, Surface - Jenae Cohn
191. Moving Forward - Martha Bless
190. Intellectual Integrity - James M. Pitarresi
189. Teaching with Zoom - Dan Levy
188. Student-Ready Courses - Natalie Hurley
187. Talking Tech - Michelle Miller
186. Super Courses - Ken Bain
185. Model Online Teaching - Aaron Richmond, Regan Gurung, and Guy Boysen
184. Engaging Students - Christine Harrington
183. Student Workload - Betsy Barre
182. Gender and Groups - Olga Stoddard
181. Capstone Experience - Kathryn Berkow
180. Google Apps - Kathleen Gradel
179. It's Been a Year - John Kane and Rebecca Mushtare
178. Teaching for Learning - Claire Howell Major, Michael S. Harris, and Todd Zakrajsek
177. Blogging in Unexpected Disciplines - Kathryn Berkow
176. Critical Thinking - Linda Nilson
175. Embracing Change - Colin Charlton and Jonikka Charlton
174. HyFlex in Practice - Kevin Gannon
173. Pseudoscience - Kristin Croyle and Paul Tomascak
172. Advancing Online Learning - Kevin Kelly and Todd Zakrajsek
171. Burnout - Rebecca Pope-Ruark
170. Preparing for Spring 2021 - Carmen Macharaschwili
169. Statistical Simulations - Matt Anderson
168. Synchronous Online Learning - John Kane and Rebecca Mushtare
167. Supporting Persistence - Becky Cottrell
166. Course Villain - Zachary Dixon and Kelly George
165. Educational Pipeline - Jill Lansing
164. New Faculty in a Pandemic - Emily Estrada and Martin Coen
163. Student Voices - Jessamyn Neuhaus and Theresa Hyland
162. Bichronous Learning - Jessica Kruger
161. Relationship-Rich Education - Peter Felton and Leo Lambert
160. Inclusive Communication - Kristina Ruiz-Mesa
159. Nurturing a Growth Mindset - Kelly Theisen
158. Distracted - James Lang
157. Takeover - Sarah Rose Cavanagh and Josh Eyler
156. Social Annotation - Margaret Schmuhl
155. Remote Proctoring - Jessamyn Neuhaus and John Locke
154. Sharing Disciplinary Pedagogies - Bill Goffe
153. Structured for Inclusion - Viji Sathy and Kelly Hogan
152. Motherhood, Poetry, and Academia - Camille Dungy
151. Video Conferencing - Rick McDonald
150. Pedagogies of Care: Sensory Experiences - Martin Springborg and Susan Hrach
149. Academic Ableism - Jay Timothy Dolmage
148. Active Learning: 6 Feet of Separation - Derek Bruff
147. OSCQR - Alexandra Pickett
146. Lessons Learned Online - Alexandra Pickett
145. Pedagogies of Care: Ungrading - Susan Blum
144. Pedagogies of Care: Evidence-based Practices - Michelle Miller
143. Pedagogies of Care: Creativity - Natasha Haugnes and Martin Springborg
142. Pedagogies of Care: Equity and Inclusion - Cyndi Kernahan and Kevin Gannon
141. Pedagogies of Care: Students as Humans - Sarah Rose Cavanagh and Josh Eyler
140. Pedagogies of Care: Nerd Edition - Jessamyn Neuhaus
139. Pedagogies of Care: Digital Reading - Jenae Cohn
138. Pedagogies of Care: UDL - Tom Tobin
137. Developing UL Online (DUO) - Darina Slattery
136. Learning Networks - Gardner Campbell
135. E-tivities - Darina Slattery
134. Convergent Teaching - Aaron Pallas and Anna Neumann
133. Signature Pedagogies - Regan Gurung, Nancy Chick, and Aeron Haynie
132. Pandemic Pivoting - Betsy Barre
131. Trauma-informed Pedagogy - Karen Costa
130. Radical Hope - Kevin Gannon
129. Pandemic Planning - Josh Eyler
128. Cultural Acclimation - Don Donelsen
127. Gender and Grade Changes - Cher Li
126. Pandemic-Related Remote Learning - Flower Darby
125. Peer-Led Team Learning - Christina Winterton
124. The Missing Course - David Gooblar
123. New Trends in Science Education - Kristina Mitchell
122. Differential Grading Policies - Peter Arcidiacono
121. Persistence Scholars - Michelle Miller
120. Scaling Accessibility - Sherri Restauri
119. Faculty Incentives - Sally Sadoff and Andy Brownback
118. Biases in Student Evaluations of Teaching - Kristina Mitchell
117. The Productive Online and Offline Professor - Bonni Stachowiak
116. Simple Sustainable Videos - Karen Costa
115. Tangelo Park - Dr. Chuck Dziuban and Harris Rosen
114. Dead But Not Buried - Kat Blake
113. Podcasting for Professional Development - John Kane and Rebecca Mushtare
112. The Gig Academy - Tom DiPaola and Daniel T. Scott
111. The Business of Academic Dishonesty - Liz Schmitt
110. Fostering a Growth Mindset - Sarah Hanusch and John Myers
109. Active Learning - Patricia Gregg
108. Neuromyths - Kristen Betts, Michelle Miller
107. Project NExT - Sarah Hanusch, Rasika Churchill, Jessalyn Bolkema, Zoe Misiewicz
106. Leveraging Faculty Expertise - Chilton Reynolds and Tim Ploss
105. Globalizing Classes - Blase Scarnati
104. Social Capital and Persistence - Julie Martin
103. Commitment Devices - Dean Karlan
102. Team-Based Learning - Kristin Croyle
101. Change in the Academy - Blase Scarnati
100. 100th Episode Reflection
99. HyFlex Courses - Judith Littlejohn
98. Developing Metacognition - Judith Boettcher
97. Emotions and Learning - Sarah Rose Cavanagh
96. Inclusive Pedagogy - Amer Ahmed
95. Specifications Grading - Linda Nilson
94. Open Reflection - John Kane, Maria Aldrich, Victoria Heist and Charlie Tararzona
93. Reflective Writing - JoNelle Toriseva
92. Diverse Classrooms - Melina Ivanchikova and Mathew Lawrence Ouellett
91. International Education - Josh McKeown
90. Blackish Mirror - Mya Brown and Ajsa Mehmedovic
89. Teaching about Race - Cyndi Kernahan
88. School Partnerships - Christine Walsh and Kara Shore
87. Social Presence in Online Courses - Allegra Davis Hanna and Misty Wilson-Merhtens
86. Attention Matters - Michelle Miller
85. Small-Group Discussions - Dakin Burdick
84. Barriers to Active Learning - Lindsay Wheeler and Hannah Sturtevant
83. ACUE - Penny MacCormack
82. Geeky Pedagogy - Jessamyn Neuhaus
81. Intentional Tech - Derek Bruff
80. Self-Regulated Learning - Linda Nilson
79. Self-Learning vs. Online Instruction - Spiros Protopsaltis and Sandy Baum
78. Helicopter Parenting - Matthias Doepke and Fabrizio Zilibotti
77. First-Generation Students - Lisa Nunn
76. Courses with travel - Jeffery Schneider and Casey Raymond
75. Concourse Syllabus Platform - Jeffery Riman
74. Uncoverage - David Voelker
73. The Injustice League - Margaret Schmuhl
72. Maintaining Balance - Amy Bidwell
71. Small Teaching Online - Flower Darby
70. Dynamic Lecturing - Christine Harrington
69. Students as Storytelling Ambassadors - Tim Nekritz
68. Mobile Music Instruction - Trevor Jorgensen
67. Iterative OER Development - Steven Greenlaw
66. Just-in-Time Textbook - Jessica Kruger
65. Retrieval Practice - Michelle Miller
64. How Humans Learn - Josh Eyler
63. Building a Campus Culture of Accessibility - Sean Moriarty
62. 2018 Reflections - Rebecca Mushtare and John Kane
61. A Motivational Syllabus - Christine Harrington
60. Inclusive Teaching - Danica Savonick
59. Gatekeeping in Math Ed - Marcia Burrell
58. Role-Play - Jill Peterfeso
57. Scalar - Fiona Coll
56. Love's Labor not Lost - Mya Brown
55. Open Pedagogy - Robin DeRosa
54. SOTL - Regan Gurung
53. Teaching Faculty - Kristina Mitchell and Whitney Ross Manzo
52. Metaliteracy - Tom Mackey and Trudi Jacobson
51. Engaged Scholarship - Khuram Hussain
50. Diversity and Inclusion - Rodmon King
49. Closing the Performance Gap - Angela Bauer
48. The Culture of EdTech - Rolin Moe
47. First-Year Classes - Scott Furlong
46. Creative risk-taking - Wendy Watson
45. Opening the STEM Pipeline - Stacy Klein-Gardner
44. Industry Realistic Experiences - Bastian Tenbergen
43. Social Media - Brian Moritz
42. Flipping the Classroom - Dominick Casadonte
41. Instructional Communication - Jennifer Knapp
40. Design Thinking - Rebecca Mushtare (with Allison Rank as a guest host)
39. Video Feedback - Jessica Kruger
38. Reflective Practice - Rebecca Mushtare and John Kane
37. Evidence is Trending - Michelle Miller
36. Peer Instruction - John Kane
35. FLEXSpace - Lisa Stephens and Rebecca Frazee
34. Flex Courses - Marela Fiacco
33. The Marmots of Finance - Alex Butler
32. The Three Little Pigs - Rebecca Mushtare (with Allison Rank as a guest host)
31. Writing Better Writing Assignments - Allison Rank and Heather Pool
30. Adaptive Learning - Charles Dziuban
29. Learning about Learning - David Parisian
28. Augmented Reality - Renee Stevens
27. Teaching Big - Kristina Mitchell
26. Assessment - David Eubanks
25. Service Learning - Linley Melham
24. Gender Bias in Course Evaluations - Kristina Mitchell
23. Teaching with Comics - Carly Tribull
22. Transhumanism - Damian Schofield
21. Project-Based Learning - Jeff Bradbury
20. New Faculty Transition - Maggie Schmuhl
19. Common Problem Pedagogy - Leigh Allison Wilson
18. Faculty Development - Chris Price
17. Online Learning - Greg Ketcham
16. Student Attention Span - Neil Bradbury
15. Civic Engagement - Allison Rank
14. Microcredentials - Jill Pippin, Nan Travers, and Ken Lindblom
13. Authentic Learning - Rebecca Mushtare
12. The Active Learning Initiative at Cornell - Doug McKee
11. Mobile Technology in the Classroom - John Kane and Rebecca Mushtare
10. VoiceThread - Jeffrey Riman
9. Removing Barriers - Kristen Flint
8. Creating an Open Textbook - Kristen Munger
7. Student Writing - Stephanie Pritchard
6. Evidence-Based Teaching in Large Classes - Bill Goffe
5. Mass Shootings - Jacyln Schildkraut
4. Algorithmic Questions in Blackboard Learn - Casey Raymond
3. Student Success Specialists - Allison Peer and Alicia King
2. The Metacognitive Cafe Online Discussion Forum - Judith Littlejohn
1. Digital Note Taking and Pencasting - Casey Raymond

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350. Nudging, not Judging - Sarah Rose Cavanagh 349. Growth-Mindset Messaging - Elizabeth Canning, Makita White, and William B. Davis 348. Active Learning Initiative at UGA - Megan Mittelstadt and Leah Carmichael 347. CATs and AI - Todd Zakrajsek 346. Classroom Assessment Techniques - Thomas A. Angelo 345.

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The Big List of Class Discussion Strategies | Cult of Pedagogy

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The Big List of Class Discussion Strategies | Cult of Pedagogy

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Listen to this post as a podcast:
When I worked with student teachers on developing effective lesson plans, one thing I always asked them to revise was the phrase "We will discuss."
We will discuss the video. We will discuss the story. We will discuss our results.
Every time I saw it in a lesson plan, I would add a note: "What format will you use? What questions will you ask? How will you ensure that all students participate?" I was pretty sure that We will discuss actually meant the teacher would do most of the talking; He would throw out a couple of questions like "So what did you think about the video?" or "What was the theme of the story?" and a few students would respond, resulting in something that looked like a discussion, but was ultimately just a conversation between the teacher and a handful of extroverted students; a classic case of Fisheye Teaching.

The problem wasn't them; in most of the classrooms where they'd sat as students, that's exactly what a class discussion looked like. They didn't know any other "formats." I have only ever been familiar with a few myself. But when teachers began contacting me recently asking for a more comprehensive list, I knew it was time to do some serious research.

So here they are: 15 formats for structuring a class discussion to make it more engaging, more organized, more equitable, and more academically challenging. If you've struggled to find effective ways to develop students' speaking and listening skills, this is your lucky day.

I've separated the strategies into three groups. The first batch contains the higher-prep strategies, formats that require teachers to do some planning or gathering of materials ahead of time. Next come the low-prep strategies, which can be used on the fly when you have a few extra minutes or just want your students to get more active. Note that these are not strict categories; it's certainly possible to simplify or add more meat to any of these structures and still make them work. The last group is the ongoing strategies. These are smaller techniques that can be integrated with other instructional strategies and don't really stand alone. For each strategy, you'll find a list of other names it sometimes goes by, a description of its basic structure, and an explanation of variations that exist, if any. To watch each strategy in action, click on its name and a new window will open with a video that demonstrates it.

Enjoy!
a.k.a. Chat Stations
Basic Structure: Stations or posters are set up around the classroom, on the walls or on tables. Small groups of students travel from station to station together, performing some kind of task or responding to a prompt, either of which will result in a conversation.

Variations: Some Gallery Walks stay true to the term gallery, where groups of students create informative posters, then act as tour guides or docents, giving other students a short presentation about their poster and conducting a Q&A about it. In Starr Sackstein's high school classroom, her stations consisted of video tutorials created by the students themselves. Before I knew the term Gallery Walk, I shared a strategy similar to it called Chat Stations, where the teacher prepares discussion prompts or content-related tasks and sets them up around the room for students to visit in small groups.
a.k.a. Values Continuum, Forced Debate, Physical Barometer, This or That
Basic Structure: A statement that has two possible responses-agree or disagree-is read out loud. Depending on whether they agree or disagree with this statement, students move to one side of the room or the other. From that spot, students take turns defending their positions.

Variations: Often a Philosophical Chairs debate will be based around a text or group of texts students have read ahead of time; students are required to cite textual evidence to support their claims and usually hold the texts in their hands during the discussion. Some teachers set up one hot seat to represent each side, and students must take turns in the seat. In less formal variations (which require less prep), a teacher may simply read provocative statements students are likely to disagree on, and a debate can occur spontaneously without a text to refer to (I call this variation This or That in my classroom icebreakers post). Teachers may also opt to offer a continuum of choices, ranging from "Strongly Agree" on one side of the room, all the way to "Strongly Disagree" on the other, and have students place themselves along that continuum based on the strength of their convictions.

Basic Structure: Students are divided into 4 groups. Three of these groups are assigned to represent specific points of view. Members of the fourth group are designated as "provocateurs," tasked with making sure the discussion keeps going and stays challenging. One person from each group (the "speaker") sits in a desk facing speakers from the other groups, so they form a square in the center of the room. Behind each speaker, the remaining group members are seated: two right behind the speaker, then three behind them, and so on, forming a kind of triangle. From above, this would look like a pinwheel. The four speakers introduce and discuss questions they prepared ahead of time (this preparation is done with their groups). After some time passes, new students rotate from the seats behind the speaker into the center seats and continue the conversation.

Variations: When high school English teacher Sarah Brown Wessling introduced this strategy in the featured video (click Pinwheel Discussion above), she used it as a device for talking about literature, where each group represented a different author, plus one provocateur group. But in the comments that follow the video, Wessling adds that she also uses the strategy with non-fiction, where students represent authors of different non-fiction texts or are assigned to take on different perspectives about an issue.
a.k.a. Socratic Circles
Basic Structure: Students prepare by reading a text or group of texts and writing some higher-order discussion questions about the text. On seminar day, students sit in a circle and an introductory, open-ended question is posed by the teacher or student discussion leader. From there, students continue the conversation, prompting one another to support their claims with textual evidence. There is no particular order to how students speak, but they are encouraged to respectfully share the floor with others. Discussion is meant to happen naturally and students do not need to raise their hands to speak. This overview of Socratic Seminar from the website Facing History and Ourselves provides a list of appropriate questions, plus more information about how to prepare for a seminar.

Variations: If students are beginners, the teacher may write the discussion questions, or the question creation can be a joint effort. For larger classes, teachers may need to set up seminars in more of a fishbowl-like arrangement, dividing students into one inner circle that will participate in the discussion, and one outer circle that silently observes, takes notes, and may eventually trade places with those in the inner circle, sometimes all at once, and sometimes by "tapping in" as the urge strikes them.
a.k.a. Affinity Diagramming
Basic Structure: Give students a broad question or problem that is likely to result in lots of different ideas, such as "What were the impacts of the Great Depression?" or "What literary works should every person read?" Have students generate responses by writing ideas on post-it notes (one idea per note) and placing them in no particular arrangement on a wall, whiteboard, or chart paper. Once lots of ideas have been generated, have students begin grouping them into similar categories, then label the categories and discuss why the ideas fit within them, how the categories relate to one another, and so on.

Variations: Some teachers have students do much of this exercise-recording their ideas and arranging them into categories- without talking at first. In other variations, participants are asked to re-combine the ideas into new, different categories after the first round of organization occurs. Often, this activity serves as a good pre-writing exercise, after which students will write some kind of analysis or position paper.
a.k.a. Speed Dating
Basic Structure: Students form two circles, one inside circle and one outside circle. Each student on the inside is paired with a student on the outside; they face each other. The teacher poses a question to the whole group and pairs discuss their responses with each other. Then the teacher signals students to rotate: Students on the outside circle move one space to the right so they are standing in front of a new person (or sitting, as they are in the video). Now the teacher poses a new question, and the process is repeated.

Variations: Instead of two circles, students could also form two straight lines facing one another. Instead of "rotating" to switch partners, one line just slides over one spot, and the leftover person on the end comes around to the beginning of the line. Some teachers use this strategy to have students teach one piece of content to their fellow students, making it less of a discussion strategy and more of a peer teaching format. In fact, many of these protocols could be used for peer teaching as well.

Basic Structure: Another great idea from Sarah Brown Wessling, this is a small-group discussion strategy that gives students exposure to more of their peers' ideas and prevents the stagnation that can happen when a group doesn't happen to have the right chemistry. Students are placed into a few groups of 4-6 students each and are given a discussion question to talk about. After sufficient time has passed for the discussion to develop, one or two students from each group rotate to a different group, while the other group members remain where they are. Once in their new group, they will discuss a different, but related question, and they may also share some of the key points from their last group's conversation. For the next rotation, students who have not rotated before may be chosen to move, resulting in groups that are continually evolving.

Basic Structure: Two students sit facing each other in the center of the room; the remaining students sit in a circle around them. The two central students have a conversation based on a pre-determined topic and often using specific skills the class is practicing (such as asking follow-up questions, paraphrasing, or elaborating on another person's point). Students on the outside observe, take notes, or perform some other discussion-related task assigned by the teacher.

Variations: One variation of this strategy allows students in the outer circle to trade places with those in the fishbowl, doing kind of a relay-style discussion, or they may periodically "coach" the fishbowl talkers from the sidelines. Teachers may also opt to have students in the outside circle grade the participants' conversation with a rubric, then give feedback on what they saw in a debriefing afterward, as mentioned in the featured video.

Basic Structure: One student assumes the role of a book character, significant figure in history, or concept (such as a tornado, an animal, or the Titanic). Sitting in front of the rest of the class, the student responds to classmates' questions while staying in character in that role.

Variations: Give more students the opportunity to be in the hot seat while increasing everyone's participation by having students do hot seat discussions in small groups, where one person per group acts as the "character" and three or four others ask them questions. In another variation, several students could form a panel of different characters, taking questions from the class all together and interacting with one another like guests on a TV talk show.
a.k.a. Pyramid Discussion
Basic Structure: Students begin in pairs, responding to a discussion question only with a single partner. After each person has had a chance to share their ideas, the pair joins another pair, creating a group of four. Pairs share their ideas with the pair they just joined. Next, groups of four join together to form groups of eight, and so on, until the whole class is joined up in one large discussion.

Variations: This structure could simply be used to share ideas on a topic, or students could be required to reach consensus every time they join up with a new group.

Whereas the other formats in this list have a distinct shape-specific activities you do with students-the strategies in this section are more like plug-ins, working discussion into other instructional activities and improving the quality and reach of existing conversations.

One of the limitations of discussion is that rich, face-to-face conversations can only happen when all parties are available, so we're limited to the time we have in class. With a tool like Voxer, those limitations disappear. Like a private voice mailbox that you set up with just one person or a group (but SOOOO much easier), Voxer allows users to have conversations at whatever time is most convenient for each participant. So a group of four students can "discuss" a topic from 3pm until bedtime-asynchronously-each member contributing whenever they have a moment, and if the teacher makes herself part of the group, she can listen in, offer feedback, or contribute her own discussion points. Voxer is also invaluable for collaborating on projects and for having one-on-one discussions with students, parents, and your own colleagues. Like many other educators, Peter DeWitt took a while to really understand the potential of Voxer, but in this EdWeek piece, he explains what turned him around.

A backchannel is a conversation that happens right alongside another activity. The first time I saw a backchannel in action was at my first unconference: While those of us in the audience listened to presenters and watched a few short video clips, a separate screen was up beside the main screen, projecting something called TodaysMeet (update: TodaysMeet has shut down. Use YoTeach! instead.) It looked a lot like those chat rooms from back in the day, basically a blank screen where people would contribute a few lines of text, the lines stacking up one after the other, no other bells or whistles. Anyone in the room could participate in this conversation on their phone, laptop, or tablet, asking questions, offering commentary, and sharing links to related resources without ever interrupting the flow of the presentations. This kind of tool allows for a completely silent discussion, one that doesn't have to move at a super-fast pace, and it gives students who may be reluctant to speak up or who process their thoughts more slowly a chance to fully contribute. For a deeper discussion of how this kind of tool can be used, read this thoughtful overview of using backchannel discussions in the classroom by Edutopia's Beth Holland.
a.k.a. Accountable Talk
Talk moves are sentence frames we supply to our students that help them express ideas and interact with one another in respectful, academically appropriate ways. From kindergarten all the way through college, students can benefit from explicit instruction in the skills of summarizing another person's argument before presenting an alternate view, asking clarifying questions, and expressing agreement or partial agreement with the stance of another participant. Talk moves can be incorporated into any of the other discussion formats listed here.

Whole Brain Teaching is a set of teaching and classroom management methods that has grown in popularity over the past 10 years. One of WBT's foundational techniques is Teach-OK, a peer teaching strategy that begins with the teacher spending a few minutes introducing a concept to the class. Next, the teacher says Teach!, the class responds with Okay!, and pairs of students take turns re-teaching the concept to each other. It's a bit like think-pair-share, but it's faster-paced, it focuses more on re-teaching than general sharing, and students are encouraged to use gestures to animate their discussion. Although WBT is most popular in elementary schools, this featured video shows the creator of WBT, Chris Biffle, using it quite successfully with college students. I have also used Teach-OK with college students, and most of my students said they were happy for a change from the sit-and-listen they were used to in college classrooms.

An oldie but a goodie, think-pair-share can be used any time you want to plug interactivity into a lesson: Simply have students think about their response to a question, form a pair with another person, discuss their response, then share it with the larger group. Because I feel this strategy has so many uses and can be way more powerful than we give it credit for, I devoted a whole post to think-pair-share; everything you need to know about it is right there.

TWO MORE YOU'LL LOVE

Since writing this post, I have learned about two more discussion strategies that teachers are finding to be incredibly effective and powerful for getting students to talk, especially about books and other texts:

This protocol has students come up with their own Thoughts, lingering Questions, and Epiphanies from an assigned reading. Teachers who have used this method say it has generated some of the richest conversations they have ever heard from students!

This strategy places students into one-on-one conversations, getting them to learn each others' names better and create a track record of what they talked about. Excellent for classes where you want to assess for discussion and help students get more comfortable with each other.

So what else do you have? I would like to think this is a pretty complete list, but I'm sure more strategies are out there. If you use a discussion strategy that's not mentioned here, please share it below.

Come back for more.
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The Big List of Class Discussion Strategies

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Here they are: 15 formats for structuring a class discussion to make it more engaging, more organized, more equitable, and more academically challenging.

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STEM Education Teaching Materials by Justin Shaffer - Recombinant Education - 2024

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STEM Education Teaching Materials by Justin Shaffer - Recombinant Education - 2024

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Textbook and Courseware Adoption Rubrics

In need of adopting a new textbook or online courseware system for your courses? Take a look at these one-page rubrics which help you compare some of the most critical components of textbooks and courseware systems so as to help you make a decision.

Reading Guides

Reading guides are custom word documents that help students actively read their textbook and take notes on specific sections of the text. Reading guides can also be adapted into "watching guides" by assigning content-based videos instead of a textbook. has shown that introductory biology students who completed reading guides fully prior to class earned significantly higher exam scores.

Here is a blank template reading guide that you can use to get started. Or you can use the links below to download reading guides for several different textbooks that I use in my own courses. Note that these were designed for my own courses and learning objectives, so you may want to customize them for what you cover.

o learn how you can use reading guides as part of a high structure and active learning course.

Case Studies

Case studies are a way of using a narrative or a story to teach a lesson which can deepen interest and learning. There are a multitude of studies published on the benefits of using case studies in the college classroom. Below are links to some of my own case studies that I have published in the National Center for Case Study Teaching in the Sciences.

PodCases

Podcasts + Case Studies = PodCases! PodCases are my way of introducing students to a diverse array of folks and voices via podcasts while maintaining the narrative power of storytelling that is used to enhance the classroom experience via case studies. Check out the PodCases below and feel free to use them in your courses!

Read more about PodCases on !

- for use in introductory physics, introductory thermodynamics, or anywhere where you need a quick review of calculating kinetic energy - Kinetic energy (PodCase mini)download PPT slides here!

Muscle Force PodCase

Anatomy and Physiology Activities

Use the following activities to increase engagement with your students in A&P lectures or labs

Plotting Cranial and Spinal Nerve Pathways - Use WikiStix to plot nerve pathways on skeletons

Spirometry personal health activity - An individual or group based activity using the Mir One Spirometer in which students collect and analyze their own spirometry data to compare against modeled predictions

EKG personal health activity - An individual or group based activity using the Alivecor KardiaMobile EKG device in which students collect and analyze their own EKG and heart rate data and make calculation about other cardiovascular parameters

Active learning exercises for teaching the skeletal system - A bunch of strategies to try to make the skeletal system more interactive!

Authentic Assessments

Use the following projects to add authenticity to your courses!

Health and Wellness Project - An authentic assessment to help students connect anatomy and physiology concepts to their own bodies while improving their own health and wellness!

Coming soon! NSF Graduate Research Fellowship Proposal Project - Turning the actual NSF GRFP research proposal into an authentic assessment. Can be used in any STEM course to help students learn how to write succinct proposals!

Predict, Click, Depict!

Try this variation of a clicker question to get fantastic engagement with your students!

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Check out Justin Shaffer's STEM education teaching materials here and feel free to adapt or use them for your courses and students. Happy teaching!

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Research | Bjork Learning and Forgetting Lab

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Research | Bjork Learning and Forgetting Lab

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Applying Cognitive Psychology to Enhance Educational Practice

The primary goal of this research, which is funded by the James S. McDonnell foundation, is to promote learning and memory performance within educational contexts through the investigation of principles in cognitive psychology. Studies address issues of transfer-appropriate and material-appropriate processing between encoding and retrieval. Applying tests in order to enhance learning and determining the desirable amount and timing of feedback regarding an individual's memory performance are methods that are currently under investigation.

The overlying theme of "desirable difficulties," first introduced by Robert Bjork (1994), is also explored through manipulations in the spacing of learning events and the study schedule produced by interleaving various to-be-learned items, such as English-Swahili translated word pairs or prose materials. Interleaving occurs when a to-be-learned target item is initially presented and followed by different to-be-learned items prior to the target's subsequent presentations. An interleaving schedule used during the presentation of a painting matched with the name of the artist has been shown to lead to better performance on later recognition tests when compared with a massing presentation schedule in which each painting and artist name was presented back-to-back, with one presentation immediately followed by the next presentation of a different painting by the same artist (Kornell & Bjork, 2008).

Studies have also looked at the effectiveness of similar choices used in multiple choice tests for future test performance as well as the act of generating items when they are presented with missing letters. Additional research is targeted towards understanding the role of an individual preparing to teach on that individual's subsequent learning and test performance.

This line of work is also directed toward understanding the mechanisms behind metacognitive awareness of learning. Most people are inaccurate in measuring their own knowledge, through judgments of learning, because they mistakenly rely on the immediate access to knowledge in order to determine the long-term memory retention and the transfer of such knowledge to different contexts. The goal of these studies is to determine the type of instructions and study conditions that will foster accurate judgments of learning, which can lead to better predictions of future performance and optimal self-initiated study practices.

Table of Contents

I. Retrieval as a Memory Modifier

We draw upon our memories for a variety of reasons: We may recall something in order to relay a story to a friend. We may take a test to double-check that we know important material. Or, we may recall information in order to help us remember other details or to solve a problem. However, a much underappreciated fact is that retrieval itself can affect our memories.

Testing effect

Taking a test often does more than assess knowledge; tests can also provide opportunities for learning. When information is successfully retrieved from memory, its representation in memory is changed such that it becomes more recallable in the future (e.g., R. A. Bjork, 1975); and this improvement is often greater than the benefit resulting from additional study (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). Interestingly, taking a test can modify memory for information that was not explicitly tested initially (provided that the untested information is related to the tested information in certain ways; Anderson, R. A. Bjork, & E. L. Bjork, 1994; Chan, McDermott, & Roediger, 2006; Hamaker, 1986). Sometimes later recall of this untested information is improved (see, e.g., Hamaker, 1986), but sometimes it is impaired (see, e.g., Anderson et al., 1994), often dependent upon the type of relationship existing between tested and untested information (e.g., Little, Storm, & E. L. Bjork, 2011).

Currently, we are exploring both the benefits and the costs associated with this type of selective testing. This section will focus on situations in which testing some information improves the later recall of untested related information (Note: for information regarding the impairment of related information as a consequence of retrieval, see Retrieval-induced Forgetting).

Recently, we have investigated the potential use of multiple-choice tests as a tool to improve the later recall of untested related information. For example, the recall of initially untested information (e.g., Titan, given the cued-recall question, What is the largest moon of Saturn?) is impaired on a final test as a consequence of trying to recall the answer to a competitive question (e.g., What is the second largest moon of Saturn?, Answer: Rhea) on an earlier cued-recall test; but, the later recall of this competitive information (Titan) can be improved if it is used as a competitive incorrect answer choice on an initial multiple-choice test (e.g., What is the second largest moon of Saturn? A. Titan, B. Rhea, C. Enceladas, D. Mimas). Little and E. L. Bjork (2010) argue that when students do not know the answer to a multiple-choice question, they may try to retrieve information pertaining to why the other answers are incorrect in order to reject them and choose the correct answer. It is this type of processing leads to the spontaneous recall of information pertaining to those incorrect alternatives, thus leading the multiple-choice test to serve as a learning event for both the tested and untested information.

In addition to investigating situations in which tests are used after studying some to-be-learned information, we are investigating situations in which tests are used prior to studying (i.e., pretests). Although pretest performance is poor (because students have not been exposed to the relevant information prior to testing), pretests appear to be beneficial for subsequent learning (e.g., Kornell, Hays, & R. A. Bjork, 2009). We have also investigated the effect of multiple-choice pretests on learning for both pretested and untested related information (Little & E. L. Bjork, 2011). We believe that multiple-choice pretesting is more beneficial than is cued-recall pretesting because the multiple-choice pretest directs attention more broadly during subsequent study-not just to information pertaining to the question, but also to information pertaining to the alternatives.
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Retrieval-induced forgetting

Memory cues, whether categories, positions in space, scents, or the name of a place, are often linked to many items in memory. For example, the category FRUIT is linked to dozens of exemplars, such as ORANGE, BANANA, MANGO, KIWI, and so on. When forced to select from memory a single item associated to a cue (e.g., FRUIT: OR____), what happens to other items associated to that general, organizing cue? Using the retrieval-practice paradigm, we and other researchers have demonstrated that access to those associates is reduced. Retrieval-induced forgetting, or the impaired access to non-retrieved items that share a cue with retrieved items, occurs only when those associates compete during the retrieval attempt (e.g., access to BANANA is reduced because it interferes with retrieval of ORANGE, but MANGO is unaffected because it is too weak of an exemplar to interfere; Anderson, R.A. Bjork, & E. L. Bjork, 1994, Experiment 3). We argue for retrieval-induced forgetting as an example of goal-directed forgetting because it is thought to be the result of inhibitory processes that help facilitate the retrieval of the target by reducing access to competitors. In this way, retrieval induced forgetting is an adaptive aspect of a functional memory system.

In recent years, we have explored this phenomenon in a variety of ways. For example, we found that items that suffer from retrieval-induced forgetting benefit more from relearning than control items (Storm, E. L. Bjork, & R. A. Bjork, 2008). We have also demonstrated that retrieval success is not a necessary condition for retrieval induced forgetting to occur. That is, when participants are prompted to retrieve with cues that have no possible answer (FRUIT: WO____, rather than the standard, FRUIT: OR_____), access to competing items (BANANA) is impaired, as demonstrated on a final recall test. Furthermore, we are currently exploring the impact of variations of the type of cue support provided for retrieval attempts (FRUIT: OR_____; FISH: ____ORE; WEAPONS: DAGG_____). Our efforts in this domain currently rest on testing various assumptions of theoretical accounts of retrieval induced forgetting.
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New Theory of Disuse

Sometimes people cannot access information that was well learned earlier (e.g., the address of the house where they grew up). And students find that although they can recall information over and over again the day before a test, they cannot always recall it at the time of examination. Finally, sometimes people cannot recall information at one point in time, but can recall it later. In looking at these situations, it seems that our memories work in strange and unpredictable ways. The function of our memories, however, may be predictable. The New Theory of Disuse (R. A. Bjork & E. L. Bjork, 1992) posits that there are two indices of memory strength: storage strength (SS) and retrieval strength (RS). Storage strength is how well learned something is; retrieval strength is how accessible (or retrievable) something is. To illustrate, imagine four possible situations. If something is well learned (e.g., the address where you have lived for several years), it has both high SS and high RS: You know it well and can retrieve it readily. The address of a friend that you visited for the first time this afternoon, however, may only have high RS (and low SS) because the address, although practiced recently, was not well learned. Thus, although you know the address now, you will be unlikely to be able to recall it in a few days because RS will decrease over time, especially for information with low SS. Sometimes information has high SS (due to it having been well learned), but cannot be retrieved (e.g., the address where you lived as a child). If you were provided with this address again, however, you would have the feeling that that information was somewhere in the recesses of your memory, and in fact, you would be likely to relearn it very quickly. Finally, information can have both low RS and low SS. This information would include things that you heard in class earlier today, but did not learn well and cannot recall now.

The New Theory of Disuse postulates that RS and SS interact in interesting ways. For example, the more SS information has, the bigger the boost in RS it will receive as a consequence of restudy (e.g., you can relearn a childhood address much more quickly than a new address, even if you can't recall either of them initially). The more RS that information has, the smaller the boost in SS as a consequence of restudy (e.g., simply repeating to-be-learned information over and over again is not very helpful for really learning that information because you are probably practicing rote rehearsal, without forming the deeper connections necessary to improve long-term retention).

The theory has implications for a variety of research projects in the Bjork Learning and Forgetting Lab (e.g., spacing effects, optimizing testing events). Recently, we have investigated situations in which the theory would make unintuitive predictions (based upon previous interpretations of empirical results). For example, Kornell, R. A. Bjork, and Cheung (2009) investigated whether spacing, per se, improves learning or whether the benefit in retention occurs as a consequence of reduced RS at the time of the second learning event. They had participants study passages about various regions of the world (containing information that would be competitive across regions) and then re-study a subset of the studied information (i.e., the earlier learned countries), either immediately afterwards or after a delay. The hypothesis was that the earlier learned information would actually benefit more from a shorter spacing interval than from a longer spacing interval because information at the shorter spacing interval would have lower RS than information at the longer spacing interval (due to retroactive interference). Indeed, their hypothesis was supported, providing evidence for the benefit of re-learning information that is lower in RS-not spacing per se-on later retention. Additionally, Storm, E. L. Bjork, and R. A. Bjork (2008) and Little, Storm, and E. L. Bjork (2011) showed that relearning information that was impaired as a consequence of retrieving other competitive information (i.e., retrieval-induced forgetting) was relearned better after a subsequent restudy event than was information that was also restudied, but not first impaired as a consequence of retrieval-induced forgetting. Finally, John Nestojko and Ben Storm are currently investigating how RS and SS are affected as a consequence of testing versus re-study.
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II. How We Learn versus How We Think We Learn: Desirable Difficulties in Theory and Practice.

Introduction to Desirable Difficulties

Imagine a scenario in which a teacher has students practice different examples of a single type of math problem for an hour in class. By the end of the hour, it may seem-both to the teacher and to the students-that this type of math problem has been mastered. On a test two weeks later, however, the benefit may not be evident. In fact, much to the dismay of the teacher and the students, performance during training is not always representative of long-term learning.

In contrast to the story told above, in which an easy training method was followed by poor performance later, imagine that the teacher had interleaved many different types of problems during in-class training drills. Recent research reveals that difficult training of this type produces higher scores on the test than the easier version described above (Rohrer & Taylor, 2007), and this is the kind of training that the Bjork Learning and Forgetting Lab believes enhances long-term learning.

There are, in fact, certain training conditions that are difficult and appear to impede performance during training but that yield greater long-term benefits than their easier training counterparts. R. A. Bjork (1994) dubbed these difficult but effective training conditions desirable difficulties. Other examples of desirable difficulties (explained in greater detail in later portions of this webpage) include spacing rather than massing repetitions of to-be-learned information (R. A. Bjork & Allen, 1970; for review, see Cepeda, Pashler, Vul, Wixted, & Rohrer, 2006), testing rather than re-studying information (Halamish & R. A. Bjork, 2011; for review, see Roediger & Karpicke, 2006), and varying the conditions of practice instead of keeping them constant. Along with investigating these and other desirable difficulties in isolation, we are currently working to understand the complex interactions amongst these variables (see Appleton-Knapp, R. A. Bjork, & Wickens, 2005). For instance, could it be the case that spacing inexact repetitions (i.e., combining spacing and encoding variability) enhances learning more so than either training condition alone, or would spacing and encoding variability lead to a difficulty that is undesirable?
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Spacing

It is common sense that when we want to learn information, we study that information multiple times. The schedules by which we space repetitions can make a huge difference, however, in how well we learn and retain information we study. The spacing effect is the finding that information that is presented repeatedly over spaced intervals is learned much better than information that is repeated without intervals (i.e., massed presentation). This effect is one of the most robust results in all of cognitive psychology and has been shown to be effective over a large range of stimuli and retention intervals from nonsense syllables (Ebbinghaus, 1885) to foreign language learning across many months (Bahrick, Bahrick, Bahrick & Bahrick, 1993).

R. A. Bjork, Kornell and Cheung (2009) argued that the spacing effect, one of the most robust and general findings from the history of experimental psychology, reflects a more fundamental accessibility principle-namely, that reducing the accessibility of information in memory fosters additional learning of that information (see New Theory of Disuse). In this view, increasing the spacing between learning trials enhances learning because it decreases accessibility of the to-be-learned information. Indeed, R. A. Bjork and Allen (1970) found that increasing the difficulty of an intervening distractor task without changing the duration of the spacing interval leads to improved learning, much like a spacing effect. Using a procedure designed to eliminate the normal confounding of spacing and accessibility by inducing absolute recovery-so that accessibility increased, rather than decreased, with delay- R. A. Bjork, Kornell and Cheung (2009) reversed the spacing effect, a result that supports the accessibility principle and runs counter to other explanations of the spacing effect. The accessibility principle may be a kind of law of memory, even if the effect of spacing per se is not.

The study-phase retrieval theory (Thios & D'Agostino, 1975; R. A. Bjork, 1975) of spacing proposed that the benefits of spacing arise from the retrieval of the first presentation upon repeated presentations. Accessibility of the first presentation is diminished at longer intervals and given successful retrieval of the first presentation, longer intervals create more potent learning events than shorter intervals. However, when spacing intervals are too long and repetitions do not retrieve previous presentations, then the study-phase retrieval theory predicts no benefit of spacing. On the other hand, the encoding variability theory of spacing (Estes, 1955) predicts that spacing should be increasingly effective with longer intervals. Appleton-Knapp, R. A. Bjork and Wickens (2005) examined this with an A-B/A-D paradigm and showed that the first presentation (B) is indeed strengthened, providing support for study-phase retrieval.

This theory of spacing would predict that an optimal learning schedule is one with expanding retrieval practice, rather than equally spaced practices. With successive practices, information is better learned and becomes inaccessible more slowly. As the greatest learning occurs when information accessibility is low (but not impossible), increasingly longer lags between retrieval practices should lead to better long-term learning. Indeed, Landauer and R. A. Bjork (1978) showed that expanding retrieval is better than uniform retrieval in two well-controlled experiments.

We are also investigating the impact of spacing on inductive learning. In a first step, Kornell and R. A. Bjork (2008) demonstrated that spacing led to superior inductive learning of artists' painting styles compared to massing. However, new research from the Bjork Learning and Forgetting Lab shows that it is not necessarily spacing, per se, but rather interleaving that improves inductive learning (Kornell, Birnbaum, Bjork, & Bjork, in preparation; see Inductive Learning).
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Generation

One robust and longstanding finding is that generating words, rather than simply reading them, makes them more memorable (Slamecka & Graf, 1978). As an example, this effect is often achieved for single words through the use of a letter-stem cue (ex. "fl____" for "flower") or by unscrambling an anagram (ex. "rolwfe" for "flower"). The effects of generation on memory are being investigated from many different angles in the lab, from its basic role as a memory modifier (see Desirable Difficulties), to people's awareness of this role and subsequent use of generation as a strategy (see Metacognition), to the extended effects of generation on related material (see Retrieval-Induced Forgetting).

In one study that looked at the effects of generation with typical text materials (DeWinstanley & E. L. Bjork, 2004), it was found that participants who were required to generate certain words (hereafter, target words) in a paragraph had better memory for those words than for target words that were simply read. What's more surprising, however, is that when these participants subsequently read and were tested on a similar paragraph, again containing target words that were either generated or read, both types of words elicited the same, higher, level of recall. This suggests that the earlier experience of generating words (and specifically, the contrast in memorability between words that were generated and those that were read) made the participants more effective at remembering the paragraphs overall. Subsequent research (Little, Storm & E. L. Bjork, 2011) has indicated that this benefit is due, at least in part, to better memory for the context of the target words.
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Interleaving

Spacing is one of the most robust, effective ways of improving learning. However, spacing calls for intervals of time in between repetitions, and this may not be the most efficient use of time. Imagine you have three final exams to study for. If you were to space out study of three whole courses, you might as well start your course review before the quarter even begins! Particularly when one has several different things to learn, an effective strategy is to interleave one's study: Study a little bit of history, then a little bit of psychology followed by a chapter of statistics and go back again to history. Repeat (best if in a blocked-randomized order).

The benefit of interleaving is found over a diverse set of stimuli ranging from word pairs (Battig, 1979) to motor movements (Shea & Morgan, 1979) to mathematics problems (Rohrer & Taylor, 2007) and word translations (Richland, R. A. Bjork, & Finley, 2004). Interleaving benefits not only memory for what is studied, but also leads to benefits in the transfer of learned skills (e.g. Carson & Wiegand, 1979). The theory is that interleaving requires learners to constantly "reload" motor programs (in the case of motor skills) or retrieve strategies/information (in the case of cognitive skills) and allows learners to extract more general rules that aid transfer.

Benefits of interleaving have also been demonstrated for inductive learning. Although inductive learning occurs in natural settings and everyday life, it can also take place in educational settings. In such cases, it becomes important to direct study in order to optimize learning. One's intuition may guide him or her to focus on one category at a time before moving on to another (blocking). Kornell and R. A. Bjork (2008) investigated the effects of blocking and interleaving on category induction. Interleaving is to shuffle the exemplars of a given category between exemplars of other similar categories. Interleaving however has the effect of both creating temporal spacing between exemplars of a given category and creating temporal juxtaposition of exemplars of different categories. Kornell, Birnbaum, Bjork, and Bjork (in preparation) investigated these separate effects and found that temporal juxtaposition, which allows for discrimination processes, is more critical to inductive learning than simple temporal spacing is. Additionally, although spacing alone and interleaving alone offer benefits to inductive learning performance (both desirable difficulties, combining the two manipulations does not provide an additive benefit to inductive learning performance (see Interactions between Desirable Difficulties).
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Perceptual desirable difficulties

Fluency, or the subjective ease of processing information, can provide learners with a useful basis for judging how well information has been understood. Perceptual variations are among the most obvious-and, sometimes, the most misleading-cues to the fluency of information. For example, when you encounter fonts that are difficult to read or words in very small print, you may experience a sense of disfluency-that is, you may have a feeling that the unusual or small typefaces are more difficult to process than more common typefaces.

These types of perceptual cues often cause people to think that disfluent information will be harder to remember than fluent information. Some research, however, indicates that perceptual disfluency can be a desirable difficulty (Diemand-Yauman, Oppenheimer, & Vaughan, 2010). The subjective difficulty of processing disfluent information can actually lead people to engage in deeper processing strategies, which then results in higher recall for those items (Alter, Oppenheimer, Epley, & Eyre, 2007). the Bjork Learning and Forgetting Lab is collaborating with Alan Castel to study how the fluent or disfluent appearance of text (e.g., clear vs. blurred text; upright vs. inverted text) impacts people's estimations of how well they will remember information as well as their actual memory for that information (Sungkhasettee, Friedman, & Castel, 2011).
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Interactions between desirable difficulties

It is not enough to simply provide educators with a list of desirable difficulties and claim that our work in optimizing learning has been completed. It may be that certain combinations of desirable difficulties interact to yield super-additive or sub-additive effects, if the processes by which the desirable difficulties work enhance or interfere with each other. Research into these interactions is therefore important on both practical ("What is best for learning?") and theoretical ("How do these desirable difficulties work to influence memory?") levels. For instance, research investigating the combination of spacing and variation in advertisements (Appleton-Knapp, R. A. Bjork, & Wickens, 2005) has shown that whilst spacing and variation are each independently 'desirable', there is a sub-additive interaction between the two manipulations such that variation is beneficial only when spacing intervals are short. At longer spacing intervals, variation actually hurts memory performance. Furthermore, the results of this study supported the study-phase retrieval theory of spacing over the encoding variability theory of spacing (see Spacing). Current studies in this line of research include examining the interactions between spacing and generation and spacing and variation with educationally relevant materials, such as text passages and glossary-style definitions. Interactions are also being explored with inductive learning, and Kornell, Birnbaum, Bjork & Bjork (in preparation) have found a subadditive effect of spacing and interleaving in the induction of butterfly species (see Interleaving).
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III. Learning concepts and categories (Inductive learning).

We are constantly faced with the challenge of categorizing and organizing the world into meaningful units of information. For example, when we meet our friend's pet, we are immediately able to recognize it as a dog rather than a large rat with a collar. This knowledge is acquired through a process called inductive learning: although we have not seen this particular dog before, we have seen many examples of dogs and other animals, and from those experiences we have induced the category of "dog." This same process takes place in educational settings. Forms of inductive learning include differentiating a novel Monet painting from a Picasso painting, or a cancerous cell mass from a benign one. The Bjork Learning and Forgetting Laboratory investigates the cognitive mechanisms that mediate inductive learning and ways to optimize this type of learning. This endeavor is especially important because our findings indicate that the learning methods people believe are most beneficial are often not (see Metacognition section). Kornell and R. A. Bjork (2008) found that while many students believe that studying examples of a category all at once leads to more effective inductive learning than studying them intermixed with examples of other to-be-learned categories, the opposite is in fact true (see Interleaving).
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IV. Goal-Directed Forgetting

People often view forgetting as an error in an otherwise functional memory system; that is, forgetting appears to be a nuisance in our daily activities. Yet forgetting is adaptive in many circumstances. For example, if you park your car in the same lot at work each day, you must inhibit the memory of where you parked yesterday (and every day before that!) to find your car today.

Much work conducted in the Bjork Learning and Forgetting Lab has focused on goal-directed forgetting, that is, situations in which forgetting serves some implicit or explicit personal need (E. L. Bjork, R. A. Bjork, & Anderson, 1998). In recent years our research has supported the notion that mechanisms of inhibition-analogous to those proposed in many areas of lower-level cognition, such as vision (explain, perhaps parenthetically)-play an important role in goal-directed forgetting. We have developed and utilized a variety of experimental paradigms to investigate phenomena that exemplify goal-directed forgetting, including directed forgetting (R. A. Bjork, 1979) and retrieval-induced forgetting (Anderson, R. A. Bjork, & E. L. Bjork, 1994).

Retrieval-induced forgetting Please see the Retrieval-induced forgetting section above.
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Directed forgetting

Forgetting is often viewed as an uncontrollable, undesirable failure of memory. Yet it is possible to experimentally induce forgetting in an individual that can lead to unexpected benefits. One such paradigm is known as "directed forgetting." In the typical list-based directed forgetting paradigm (E. L. Bjork & R. A. Bjork, 1996), a participant will study two lists of words, and is notified after each list whether or not it will be tested later on. If a list is tested after the learner was notified that it would not be tested, the learner will show weaker recall for that list, compared to a baseline condition in which all lists are expected to be tested, demonstrating the costs of directed forgetting. Interestingly, it is commonly found that recall of any list that was expected to be tested will be greater than that of the baseline condition, demonstrating the unexpected benefits of directed forgetting.

Another common paradigm for directed forgetting is the item-based method, in which participants are told after each word whether or not it will be tested. A similar pattern of results is observed, in which recall rates for the to-be-forgotten words are depressed, while recall rates for the to-be-remembered words are increased. However, the mechanisms by which item-method directed forgetting occurs are purported to be different than the mechanisms by which list-method directed forgetting operates.

In addition to studying the basic phenomenon of directed forgetting, efforts in the lab are currently underway to further investigate the effects of list-based directed forgetting using different materials and different paradigms. For example, does the pattern of results extend beyond simple word lists to more educationally relevant materials, such as text passages or videos? What happens to the pattern of results when information between the two lists is related? In addition, we are investigating whether directed forgetting applies to other learning paradigms, such as induction learning.
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V. Metacognition

Metacognition refers to the subjective awareness of one's own knowledge. In the Bjork Learning and Forgetting Lab, we focus on how this relates to learning and study behaviors, or metamemory. Metamemory consists of both monitoring the state of one's memory (or lack thereof) as well as using this information to control study decisions. Accurate metamemory can be crucial for a student in determining the success of his or her own study program.

Fluency and biases

Metamemory can be remarkably accurate in certain contexts, but this is not always the case. For instance, metacognitive monitoring seems to rely on the fluency of an item at encoding (i.e., when it is first learned; for more on this topic, see Perceptual Desirable Difficulties). This is often an accurate basis on which to make judgments, but the Bjork Learning and Forgetting Lab has shown that people still rely on this type of fluency even when it is misleading (e.g., Benjamin, R. A. Bjork, & Schwartz, 1998; Koriat & R. A. Bjork, 2006). Learners also fail to take into account forgetting that occurs over time (Koriat, R. A. Bjork, Sheffer, & Bar, 2004) and learning that occurs with repetition (i.e., the "stability bias", Kornell & R. A. Bjork, 2009); they instead seem to assume that what they know at the time the judgment is made is an accurate reflection of what they will know at a later time point.
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Awareness of study strategies

Another important issue in metamemory is people's awareness of the effectiveness of different study strategies. Zechmeister and Shaughnessy (1980) showed that people tend to think massed repetitions are more effective than spaced repetitions. Massed repetitions lead to greater short-term performance, but impair long-term performance (e.g., Simon & Bjork, 2001); this dissociation could explain why people think massed repetitions are more effective. Kornell and R. A. Bjork (2008) found that in the case of inductive learning, the belief that massed presentation is better than spaced presentation holds true even after people have taken a test and have done better with spacing! At the same time, other recent work (e.g., Benjamin & Bird, 2006; Toppino & Cohen, 2010) has found evidence that people do prefer later re-study to immediate re-study when allowed to choose between the two. Current work in the Bjork Learning and Forgetting Lab is examining further whether and in what contexts people are aware of the benefits of spaced practice when they are allowed to choose how to space repeated study opportunities.
Back to Table of Contents Visit gocognitive.net to see a full series of Dr. Robert Bjork's interview

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Research | Bjork Learning and Forgetting Lab

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The primary goal of this research, which is funded by the James S. McDonnell foundation, is to promote learning and memory performance within educational contexts through the investigation of principles in cognitive psychology. Studies address issues of transfer-appropriate and material-appropriate processing between encoding and retrieval.

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Flipping Failure – Build resilience in the face of academic challenges.

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Flipping Failure – Build resilience in the face of academic challenges.

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New Coping Strategies

MIT students share strategies they have used to cultivate awareness of thoughts and emotions, focus on the present, recognize unhelpful ways of thinking, and gain new perspectives.

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MIT students share strategies they have used to cultivate awareness of thoughts and emotions, focus on the present, recognize unhelpful ways of thinking, and gain new perspectives.

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PZ's Thinking Routines Toolbox | Project Zero

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PZ's Thinking Routines Toolbox | Project Zero

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PZ's Thinking Routines Toolbox | Project Zero

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The Toolbox organizes the Thinking Routines into categories that describe the types of thinking the routines help to facilitate. Some routines appear in more than one category, and some routines have different versions that offer modifications for specific age groups or more specific conceptual challenges.

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Home - OER Student Advocate Packet - LibGuides at Florida Virtual Campus (FLVC)

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Home - OER Student Advocate Packet - LibGuides at Florida Virtual Campus (FLVC)

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Open Educational Resources (OER), are no cost learning objects, teaching resources (Free textbooks!) that faculty can use in place of a costly textbook or access code.

OER are free to access, saving students money.

Student advocacy for open educational resources (OER) and affordable course content is essential, meaningful work that can make huge impacts on OER programs. This quick, actionable messaging for students can fit into their packed schedules. Florida Virtual Campus (FLVC) Library Services developed this Student Advocate Packet, outlining three steps students can take that day to move their campus communities toward using open and affordable course content. This packet also contains further steps students can take if they have the time. Continue reading here or download a full copy of the OER Student Advocate Packet folder.

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LibGuides: OER Student Advocate Packet: Home

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LibGuides: OER Student Advocate Packet: Home

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Giving Peer Feedback | UAGC Writing Center

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Giving Peer Feedback | UAGC Writing Center

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How to Teach Students to Give Peer Feedback | Edutopia

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How to Teach Students to Give Peer Feedback | Edutopia

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Giving their classmates feedback on writing is a complex skill for students to master, but it can be taught with scaffolded modeling.

Bob Daemmrich / Alamy Stock Photo

When I first share with my ninth graders that peer review will be part of our writing process, the response is almost universally negative. Unfortunately, many of my writers have not had the best experience with this activity.

My stronger writers say that they almost never receive feedback that goes beyond basic conventions, while my emerging writers say they feel a lack of confidence in providing feedback beyond basic conventions. This frustration should be no surprise: As educators, we recognize that effective teaching is a complex skill that requires deliberate practice. Likewise, when we ask students to give each other feedback, this too is more complex than simply exchanging papers and locating errors.

To make peer feedback more focused and meaningful, I've found it helpful to define quality feedback, provide structured routines, and teach feedback as I would any other core skill.

Defining Effective Feedback

In my experience, few high school freshmen have mastered the conventions of writing well enough to function as reliable editors. For this reason, I direct my students to reflect upon each other's work-not correct it.

This is confusing because I cannot follow your topic.

I am confused about who "they" are in this sentence.

Explain a little more about why you chose this example from the text.

I like how you repeated key words from your hook here in your conclusion.

My students focus on idea development, clarity, and arrangement to make sense of the writer's text. Of course, scrambled grammar can impact a reader's experience, but rather than have them try to correct a peer's confounding syntax with editing marks, I ask students to write full sentences to one another:

Specific: Comments are linked to a discrete word, phrase, or sentence.

Prescriptive: Like a medical prescription that aims to solve an ailment, prescriptive feedback offers a solution or strategy to improve the work, including possible revisions or links to helpful resources or examples.

Actionable: When the feedback is read, it leaves the peer knowing what steps to take for improvement.

Referenced: The feedback directly references the task criteria, requirements, or target skills.

Kind: It's mandatory that all comments be framed in a kind, supportive way.

I also offer kids a specific acronym to remember what constitutes quality feedback: SPARK. For feedback to be useful to a writer, it should meet as many of these criteria as possible:

Some groups I've taught took to SPARK quickly, while others have needed more practice. For these groups, I create student-friendly versions of a consultancy protocol or tuning protocol to ensure focused discourse, allowing room for all voices.

I also set a guideline for a minimum number of quality comments, but I tell students that less is often more.

Modeling SPARK Feedback

As with any other skill I teach, I begin by modeling SPARK feedback on sample student writing. I interact with students, explaining my thought process as they help pinpoint what about a text is effective or ineffective, as well as how to offer quality SPARK-based comments. From there, as a class we examine other example feedback statements before evaluating their potential usefulness to a writer.

To also give students the chance to practice giving feedback independently, I distribute the same example paragraph. We use group and class discussions to share the variety of feedback offered.

When it's time for live peer review, I assess performance by giving students feedback on their feedback. After that, students share particularly useful examples. Before students leave class, they share on exit tickets what they feel was the best feedback they offered, as well as the best feedback they received.

In the end, good peer review should provide the writer with meaningful information for improvement, while developing the reviewer's ability to analyze a text's effectiveness.

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Giving their classmates feedback on writing is a complex skill for students to master, but it can be taught with scaffolded modeling.

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The Center for Teaching Excellence Midlands Technical College

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Teaching Quality Framework | Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning for Student Success

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Teaching Quality Framework | Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning for Student Success

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The Teaching Quality Framework helps to structure discussions about teaching at Appalachian State. Intended as a framework and not a prescription, it directs our attention to three components of the teaching and learning process: the learning environment, course design and implementation, and a reflective stance toward our disciplines and pedagogies. It also encourages us to reflect on our teaching using information from a variety of sources, including ourselves, our students, and our colleagues. When we use this general framework to situate our pedagogical discussions, we provide a strong foundation for the maintenance and growth of the diverse range of effective teaching approaches that App State is known for.

The Teaching Quality Framework is the work of a 2020 Teaching Quality Taskforce, which was convened to identify characteristics, values, and processes to support the development and evaluation of quality courses across all modalities. The task force was led by members of the Center for Academic Excellence (now named CETLSS) Leadership Team and consisted of representatives of each college who were nominated by the Deans.

For a text-based explanation of the graphic, please click here.

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The Teaching Quality Framework helps to structure discussions about teaching at Appalachian State. Intended as a framework and not a prescription, it directs our attention to three components of the teaching and learning process: the learning environment, course design and implementation, and a reflective stance toward our disciplines and pedagogies.

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Health and Wellness Meditations - MARC | UCLA Health

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Health and Wellness Meditations - MARC | UCLA Health

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For an introduction to mindfulness meditation specifically designed for use by patients in hospitals or those experiencing health-related difficulties, download the UCLA Mindful app, stream or download the guided meditations below. Recorded by UCLA MARC's Director of Mindfulness Education, Diana Winston.
For a more in-depth class experience, see our 6-week classes"
*To stream: click the "Play" button
English meditation and original content by MARC's Director for Mindfulness Education, Diana Winston.
To download: right click the "Play" button and then click "Save Link As"

"Health & Wellness Meditations" created by Diana Winston and others (see above) for the UCLA Mindful Awareness Research Center (MARC), ©2011- 2024 The Regents of the University of California (The UC Regents).

Health & Wellness Meditations are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

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For an introduction to mindfulness meditation specifically designed for use by patients in hospitals or those experiencing health-related difficulties, download the UCLA Mindful app, stream or download the guided meditations below. Recorded by UCLA MARC's Director of Mindfulness Education, Diana Winston.

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This toolkit is designed to help local, state, and national education systems worldwide develop guidance on the responsible use of AI, ensure compliance with relevant policies, and build the capacity of all stakeholders to understand AI and use AI effectively. The recommendations in this toolkit may also inform the early stages of developing policies and procedures, whether mandatory or voluntary.

While issuing standalone guidance on AI can be an initial step, it's also important to consider how and where it makes sense to address AI in existing policies, such as academic integrity, privacy, or responsible use policies. Guidance and policies will benefit from the input and review of various stakeholders, including teachers, parents, and students.

Guidance and policies should be developed in accordance with an education system's established policy development process, which may include a review by a policy committee, key stakeholders (e.g., teachers, parents, and students), and legal counsel before seeking approval from governing bodies.​

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The AI Guidance for Schools Toolkit is designed to help education authorities, school leaders and teachers create their own thoughtful guidance to achieve potential benefits of incorporating artificial intelligence in primary and secondary K-12 education while mitigating risks.

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What do I do after the keynote? - Resources - Google Docs

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What do I do after the keynote? - Resources - Google Docs

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Ungrading, grading for growth, CHIIPs

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What do I do after the keynote? - Resources

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Dotmocracy

Size: Entire class

Time: Unrestricted

Activity

Pointers:

This is a great activity to use after brainstorming to assess the interests of the class and focus on one of the issues students highlighted in greater depth later on during the class.

For more facilitation strategies, see http://dotmocracy.org/ opens in new window

Snowball

Size: Entire class

Time: 30-40 minutes, or longer depending on discussion

Activity

Present an idea, question, or issue to students. Each student first thinks about the idea/question/issue for one minute, with the goal of generating at least three reactions, comments, answers, etc.

Two students then come together with their lists and try to come up with three things they agree on.

The pairs of students then join with another pair, and try to come up with three things they agree on. Repeat for as many iterations as desired.

Eventually, bring the class together as a group to hear what the students have decided are the three most important issues, questions, ideas relevant to the topic discussed.

Example

In an international relations class, ask students "What are the key traits of a good mediator?" Most groups will identify neutrality as one of the key trait in Western cultures, providing a bridge to a discussion of differences in the role of mediators in the Middle East, where mediators' role is to take sides and support the weaker party in a dispute.

Pointers:

For some issues, it may be difficult to reach consensus on the "three most important issues"

This discussion model can be time-consuming.

Fishbowl

Size: Entire class

Time: Unrestricted

Activity

The group observing will either observe the process, the content, or both depending on the desired outcome. After the activity, you can have groups give feedback to each other, either on a group to group basis, individually, or in pairs. If you feel that the learners are not ready for public feedback, ask them to provide feedback to each other in pairs or in writing.

Pointers:

For some issues, it may be difficult to reach consensus on the "three most important issues".

This discussion model can be time-consuming.

Think-Pair-Share

Size: Individual and pairs

Time: 1 class

Pointers:

This activity encourages students to think about answers on their own first before talking with other students.

Avoid asking simple/recall type questions: this activity works best when students are challenged to think through a more complex or complicated idea.

The benefits of the 3 step process are two-fold: first, students are generally more comfortable presenting ideas to a group with the support of a partner; second, students' ideas have become more refined through this three-step process.

Adaptable for Online Learning? This could be done by breaking students into small chat rooms, or pairing students up to message with each other, then having their group post their points to a larger discussion board.

Think Aloud

Size: Pairs

Time: 1 class

Activity

Choose 2-3 paragraphs of new text for students to read.

Students work in pairs (student A gets text 1, and student B gets text 2).

One student reads a passage of text aloud, and while reading they stop frequently to "think" aloud. The reader stops after every few sentences, and reflects on what they have read. (This process is awkward, and weird for most. Let students know this, and that it is ok!)

Model this activity very briefly for students with a sample text.

Once student A finishes their text, student B then performs their think aloud. Give students 15-20 minutes to perform this part of the activity.

Bring the class back together as a group. Go over each of the texts, then perform a think aloud as a class, asking students to contribute what they were thinking about at each point.

Finally, conclude class with a "Meta-moment": ask students what they thought of the activity, and what they will take away to their next reading. (This can take the form of a 1-minute paper!)

Pointers:

Think aloud is frequently used in text based disciplines such as English, Comparative Literature or History. At the end of this activity, students will have developed their ability to engage in a close reading of the text, and will be able to explain their thinking process.

An analogy that helps students understand the process is comparing it to math: Much like a mathematician must show their work when solving an equation, so must a student in the Arts & Humanities when explaining their thinking and reasoning process.

Adaptable for Online Learning? In the online environment, students can annotate the text instead and add comments.
Additional Resources

Calder, L. and Carlson, S. "Using "Think Alouds" to Evaluate Deep Understanding opens in new window ..

Ericsson, K. and Simon, H. Protocol Analysis; Verbal Reports as Data. (Revised edition). MIT Press, 1993.

Ericsson, K. and Simon, H. "How to Study Thinking in Everyday Life: Contrasting Think-Aloud Protocols with Descriptions and Explanations of Thinking opens in new window ." Mind, Culture, & Activity, 1998: 176-186.

Wade, S. "Using Think Alouds to Assess Comprehension opens in new window ." The Reading Teacher, 1990: 442-451.

Weimer, M. "Think Alouds Shed Light on How Students Grapple with Content opens in new window ." 2012.

Wineburg, S. Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts: Charting the Future of Teaching the Past. Temple University Press, 2001. Ch 3 & 4.

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Dotmocracy Size: Entire class Time: Unrestricted Pointers: This is a great activity to use after brainstorming to assess the interests of the class and focus on one of the issues students highlighted in greater depth later on during the class.

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About the Series

Welcome to Dead Ideas in Teaching and Learning, a podcast hosted by CTL Executive Director, Catherine Ross . Our mission is to encourage instructors, students, and leaders in higher education to reflect on what they believe about teaching and learning. In each episode, guests are invited to share their discoveries of "dead ideas"- ideas that are not true but that are often widely believed and embedded in the pedagogical choices we make.

Past conversations have focused on dead ideas in topics such as grading, teaching with technology, student motivation, assessment, and teaching and learning systems in the academy and how they need to be changed. Conversations have also explored dead ideas exposed by the move to remote teaching due to the COVID-19 pandemic. We hope these radically honest conversations will inspire lightbulb moments for our listeners as they seek to understand their own teaching and learning. To listen to an audio trailer, click here.

The theme originates from the article "The Tyranny of Dead Ideas in Teaching and Learning" (The Sociological Quarterly, 2011) by Diane L. Pike, Professor of Sociology at Augsburg University. Pike writes, "Ideas are dead because they are no longer correct, if they ever were. They are tyranny because we cling to them despite the evidence...Clinging to dead ideas about teaching and learning limits our practice as professors. The resulting tyranny means we fail to educate our students as effectively as we might...The good news is that learned behaviors, sociologically informed reflection, and the application of the research in the scholarship of teaching and learning can liberate us and improve the experiences of teachers and learners alike."
Where and When to Listen
Episodes are released every other Thursday and are approximately 30 minutes in length. Listen on this webpage (below) or subscribe on Apple Podcasts, Google Podcasts, or Spotify.

Join our email list or follow us on Twitter to hear about upcoming episodes. Send us questions and feedback at CTL-podcast@columbia.edu.

Hosted by CTL Executive Director,
Catherine Ross

How can we improve teaching AND support all the instructors who teach science courses for undergraduates? Today we discuss this question with Marielena DeSanctis , President of the Community College of Denver, and Cassandra Volpe Horii , Associate Vice Provost for Education and Director of the Center for Teaching and Learning at Stanford University, who are co-authors of the article titled, " An Instructional-Workforce Framework for Coordinated Change in Undergraduate Education " (2023). Drs. DeSanctis and Volpe Horii discuss their framework-based on principles of justice, equity, and inclusion-which proposes treating all instructors (Visiting, Instructor, Teaching Assistant, Adjunct, Teaching Professor, TT/Tenured, Lecturer) as a unified workforce. Using the levers of governance, professional development, and reward systems, they offer institutions a path to significant improvement in the teaching of undergraduate science courses.

October 26, 2023. 32:23 min.
Transcript Resource

In today's episode, Kevin Gannon , a Professor of History and Director of the Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning at Grand View University, discusses how the pandemic has highlighted "bedrock" flaws in higher education systems, including in faculty evaluation processes. These flaws, based on dead ideas such as emphasizing equality rather than equity, disproportionately affect marginalized groups. Dr. Gannon elaborates on the destructive potential of returning "back to normal" in these systems after the pandemic, and offers steps that faculty can take to best move forward. Gannon, author of the book Radical Hope: A Teaching Manifesto (2020), also shares what keeps him inspired and why he believes we should remain hopeful about the future of higher education.

October 21, 2021. 31:45 min.
Transcript

Do we really only use 10% of our brains? Will using technology in my course improve my students' learning and motivation? Are students nowadays "digital natives"? In this episode, we tackle these questions and others with Michelle Miller, Professor of Psychology at Northern Arizona University and author of Minds Online: Teaching Effectively with Technology. Miller talks about her research and experiences with misconceptions about the mind, brain, and learning, with a focus on neuromyths related to teaching with technology.

October 29, 2020. 24:58 min.
Transcript

Welcome to Dead Ideas in Teaching and Learning, a new podcast hosted by CTL executive director, Catherine Ross. Our mission is to encourage instructors, students, and leaders in higher education to reflect on what they believe about teaching and learning. In each episode, guests are invited to share their discoveries of "dead ideas"-ideas that are not true but that are often widely believed and embedded in the pedagogical choices we make.

October 14, 2020. 3:49 min.
Transcript

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Dead Ideas in Teaching and Learning is a podcast from the Columbia University Center for Teaching and Learning. Our mission is to encourage instructors, students, and leaders in higher education to reflect on what they believe about teaching and learning.

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Introduction

When you feel included and engaged, do you do a better job? Do you think teams in which people work well together produce much better results? Have you noticed the best ideas often come from unexpected sources? Do you want to work at the top of your intelligence and give the same opportunity to others?

If YES, we have found this is the kind of organization and community that people want to be part of. AND, Liberating Structures help make it happen.

So why is it that so many organizations of all stripes are filled with disengaged workers, dysfunctional groups and wasted ideas?

While there will always be some justification for blaming leaders (or professors and administrators in education), the more compelling and useful explanation is not that people involved are bad, stupid or incompetent, but rather that the practices they have all learned are neither adapted to today's realities nor designed to achieve the ideals listed above.

Unwittingly, the conventional structures used to organize how people routinely work together stifle inclusion and engagement.

Conventional structures are either too inhibiting (presentations, status reports and managed discussions) or too loose and disorganized (open discussions and brainstorms) to creatively engage people in shaping their own future. They frequently generate feelings of frustration and/or exclusion and fail to provide space for good ideas to emerge and germinate. This means that huge amounts of time and money are spent working the wrong way. More time and money are then spent trying to fix the unintended consequences.

Liberating Structures start with something so simple and essential as not to seem worth doing and end with something so powerful and profound that it hardly seems possible.

This website offers an alternative way to approach and design how people work together. It provides a menu of thirty-three Liberating Structures to replace or complement conventional practices.

Liberating Structures used routinely make it possible to build the kind of organization that everybody wants. They are designed to include everyone in shaping next steps.

Liberating Structures introduce tiny shifts in the way we meet, plan, decide and relate to one another. They put the innovative power once reserved for experts only in hands of everyone.

This alternative approach is both practical and feasible because Liberating Structures are quite simple and easy to learn. They can be used by everyone at every level, from the executive suite to the grassroots. No lengthy training courses or special talents are required. Mastery is simply a matter of practice. LS routinely unleash a vast reserve of contributions and latent innovations waiting to be discovered.

Every person interested in leading change-in schools, hospitals, foundations, agencies, and businesses-can use Liberating Structures to generate innovation and great results.

Liberating Structures are easy-to-learn microstructures that enhance relational coordination and trust. They quickly foster lively participation in groups of any size, making it possible to truly include and unleash everyone. Liberating Structures are a disruptive innovation that can replace more controlling or constraining approaches.

Click on any Liberating Structure below.

Leaders know that they would greatly increase productivity and innovation if only they could get everyone fully engaged. The challenge is how. Liberating Structures are novel, practical and no-nonsense methods to help you accomplish this goal with groups of any size.

Liberating Structures spark inventiveness by minimally structuring the way we interact while liberating content or subject matter. Very simple constraints unleash creative adaptability, generating better than expected results. Individual brilliance and collective wisdom are unbridled. Such a dramatic shift cannot be THAT simple, engaging, and powerful but it is. Read Getting Started if you are ready to liberate yourself.

By design, Liberating Structures distribute control so that participants can shape direction themselves as the action unfolds.

Learning Events

Immersion workshops are a great way to get started. Like a foreign language immersion course that temporarily relocates you away from a familiar culture, a LS immersion experience is a very effective way to learn. There are no presentations, facilitated discussions, status reports, brainstorming sessions, or open discussions. Only Liberating Strucutres arepracticed. Organizing a workshop for people in your working group can accelerate "fluency."

Check out News and Events for more immersion workshops and LS User Group meetings. Subscribe to LS News & get access to archives here.

Liberating Structures are immeasurably practical. Our world is increasingly complex, interdependent, and culturally diverse. Many of our most pressing challenges cut across geographic, cultural, and technical boundaries. Simple methods that help us work together productively are central to making progress.

Helpful Analogies
Like Wikipedia, LS create simple rules to guide and liberate everyone's contributions. Wikipedia's must-dos and must-not dos specify how anyone can write articles, edit content, reach consensus about the facts, and share with attribution. This structure makes it possible for a diverse community to generate and sustain accurate content that compares favorably with professionally edited encyclopedias. Like Wikipedia, LS is a disruptive innovation in regard to how we engage people in organizations.

Like improv jazz, LS sparks freedom that arises from shared understanding of simple rules. Great jazz comes from playing creatively within the context of melodic and harmonic structure. Like water in a river, LS takes the shape of the banks that it touches: adapting a similar pattern at every scale and in each local setting.

Below: watch this inspired video by Professor Arvind Singhal talking about liberating education and the role of changemakers. UnScripTED: Liberating Structures

Read this practical article "Tiny Tweaks That Help You Use LS" by Barry Overeem.

Simple Ways to Engage Everyone on Zoom: Learn Several Liberating Structures in 30 minutes from Media Changemakers on Vimeo.
Unscripted #2 Liberating Structures with Dr. Arvind Singhal from Media Changemakers on Vimeo.
Lisa Gill is a fabulous writer and top drawer interviewer. Her Leadersmorphosis series dives deeply into self organizing @ work. Put your ear to this interivew she conducts with Henri and Keith.

Below, enjoy scenes from the LCJP Restorative Justice Summit. Liberating Structures were used to organize a three day event full of learning, designed to advance the Restorative Justice movement. Restorative Justice (RJ) aims to create communities in which people feel safe by carefully structuring opportunities for offenders to make amends and victims to regain their personal power. Restorative Justice practitioners found Liberating Structures to be highly structured, liberating better than expected results.

2012 CO RJ Summit Video from LCJP on Vimeo.

LS were used to design the Transformation of Nursing summit. Coalitions from all 50 states and DC came together to advance the cause.

For the United Nations ITC-ILO, Henri and Keith offered a Liberating Structures immersion workshop and follow-up consulting sessions. (The Centre is in Turin Italy.) The focus was how to organize for promoting decent work and sustainable development by not over-helping but rather facilitating networked self-organization.

Ten Principles

While the individual LS microstructures are powerful separately, they function as an interrelated set which can transform an entire organization. The LS repertoire is inspired by ten liberating principles.

When we decide we belong together, LS principles help to guide behavior and leadership actions. Detailed descriptions here.

The Surprising Power of Liberating Structures book! Preview and buy on Amazon. The color paperback ($49.95 USD), black&white ($19.95 USD) and e-book are now available on the Amazon website. Amazon offers deep discounts and free shipping to some customers.

The development team at Holisticon is happy to announce that the Liberating Structures App is now available in the Google Play and Apple App Stores. A deep bow to their creative genius. Happy downloading!

Audio: A very playful Brave New Work podcast with Aaron Dignan and Rodney Evans. On Liberating Structures with Lorenz Sell of Sutra and Keith. Lorenz asks the deepest questions about collective intelligence, generativity, and complexity science. (50 minutes) Coaching Zone Podcast with Keith and Dr. Krister Lowe. The focus is on how leaders and teams can develop more productive habits with LS. [45 minutes] Radio Interview with Meisha Rouser, organizational psychologist. The focus is on groups working at the top of their intelligence and imagination. And a third podcast interview with Amiel Handelsman that dips into specific LS microstructures and their use by groups to generate innovative cultures. [60 minutes].

Check out Falling Off the Horse while faciliating & leading with Liberating Structures. This article by Keith McCandless describes a personal path forward. It includes what is possible to stop doing when LS is integrated into your practice.

LS are inspired by complexity science. Listen to this entertaining RadioLab program on Emergence to learn about some of the underlying concept of complexity science.

LS User Groups (inventing and enlivening a new way to organize) Open Letter from a Grateful Student to All Educators
Rhapsody for Strings!

Below: early LS users and co-developers in Latin America, Europe, Canada and the USA.

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liberating structures, social invention.net, microstructures, disruptive innovation, behavior change, collaboration, social invention, diffusion of innovation, strategy, transformation, heuristics, complexity science, emergence

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Universal Design for Learning (UDL) | Center for Teaching & Learning

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Universal Design for Learning (UDL) | Center for Teaching & Learning

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Center for Teaching & Learning : UMass Amherst

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Center for Teaching & Learning : UMass Amherst

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Through this deeper dive, you will be guided in exploring the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) framework, which is comprised of a research-based set of principles that encourages instructors to remove barriers to learning in order to provide access to diverse students, beyond considerations of accommodations for students with disabilities.

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Wakelet - Save, organize and share content

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Wakelet - Save, organize and share content

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Wakelet | The All In One Content Platform

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Wakelet allows you to bookmark, organize, collaborate and present on content all in one platform. Harness your content to build remarkable things.

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An Effective Syllabus – Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching

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An Effective Syllabus – Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching

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An Effective Syllabus – Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching

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Alternatives to Timed Exams and Quizzes - Google Docs

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Alternatives to Timed Exams and Quizzes - Google Docs

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Open Education Network - Open Pedagogy Portal

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Open Education Network - Open Pedagogy Portal

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Open Education Network - Open Pedagogy Portal

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Open Education Network - Open Pedagogy Portal

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At the Open Education Network, we value the power of open pedagogy to transform learning to be more equitable, inclusive, and sustainable. We have created this portal to support your efforts in open pedagogy. You can browse case studies/renewable assignments and student work product by discipline, search by keywords, or find teaching and learning resources to further your open pedagogy journey.

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Short articles on Curiosity, Dual Code Theory, Positive Identity, Information Processing Theory, Mastery Mindset, Online Discussions, Purpose Motive, Schema Theory, Vygotsky

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Index page for Teaching Resources at Center for Teaching Excellence at ETSU

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Writing Your Teaching Philosophy | Center for Educational Innovation

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Writing Your Teaching Philosophy | Center for Educational Innovation

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Teaching philosophy

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Your teaching philosophy is a self-reflective statement of your beliefs about teaching and learning. It's a one to two page narrative that conveys your core ideas about being an effective teacher in the context of your discipline. It develops these ideas with specific, concrete examples of what the teacher and learners will do to achieve those goals. Importantly, your teaching philosophy statement also explains why you choose these options.

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Your teaching philosophy is a self-reflective statement of your beliefs about teaching and learning. It's a one to two page narrative that conveys your core ideas about being an effective teacher in the context of your discipline. It develops these ideas with specific, concrete examples of what the teacher and learners will do to achieve those goals.

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Community of Learners, metacognition

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Faculty Focus | Higher Ed Teaching & Learning

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As longtime practitioners in our disciplines, we develop implicit skills that can be the source of some of the deepest learning for our students. In his book Experience and Education, John Dewey describes habit as "the formation of attitudes, attitudes that are emotional and intellectual...our basic sensitivities and ways of responding to all the conditions we meet in living" (35). Experiencing implies the sensing body, embodied learning, and Dewey does not shy away from the emotional dimensions of learning-both of which are often where the deepest learning happens, where students' passion for a discipline ignites, and where experts' best ideas originate. These often-overlooked dimensions of learning are also where empathy lives, and so it is there that knowledge might blossom not only into expertise but into wisdom.

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As longtime practitioners in our disciplines, we develop implicit skills that can be the source of some of the deepest learning for our students. In his book Experience and Education, John Dewey describes habit as "the formation of attitudes, attitudes that are emotional and intellectual...our basic sensitivities and ways of responding to all the conditions we meet in living" (35).

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Goal-Directed Practice & Targeted Feedback

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Goal-Directed Practice & Targeted Feedback

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Community of Learners, metacognition, feedback

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How To Give Specific, Quality Learning Feedback To Students

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How To Give Specific, Quality Learning Feedback To Students

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Community of Learners, feedback, metacognition

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contributed by Justin Chando

To tell a student 'great job' or 'this needs work' is a missed opportunity.

Everyone loves to hear they did a great job. And perhaps your student really did nail this latest assignment. But the problem with "great job" is this: it's not specific. There is no indication of what was done that was successful, and no information about how to replicate this success in future projects.

We were recently talking about this example among ourselves at Chalkup as we mulled over the future of feedback and assessment. Following our conversation - in which we came up with our own standards for quality assessment - we read Grant Wiggins' key characteristics of better feedback . (A classic example and the perfect cap to our discussion.)

We thought it might be interesting to take Wiggin's list a step further and think through how to make these qualities actionable, asking ourselves what strategies look like for keeping feedback solid across the board.
It is goal-oriented.
I've learned that great feedback creates a roadmap for students; it shows them how far they can go in the mastery of a subject or skill by outlining specific places for improvement or highlighting successful behaviors/techniques. Great feedback pushes students to achieve more and it's specific in helping them do so.

It's about getting excited as a student starts to understand geometry or develop an interest in literature. Instead of "good job" we see "Your second page was particularly strong. Wonder if you'd be interested in talking to the Biology Club about your ideas."
It is transparent.
I always appreciated transparency as a student. I didn't feel like I was guessing. I knew what was expected of me, and it was much easier to process the feedback I received when it was in relation to those expectations set up front.
What is communicated is actionable.
Great feedback begs an obvious action/response from a student. It provides a clear course of action for the next time around or outlines a new plan for moving forward. In short: a student should know what to do next; they should never be left guessing based on a teacher's comments.
It should not be confusing, vague, or general.
We never want a student to review feedback on an assignment and then say "what does this mean?" That can't be good. Quality feedback should be accessible to a student - clear and concise, using familiar language from your lesson/classroom.

More than that, I think we also want to elaborate on the items used in rubric criteria. I say this because I think it's easy for assessment to become robotic as we recycle the same bullet points on writing a thesis statement or providing evidence in body paragraphs. Yes, we want to have this guiding language to ground feedback and make it easy to approach, but then we want to develop it side-by-side student work.
It is timely.
Sitting on an assignment too long and a student will move his or her focus to new work and new ideas. Ideally, feedback can be provided within a few days of an assignment so a student can digest feedback when the gritty details are still fresh.

Peer review methods paired with calendar reminders and/or careful assignment scheduling can serve to help you provide feedback with additional speed.
There is consistency of language, form, and other "factors."
A student looking to master new skills relies heavily on teacher feedback to steer them. When that feedback changes, it's easy to feel lost and off track. Keeping guidance as consistent as possible allows students and teachers alike to hone in what needs to improve in a student's work, and focus on making it better and better.

What does consistent feedback look like? Guiding documents for assessment - something like a rubric - is one way to frame your own feedback, providing you a guide to keep it consistent. Reviewing previous assignments to check your own assessment - as well as student progress - is another way to keep feedback focused.
Since learning is a process, great learning feedback is ongoing.
As education technology grows, instructors have more opportunity to connect with students outside of class and offer ongoing support. The way I see it, one of the best ways to give great feedback is to give it often.
Justin Chando is the Founder and CEO of Adapted image attribution flickr user woodleywonderworks; How To Give Students Specific Feedback That Actually Helps Them Learn , an intuitive learning management system with expanded capabilities for keeping classrooms connected.

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How To Give Students Specific Feedback That Actually Helps Them Learn

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contributed by Justin Chando To tell a student 'great job' or 'this needs work' is a missed opportunity. Everyone loves to hear they did a great job. And perhaps your student really did nail this latest assignment. But the problem with "great job" is this: it's not specific.

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Community of Learners, metacognition, study skills

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If you want to learn more about successful study strategies, consider scheduling a one-on-one appointment with an Academic Coach. Academic Coaching appointments focus on helping you establish goals, calculate GPA, connect to campus resources, and create an individualized plan for success.

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Community of Learners, metacognition

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Not long ago, I spotted some students getting ready for an exam. They were sitting in the library of American University in Washington, hunched over a table, highlighting key sections in a textbook, marking up the words in neon pinks, yellows and blues. The students sat together conspiratorially, commiserating over their upcoming exams and hoping that their dedication would pay off.

Highlighting is a time-honored study practice, of course. But it turns out that it might not be the most effective way to learn. In recent years, research on the skill of learning to learn has found that approaches like self-quizzing are far more effective than more traditional approaches like highlighting or even rereading.

What's more, many recent studies have shown that when educators teach their students the skill of learning, the students perform much better in class. The effects have been particularly large for students from disadvantaged backgrounds who might not have acquired robust learning skills in high school.

For a long time, colleges and universities have dismissed the skill of learning as mere study skills. But there's growing interest in giving students a richer sense of how to gain knowledge. After all, one of the constants of the modern world is dramatic change. That makes the ability to acquire new skills crucial, and the faster someone can learn a new area of expertise, the better they'll do in college -- and their career.

Some colleges and universities have been pushing the skill of learning, and professors at those institutions are encouraged to teach students not only content and skills but also how to learn. One example is the Iron Range Engineering program of Minnesota State University, Mankato. Students at the school gain the skill of learning to learn by working on real-world projects (instead of just taking exams). Professors also encourage students to learn how to engage in thinking about thinking as well as self-quizzing (instead of just reading the textbook).

At my organization, the Learning Agency, we launched an online learning to learn course recently that aims to give people robust learning skills, and we've seen a surprising amount of interest in the class from people who just want to improve their learning skills.

When it comes to the science of learning, one key practice is to make learning cognitively demanding. Students should aim to make studying a matter of mental struggle. This approach makes learning more active and more effective. Indeed, one of the reasons that highlighting is not a great way is learn is that it's simply too passive.

Instead, students should learn the art of quizzing. When students ask themselves -- or other students -- questions, the learning becomes more active and thus more effective. Sometimes known as retrieval practice or the testing effect, this approach to learning is highly effective and been replicated in many studies. Researchers have found the approach to be particularly potent for disadvantaged students, and in one study, the practice helped lessen the achievement gap by more than 50 percent.

The quizzing doesn't have to look like a quiz, either, and at Iron Range Engineering, professors have been putting this idea into practice by using clickers and pair and share (basically having a student talking to another student). "We need to help students find more meaning in their work, and so we do a lot more questioning than ever before," says Ron Ulseth, the director of academics and research at Iron Range.

One simple approach to promote more quizzing is to ask students to do a "brain dump." As cognitive scientist Pooja K. Agarwal argues, this "free-recall" strategy is a " small strategy with a big impact." Basically, the professor pauses a lesson or activity and asks every student to write down everything that they can remember. Once that's been done, the lesson or activity is continues.

When using the free-recall activity, be specific with your prompt. For example, let students know how many items you're looking for or any time limit. You might say, "OK, let's take a pause and see how we're doing ... please write down three things you remember about XX topic." Or, "Let's see what we remember ... take 60 seconds to write down everything you can remember about XX topic."

This active-learning approach can take just five minutes or less. And it is more effective than just calling on one student at time, as the writing guarantees that all students are actively retrieving what they remember from the lesson. The approach can count toward the student's final grade or not.
The Power of Forgetting
Another important aspect of learning to learn is to embrace the power of forgetting. Old or young, forgetting is inevitable. Some recent research argues that forgetting is actually a product of evolution, helping us to "optimize decision making." To account for this fact, students need to make sure to spread their learning out over time. Practically speaking, it's better, for instance, to study a little bit each day rather than do one massive study session. Students will simply forget a lot less.

Again, some institutions are leading the way. Dozens of graduate programs in pharmacy, for instance, now require regular cumulative assessments, which encourage students to do more to space out their learning.

Another approach that professors can take in the classroom is to regularly revisit material. Students tend to do better when they are given several opportunities to review what they've learned. A professor can help facilitate this by periodically revisiting key topics throughout the semester.

For instance, a few weeks into a unit, you might incorporate a brief review of what was covered early on in the lesson. Homework, group activities and project assignments can also be used to facilitate this revisiting of material. For example, you can ask your students to split into small groups and review some key concepts from previous lessons. They can discuss several topics and then share them with the larger group.

For educators, it's not enough to model these learning strategies around forgetting or quizzing, though. The approaches also need to be put directly into the hands of students. Young people need to understand the basics of how to learn, and these practices can be taught -- and learned.

Last month, for instance, featured a study in which the instructor offered a short lecture to students on the benefits of spacing and self-quizzing. The research found that the approach helped students improve their learning strategies. The effects of these interventions can be large, too. In a different study, some students saw their grades jump by more than 20 percentage points, or about two grade levels, after learning about how to learn.

The science of learning is contextual, of course. It's no silver bullet. It looks different in different courses and subject areas, and just teaching students to quiz themselves isn't enough to guarantee success.

But too many students lack an understanding of the science of learning. To prepare them for the future, our colleges and universities need to do much more to give them the skill of learning to learn.

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Advice for faculty members on how to teach students how to learn (opinion)

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Not long ago, I spotted some students getting ready for an exam. They were sitting in the library of American University in Washington, hunched over a table, highlighting key sections in a textbook, marking up the words in neon pinks, yellows and blues.

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Community of Learners, metacognition

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​It is easy to assume that our students already know how to learn, because they have been in school for so long. But attending school does not necessarily translate into being effective, self-directed learners. Helping students improve their learning and study skills is an excellent way to help them succeed not only in your course but as lifelong learners.

Be a Role Model

Consider demonstrating your own learning, research and study practices for your students. This approach has the added benefit of providing an opportunity to connect with your students. (For more on connecting with your students, see The First Day​).

Relate With Your Own Process

Model how to read a text that is common in your field. You could do this by annotating the text or recording a screencast as you talk through the text.

Describe and provide examples of how you typically approach your scientific, creative, or other projects. As an expert, you may take for granted the helpful routines or "hidden" strategies that you have developed to be successful over time.

Explain what learning strategies and methods worked or did not work for you in your own academic career.

Communicate the most difficult concepts, topics, or tasks that you've encountered as a student or professional. Describe how you handled these challenges.

Share what organizational methods, time management practices, and other practical tips and tricks you rely on to stay productive.

Encourage Students to Reflect on Their Own Processes

Provide opportunities for students to reflect on their own processes. For example, ask students to complete "process reports" where they describe how they approach projects, including revisions completed and lessons learned. See a process report template that you can modify and use with your own students.

Encourage students to engage in thinking about their own thinking, i.e. metacognition. For examples on how to do this with your students, see Activities for Metacognition.

Help Learners' Develop Executive Functioning

Explicitly share strategies like skim reading, an important skills for research and writing.

Provide "scaffolding" to large projects by including benchmarks, deadlines and specific suggestions for planning.

Point students to additional training opportunities for apps, technology, or tools used in your course (e.g., LinkedIn Learning)

Help students ask "meta" questions like, "What do I know already? What do I still need to learn?"

Transferable Study Methods

Some methods are found to improve test performance and long-term retention across domains and disciplines. Dunloski et al., writing in Scientific American Mind, provides a few salient points on how to maximize study-retention and efficacy:

References and Resources

These tips are adapted from suggestions in the following texts:

Ambrose, S. A., Bridges, M. W., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M. C., & Norman, M. K. (2010). How learning works: Seven research-based principles for smart teaching. San Francisco, CA: J ossey-Bass. Full Ebook available through DePaul Library

Dunlosky, John, Katherine A. Rawson, Elizabeth J. Marsh, Mitchell J. Nathan, and Daniel T. Willingham. (2013). What Works, What Doesn't. Scientific American Mind (PDF).

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​It is easy to assume that our students already know how to learn, because they have been in school for so long. But attending school does not necessarily translate into being effective, self-directed learners. Helping students improve their learning and study skills is an excellent way to help them succeed not only in your course but as lifelong learners.

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Community of Learners, metacognition

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Teaching Naked - Workshops and free resources for educators from José Antonio Bowen

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Cognitive wrappers are a very short survey (online or a single sheet of paper) given to students with paper, assignment or exam feedback (but with no grade!) They consist of four parts:

Rationale: This is only to help you improve.

Reflection: How did you prepare for this exam?

Comparison: What kinds of mistakes did you make?

Adjustment: How will you prepare differently next time?

Cognitive Wrappers provide even better reflection and scaffolding when paired with a planning exercise: learn about the STUDY SMARTER TEMPLATE here. Here is the master: TN Cognitive Wrappers TEMPLATE (download)

Wrappers work best when they are discipline specific (and especially when they are used simultaneously in different contexts in different classes). How is studying for an art history exam different than practicing for a lesson or doing calculus homework? Students need both to understand that (a) self-regulation is a part of improving each of these activities and (b) the adjustments will be different for each type of learning.

Here are more templates (that still need to be shortened and personalized for your courses):

TN-Cognitive-Wrapper-for writing (download)

Bowen Cognitive Wrapper for Discussion (download)

Here is a link to more (especially STEM) wrappers specifically for tests and called Exam Wrappers.

Here is a handout TN Cognitive Wrappers HANDOUT TN Cognitive Wrappers HANDOUTwith more information on the research and how to use Cognitive Wrappers. You can also find much more in Chapter 8: Critical Thinking, Metacognition, and Cognitive Wrappers of Teaching Naked Techniques.

Wrappers should be brief, easy, flexible and specific to both the discipline and the specific task at hand. The idea is to help students understand that they need to understand their strengths and weakness, assess their own performance, identify strategies that work for them and make adjustments. This self-regulation is important for its own sake, as a performance enhancer, but also as a key element of critical thinking.
Research behind Cognitive Wrappers
Our knowledge of intelligence, learning, the brain has exploded in the last 30 years. One of the most important discoveries is that metacognition or "thinking about your thinking" can improve learning: students with math anxiety who write about it before the exam, perform better than those who just take the exam. Metacognition and reflection can be used to improve study habits and exam performance, but they are essential if we are to create critical thinkers.

From Socrates "self-examination" to William James' "introspective observation" and Jean Piaget's "directed thought" self-regulation is the foundation of critical thinking. In How We Think (1910), John Dewey describes it as " Active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it, and the further considerations to which it tends." (p. 6) For Dewey, our job is to find problems and "forked-road situations." The critical thinker will be able "to maintain the state of doubt and to carry on systematic and protracted inquiry." (p. 13). This "tolerance for ambiguity" is highly desired by employers and the ability to hold two opposing ideas at once without making up your mind would make an excellent graduation requirement.

Self-regulation, however, begins with self-awareness, noticing and active-monitoring. The Illinois Initiative on Transparency in Learning and Teaching has demonstrated that discussing the rational of assignments, connecting "how people learn" data with activities and debriefing grades, tests and assignments in class, significantly improve student learning, increase retention and are especially beneficial to under-represented groups, transfer students and non-traditional students. Learning or cognitive wrappers, provide a quick and easy way to improve student learning, connect learning and thinking habits across disciplines

Note that metacognition is a complex set of skills including self-awareness (knowing your strengths and weaknesses), understanding learning goals, planning an approach to learning, monitoring, evaluating performance, reflecting and adjusting. Metacognition (like critical thinking) is often discipline specific and is best learned with subject content: generic study skills courses have not proven effective. Repeated exposure to transparently announced and labeled critical thinking in different contexts, however, greatly helps students to create more transferrable thinking skills. This is an excerpt from Chapter 8 in Teaching Naked Techniques.

References

John Dewey (1910), How We Think, Boston: Heath.

Marsha C. Lovett, (2013), "Make exams worth more than grades: Using exam wrappers to promote metacognition" in Using reflection and metacognition to improve student learning, Kaplan, m, Silver, N, Lavaque-Manty, D., Meizlish, D., ed. San Francisco: Sterling, VA: Stylus. www.learningwrappers.org

Mary-Ann Winkelmes (2013), "Transparency in teaching: Faculty share data and improve students' learning" Liberal Education 99/2 (Spring 2013), 48-55. See also Illinois Initiative on Transparency in Learning and Teaching, for http://go.illinois.edu/transparentmethods

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Cognitive wrappers are a very short survey (online or a single sheet of paper) given to students with paper, assignment or exam feedback (but with no grade!) They consist of four parts: Rationale: This is only to help you improve. Reflection: How did you prepare for this exam?

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Community of Learners, self-regulation

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Faculty Focus | Higher Ed Teaching & Learning

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At first, students reported feeling silly engaging in mindfulness, but over the next several weeks they found themselves looking forward to the practices.

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Exploring the Effects of Encouraging Student Performance with Text Assignment Reminders

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Exploring the Effects of Encouraging Student Performance with Text Assignment Reminders

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Community of Learners, communication, self-regulation

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We explore the use of text message reminders to improve student performance. The effectiveness of text messaging reminders is examined by comparing two large sections of a course where students focused on personal branding. One section received deadline reminders by email, while the other section received opt-in text reminders. The results of the study provide empirical support that text reminders are positively related to assignments turned in on time, perceived task mastery orientation, perceived confidence with course material, and overall performance in the class. In addition, a description of how the text service can be employed in a marketing course is provided.

Descriptors: Marketing, Synchronous Communication, Academic Achievement, Comparative Analysis, Merchandise Information, Electronic Mail, Assignments, Time Management, Mastery Learning, Course Content, Course Descriptions, Undergraduate Students, Educational Practices, Job Search Methods, Student Attitudes, College Faculty, Teacher Student Relationship, Professionalism, Outcomes of Education

SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774; Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: http://sagepub.com

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ERIC - EJ1287620 - Exploring the Effects of Encouraging Student Performance with Text Assignment Reminders, Journal of Marketing Education, 2021-Apr

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We explore the use of text message reminders to improve student performance. The effectiveness of text messaging reminders is examined by comparing two large sections of a course where students focused on personal branding. One section received deadline reminders by email, while the other section received opt-in text reminders.

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Instant Reminder: The Impact of E-Communication on First Year College Students

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Instant Reminder: The Impact of E-Communication on First Year College Students

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Community of Learners, communication

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Electronic communication is the standard method of communication among college students. However, which format of e-communication is most preferred seems to be somewhat of a moving target. Utilizing a researcher-developed survey, this study investigated the use of Remind, a popular form of instant messaging, for communication between the instructors and students in two sections of a required, first-year college orientation course. The use of this instant messaging platform was compared to the use of email. Two research questions drove this study. When asked whether instant message-based course communication was more effective than email communication, 75.4% of participants agreed, with 61.5% reacting to information in Remind more quickly than messages via email. Information from the second question showed 94% of participants felt Remind helped them organize their learning. Overall, the responses to the use of Remind were positive, and it was clearly preferred over traditional email communication for a number of reasons delineated in the study. Actual participant comments are included.

International Journal of Technology and Learning. Web site: https://sicet.org/main/journals/ijtt

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ERIC - EJ1211992 - Instant Reminder: The Impact of E-Communication on First Year College Students, International Journal of Technology in Teaching and Learning, 2018

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Electronic communication is the standard method of communication among college students. However, which format of e-communication is most preferred seems to be somewhat of a moving target. Utilizing a researcher-developed survey, this study investigated the use of Remind, a popular form of instant messaging, for communication between the instructors and students in two sections of a required, first-year college orientation course.

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How to Organize Your Tasks With Weekly To-Do Lists

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How to Organize Your Tasks With Weekly To-Do Lists

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Community of Learners, self-regulation, time-management

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How to Organize Your Tasks With Weekly To-Do Lists - LifeHack

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It takes commitment to remain focused and make your week productive. Research conducted by the University of California revealed that you need 30 minutes

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10 Task Management Tips & Skills To Get More Done Today

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10 Task Management Tips & Skills To Get More Done Today

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Community of Learners

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So, you'd like to effectively manage your tasks and time, eh? Good news, there are numerous ways you can help yourself get more done throughout the day. Like a lot of problems, a lot can be accomplished with a healthy dose of forethought and subsequent preparation.

There's no shortage of professional productivity tips and online task management tools, yet the most important factor is finding a system that works for you, one which makes it easier to form habits that lead to stronger goal commitment and faster, yet productive work.

If you're looking for some personal productivity inspiration or useful project management suggestions, here are our 10 task management tips that help you find an effective, enjoyable work process that lets you get more done.

How do you manage tasks effectively?

1. Break up big projects into smaller tasks

One of the easiest and most significant things one can do before undertaking a large project is to break it up into smaller parts. It may seem counter-intuitive to give yourself "more" tasks, but it's really just a way to visualize a large-scope project, which can be overwhelming and stress-inducing, in more manageable and (more importantly) measurable chunks.

It's vital to recognize the difference between the projects and create actionable plans in a form of smaller chunks to achieve it.

Smaller tasks with clear completion criteria can make a project seem less daunting and boosts motivation, effectively giving you greater confidence in your abilities beforehand, and then reaffirming them through lots of small victories along the way.

If your goal is to "be fluent in Spanish", it would hardly do you much good to blindly stare at such an imposing goal. Instead, it would be much more productive to start with "introduce myself," make the process habitual, "learn 10 new words a day," and ultimately a series of achievable milestones, each one bringing you closer to your goal.

2. Create a priority to-do list

As intelligent a being we may be, it's insanely difficult to mentally juggle many ideas simultaneously. Having your tasks as an easily accessible record helps you stay on top of things. A to-do list can be as simple as a piece of paper and some rapid logging, a digital planner, or even specialized project management software. Regardless of whether it's physical or digital, form the habit of adding items as they occur to you.

Creating a priority system brings added benefits, namely a clearer view of your most critical tasks, but also a sense of relief from knowing that you're working on the right focus.

There's quite a few priority to-do list approaches, but the Eisenhower matrix is a notable one, allowing you to categorize tasks into four quadrants:

1. Urgent and important: Do it immediately

2. Important, but not urgent: Schedule time for it

3. Urgent, not important: Delegate it

4. Neither urgent nor important: Forget it

It may seem obvious that the most important tasks need completing first, but by collating your jobs and targets, you can efficiently manage your time, able to stay on track and get the pressing tasks out of the way.

3. Keep your tasks in one place

Once you've decided on an effective method for recording tasks and responsibilities, make sure you're keeping it all in a single planner, otherwise there's no real benefit to creating the to-do list at all. It gets complicated when your day is scattered here and there, in two notebooks, a phone, a calendar, a diary and a carrier pigeon.

Unifying everything under one planner is fundamentally faster because it eliminates the time wasted when physically switching between modalities, but also the cognitive time taken by the brain cognitively resetting, too.

One place means one focus point, so it's vastly easier to manage work and plan life. Friday's planner allows users to add tasks conveniently and schedule a block of time to complete them (with reminders!), making you that much likelier to commit to your goals.

4. Set time limits and deadlines

As American writer Rita Mae Brown said, "A deadline is negative inspiration. Still, it's better than no inspiration at all." It's true; they aren't amazingly fun but rather a fact of life. As painful as they may be, clear timeframes boost productivity.

Research has shown that we work harder when we are aware of deadlines, whilst the Yerkes-Dodson Law has suggested - for over a hundred years - a clear relationship between pressure and performance.

When it comes to setting a deadline, be sure to leave sufficient time to accommodate healthy working practices. A deadline that requires you to work and work endlessly is, to put it nicely, overly-ambitious or, not so nicely, dangerous.

Never sacrifice break times for an unrealistic workload, lest you begin to lose interest and resent your work and goals. The importance of not only being physically away from work, but also psychologically detached has clearly been shown, so do not set yourself up for failure with impossible expectations.

It's difficult to set a deadline on a project with no end-date in sight. Yet, it's as simple as just picking a finish line you're comfortable with. In doing so, you feel as if you're constantly working towards a tangible end, boosting motivation by applying a healthy amount of pressure.

However, deadlines are not the only kind of time limit you need to be concerned with, but also work-length. Something like the Pomodoro technique, a brilliantly basic work-rest pattern, keeps you focused by providing your brain with adequate recovery time. An alternative technique is the 52/17 philosophy, which involves working for 52 minutes and taking a 17 minute break (reminiscent of our natural 90/20 minute ultradian rhythm).

By "rewarding" yourself with a break, you can maintain motivation to get the tasks completed, especially useful when faced with extensive and complicated projects where prolonged focus is needed.

5. Start with small tasks

Once you have created your task list, selected a single place to consolidate your tasks and set realistic deadlines (with a decent work-rest ratio), you can get cracking with it! Many people feel that starting with a small task is a fast and easy win, a quick hit of self-assurance to better situate oneself in the palace of productivity.

Oftentimes getting started on a project is the hardest part, so starting with smaller tasks and working your way up will make you feel accomplished and will build your confidence. It gets your momentum going right away to help you focus and commit longer.

In stark contrast to the previous point, others find it better to start with the most difficult or cumbersome tasks, effectively getting them out of the way, i.e. eating the frog. For those who detest the looming intimidation of tasks, it may be better to tackle the big things first.

Coffee may be king in the early morning, but eating the frog will likely have you staying more productive throughout the day. Vanquishing the most difficult task early on sets a positive tone and a better atmosphere in which to nurture your productivity.

7. Focus on one task at a time

Whichever tasks you tackle first, you should only be focusing on one at a time. As ancient scholar Publius Syrus is quoted, "to do two things at once is to do neither," two thousand year old advice that still applies. Our brains do best when focusing on a single task, while the speed of multi-tasking is often mere fallacy, backed up by numerous studies that suggest it to be as much as 40% slower.

It's often claimed that Leonardo Da Vinci could write and paint at the same time, or even scribble away in two languages simultaneously. While historians do now agree Da Vinci was ambidextrous, this ability to do two things at once is most probably an exaggeration. Even for us modern folk, it's fervently difficult to focus and get each task finished when we try to do multiple things together.

Multitasking is a great way to accomplish many low-concentration tasks at one time, but there's simply no application for it with high-attention work; any attempt to do so will rapidly drain your energy.

Try task batching to complete tasks of similar focus types, or use Friday Focus Time to minimize distractions, ultimately allowing you to get more done.

Focus on the task at hand, stay away from distractions and complete as much as you can in one work period. Remember to take a break, even for a moment, to mentally recharge before returning to work with increased energy and alertness.

8. Limit the number of tasks per day

"Rome was not built in a day," as the saying goes, and neither are intricate projects and long-term ambitions. Similar to how unrealistic deadlines can result in unhealthy work practices, so too can doing excessive amounts of work.

A long list of incomplete tasks can be overwhelming in any case, but over-exerting yourself will probably make you feel worse, not better. The trick is skillful scheduling, whereby you can allocate the perfect amount of work to the day. Time blocking and the Ivy Lee method are excellent ways to consider that lengthy to-do list in terms of time-based sections.

If you can successfully implement the other time-management tips we've discussed, you'll surely have no problem achieving a great deal, leaving you entirely satisfied and guilt-free when signing off for the day.

9. Reward yourself when you finish a task

Here's a fun one... rewards! The psychological impact of continually pushing through task after task is that you eventually become both overburdened and underwhelmed. When you do complete a step, be it a subset of tasks or a section of a bigger project, definitely find some way to reward yourself. It could be a crossword puzzle, a luxurious drinks order, or even a nice stroll in the park.

Breaking up work with rewards does two main things. First, they act as incentives to make you work faster towards a goal, like a sort of prize system to diminish distraction; second, they integrate very nicely into a healthy work-rest philosophy, boosting your motivation, which is especially crucial when you're having a hard time getting to the end.

Even checking-off a task on the list can be considered as a reward, allowing you to acknowledge the progress you've made through the physical action (that feels amazing, we might add) of marking an item complete. Checking-off makes you feel more accomplished, and it's fiendishly addictive, making you more likely to complete another task, and then another!

10. Review and reflect on your progress

One often overlooked element of better productivity is the time taken to self-analyze your day; what you achieved, your sources of distraction and work you're proud of are all valuable things to consider. You are also free to use a mood tracker to see how the day affected you emotionally.

Write down the tasks you've finished, thinking about what you learned about yourself and your optimal working techniques and conditions. In the same way checking-off makes you feel accomplished, an end-of-day review allows you to observe strengths and weaknesses and actively take steps to continuously develop your productivity practices.

In Friday, you can add a personal routine that prompts you with certain questions at the end of each day, including questions about how your work went and how productive you felt. This is totally customizable, so add whatever questions you want!

On occasion you will have tasks that you aren't able to complete immediately, or even ones that are seemingly undoable. Don't throw that out, you can still use it! Keep tasks of this nature on a separate list, or as part of a future log, for you to review when you're better equipped to handle them.

A list such as this is just one of the many review methods you can use, but ample research shows the undeniably advantages of self-assessment. Becoming more active in self-regulation can also lead to better self-esteem and self-confidence. Self, self, self!

Task Management Demands Consistency

Whichever of these task management tips you choose to adopt, a crucial factor is consistency. The very fact that you'd like to better manage time, is great, but sadly it isn't enough. The only tried and true way is steady repetition of effective actions that naturalize as pro-productivity habits.

You often hear the phrase "time is money," but that doesn't do time much justice at all; time is life, love, passion, pursuit, friendship, work and play. Time-management, then, is the acknowledgement that this precious, finite time does not pass but sprints, that we need to properly organize it to achieve our ambitions and lead a successful, gratifying life.

Knowing exactly how to organize a work day, or how to keep up with tasks, can be quite tricky. However, any attempt at a behavior or system that optimizes your time is a brilliant thing... Of course, if you need a little help from task management tools like Friday, our door is always open.
Friday is your home for work.
Your team can see meetings and tasks in one place, pulled from tools you already use. You can use widgets to customize your view, and better allocate your time to help you focus on the most important tasks.

At Friday, you'll have a simple and automated way to share regular updates about what you are working on, enabling the regular flow of information without another meeting. Beyond a daily planner, you also get more to keep your team working together asynchronously -- like icebreakers, goals, employee milestones, a company handbook, and people profiles!

Best features:

Try out Posts to take notes, ideas, meeting agendas, company announcements, and more.

Integrates with Slack, Microsoft Teams, Zoom, Google Meetings, & many of the top project management tools.

Start automatic team updates to reduce your time on Zoom

Get the daily planner with your team to see a to-do list and schedule in one place

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Task Management Tips: 10 Skills To Get More Done

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So, you'd like to effectively manage your tasks and time, eh? Good news, there are numerous ways you can help yourself get more done throughout the day. Like a lot of problems, a lot can be accomplished with a healthy dose of forethought and subsequent preparation.

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Community of Learners, motivation

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Some people say that the hardest step in studying is to get started. Once you have taken the first step, the rest is easy, they suggest.

Other people, however, find it difficult to stay motivated when studying, especially when the end seems a long way away.

This situation arises, for example, when you are revising for exams that are still some months away. It can also be difficult to keep up the motivation with a long or extended piece of work, such as an extended essay or dissertation, or even a professional qualification.

This page provides some advice to help you remain motivated while studying, and can also be used by parents to help motivate young people and children studying for exams.

A Strategy for You
There is no single strategy that will work for everyone in supporting ongoing motivation.
However, there are plenty of options that you can try, to see if they work for you. If they do, you should incorporate them into your ongoing strategy. If not, then put them aside and try something else.
The important thing is whether your strategy keeps you motivated, not whether other people agree with you.
Here, therefore, are our top tips for staying motivated.

1. Break the task down into manageable chunks
A big task, such as writing a dissertation, or revising for an extended period, can be demotivating because it seems so big.
Breaking the task down into manageable chunks can therefore help make it seem less daunting.

For example, if you are undertaking a piece of research leading to a dissertation, you might set yourself a period of time to do your literature review. After that, you would plan to develop a proposal for your research methods within a certain period, then do the research. As you start to pull together your results, you may realise that you need to do more research, so that part might be iterative. The point is to have clear sections and tasks to do, to make it simpler.

2. Keep your end goal in mind-but also use interim goals on the way
One of the best ways to stay motivated is to remember why you are studying in the first place.
' Getting good exam results ' is not necessarily very motivating. Instead, you need to look beyond that to what the exam results will get you, whether that is a place at your chosen school or university, or a new job. The more detail you can provide for your goal, the easier it will be to keep in mind.
However, even an end goal may not be enough to keep you going, especially over a long period.
A system of interim goals and suitable rewards may also be needed. This is likely to be particularly true for children and young people who are starting a long period of study for the first time, and who may find it harder to see the end point, but also applies to others. You will need to work out whether you are better with a small reward daily, or after each task, or a rather bigger reward saved up for the week or month.

Suitable rewards include time off, treats and visits, but should be things that you really want, to keep you motivated. Set yourself a budget ahead of time if necessary.

3. Get into a study routine
It is generally easier to stay motivated if your studying becomes part of your everyday life and routine.
For example, you might choose to get up an hour earlier, and spend that hour studying each day, or work every other evening, or perhaps study for one day a week. That way, it is easier to avoid being distracted during your study time, because you know that it is set aside for a purpose. Your friends and family will also get to know when your study time happens, and hopefully avoid you then.

You should also ensure that when you start your study period, you minimise distractions. For example, put away or switch off your phone, so that you are not tempted to check it.

4. Try different study approaches
Especially when you first start studying, you will not necessarily know what works for you.
It is therefore worth trying different approaches, to see which you find most productive.

It is also worth varying your studying to keep you interested. Some days you may want to look at one subject, and try another on a different day. You may also find it helpful to vary your style of working. You could, for example, try working in different places, and varying whether you work alone or with friends.

You could also try different types of activities. Options include reading over your notes, writing a mind map or drawing pictures, making up songs or poems to help you remember facts, doing practice questions, or even teaching something to your friends, and having them teach you something you find difficult. Meeting as a group to share and discuss exam answers prepared by each person can give you a helpful critique of your own answer, and also help you think of other ideas.

It all helps to keep you interested and motivated, and stop you getting stale.
This need for variety is another reason to break your studying down into tasks, so that you can start a new one if you are finding one especially hard to manage.
5. Don't let your studying take over your life

When you start a long course of study, whether a degree course or a period of study for professional exams, it can feel like it is all-important. This is especially true when exams loom.
However, it is important not to allow your studying to take over your life.
Especially when you are going to be studying for some months, or even years, you need to make sure that you build in time for family, friends, and exercise, to keep you feeling healthy in mind and body.

For more about this, see our pages on Personal Skills for Mind and Body.

There is no 'one size fits all'
There are plenty of people to tell you that they have the answer to staying motivated while studying. They may have the answer for them, but only you can work out the answer for you. This page may, however, provide some ideas to help you work out a strategy that will work for you. You may also find our quick quiz, How Self-Motivated are You? helpful.

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Learn how to keep your motivation up when you are studying, particularly when you are revising or involved in a long piece of work like an extended essay.

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Community of Learners

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Do you ever procrastinate to avoid unpleasant tasks or assignments? Do you find it hard to get started? Do you struggle to stay focused and on task when working from your dorm room, house, or apartment? Motivating yourself to go to class, complete assignments, study, and do all the other things required of you in college can be difficult-but it's crucial to your college success. Research shows that students can learn how to become better learners by using effective motivation strategies. Successful students know how to self-regulate (control) their own learning and the factors that impact their learning. Fortunately, there are strategies for increasing motivation and self-efficacy, which can in turn increase chances of academic success and well-being.

This handout explores common challenges when it comes to accomplishing tasks and shares several tips and strategies to improve your self-motivation.

Effort over ability

One of the key differences between people who do and don't succeed is not their ability level but their effort and motivation levels. Few people wake up wanting to do unpleasant or boring tasks. The ones who do them and succeed in them are the ones who believe they can and motivate themselves to do them even when they don't feel like it. Here are some specific strategies you can use to develop your self-motivation and improve your overall success.

Motivational strategies

Strategies to set yourself up for success

Set clear goals. Include daily, weekly, semester, and long-term goals. Write them down somewhere easily visible. Use SMART goals to be specific and create a plan: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-bound. For example: Instead of saying, "I want to get better grades," say something like, "I want to get at least an 85% on my BIO exam on March 5." Even better, set up concrete goals (e.g., increased study hours, peer tutoring) that help you track your progress toward that long-term goal. For example, instead of saying, "I want to do well in my online classes," say something like, "I want to devote thirty minutes tomorrow to taking notes on my Spanish textbook before starting my online homework."

Help yourself focus. Eliminate or limit things that are distracting and cause you to procrastinate. Take distracting apps off your phone, turn off the TV, study outside of your dorm room, keep your phone/laptop away during class or study times, create a designated study space in your bedroom or home, block Netflix, clear out the junk food, etc. If you know you struggle with something, make it more difficult for you to indulge in that temptation.

Pace yourself. Chunk your study, work, and reading times into small sections (30-60 minutes) with breaks in between. Breaks are important for your focus, health, and motivation and should be worked into any study time. If you are going to be studying or working for longer, go back and forth between one task or class and another.

Prioritize. Study early in the day and do the most challenging or unpleasant tasks first. Research shows that tackling difficult tasks first thing in the day can make you feel better throughout the rest of the day and be more productive. Doing so keeps you from procrastinating all day and having that dreaded feeling of knowing that you need to do something unpleasant.

Location, location, location. Think about where you work best and where you will be most motivated to get to work and stay working. For most people, their dorm room or bed are not ideal, as they come with many distractions. Some students focus better in a public place like the library or a coffee shop, while others prefer silence and isolation, like a quiet and secluded room on campus. Some students benefit from blocking off an area in their home that they use exclusively for studying and working on projects.

Self-care strategies

Get enough sleep. Aim for at least 7 hours a night. Sleep is important to motivation. If you aren't well-rested and are running on fumes, it's a lot more difficult to be productive, stay focused, and motivate yourself.

Build a routine and healthy habits. Structure healthy habits like meals, sleep, exercise, and study times into your daily schedule and then stick with it. Motivating yourself to accomplish tasks becomes easier when you make it a part of your regular routine.

Eat and drink healthily. Drink enough water-your body needs water to function and improve energy. Eat regularly, don't skip meals, and try to eat healthy foods. You need energy to complete tasks, and it's much easier to get started and stay focused on work if you are well fed.

Metacognitive strategies

Reflect on what makes you happy, what fulfills you, and what you are passionate about. Try to align what you do with things that make you happy and fulfill you. If you spend all of your time doing or pursuing things that you do not like or care about, you may never be fully motivated. Choosing pathways and activities that interest you is one of the biggest ways to better motivate yourself.

Give yourself rewards for accomplishing difficult tasks and identify strategies that help keep you accountable.

Think about what support you need in order to achieve your goals and then get the support you need. This could include investing in a new planner, attending peer tutoring, or making an appointment with an academic coach at the Learning Center.

Accept that you aren't perfect. Many students lack motivation because they are afraid of not performing as well as they would like. Combat your fear of failure by telling yourself that your self-worth does not depend on your ability to perform. Include your image of success to include personal and social success and growth.

Write a letter to your future self to remind yourself of your goals. Read this message when you find yourself feeling unmotivated.

Reflect. When you have a task to accomplish, reflect before, during, and after. Think about your feelings towards the task, what you need to do to accomplish it, and how you feel when you are done.

Talk to yourself out loud about your dreams and goals and speak encouraging, positive words to yourself. Compliment yourself and tell yourself you can do it.

List out what is preventing you from doing what you need to do, then find ways to tackle those things. Be specific.

Think long-term. Keep focused on your long-term goals and think about them when you're feeling unmotivated. Reminder yourself of how this task or step gets you closer to your big goals. Print out a picture of where you want to be in the future and post it on your wall or mirror.

If you're feeling stuck, visualize yourself as you want to be in the future. Picture yourself in your future career or situation and remind yourself of what you are working for.

Stay positive and optimistic. Avoid complaining or commiserating at times when you planned to make progress towards your goals. If the problems or obstacles can be set aside till later, it may help to write them down to ensure you get back to them. If there's a problem that cannot be set aside, seek out resources and support to help you address what's wrong.

Think about consequences. Sometimes thinking about the negative consequences of not doing a particular task you might be stuck on can be motivating. Alternatively, think about the reward of accomplishing the goal (or at least the feeling of being getting it over with) as a motivator.

Accountability strategies

Set visual reminders and alarms on your phone and laptop to remind and encourage yourself of your goal. Consider changing the background of your phone and laptop to a motivational quote or simply to saying the goal that you want to reach. Create positive and encouraging visual reminders and motivators to hang on your bedroom wall or mirror.

Share your goals with a friend, classmate, or someone in your life. Reach out to someone and ask them to help keep you accountable with your work and goals. Check in with this person face-to-face or online regularly to discuss your progress.

Meet with an academic coach at the Learning Center to talk through your goals and have accountability.

Attend office hours to discuss the class with your professor and gain specific tips and suggestions.

Check out some of the study groups and tutoring that the Learning Center offers:

Worked consulted

Elton, C. and Gostick, A. (2014). What motivates me: Put your passions to work. Kamas: The Culture Works Press.

Dembo, M. and Seli, H. (2013). Motivation and learning strategies for college success: A focus on self-regulated learning. New York: Taylor & Francis.

Holschuh, J. and Nist, S. (2000). Active learning: Strategies for college success. Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon.

Pychyl, T. (2010). The procrastinator's digest. Canada: Howling Pines Publishers.

Newport, C. (2007). How to become a straight A student: The unconventional strategies real college students use to score high while studying less. New York: Broadway Books.

Ryan, M.J. (2006). This year I will...How to finally change a habit, keep a resolution, or make a dream come true. New York: Broadway Books.

Tracy, B. (2007). Eat that frog! 21 great ways to stop procrastinating and get more done in less time. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 License.
You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Learning Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

If you enjoy using our handouts, we appreciate contributions of acknowledgement.
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Do you ever procrastinate to avoid unpleasant tasks or assignments? Do you find it hard to get started? Do you struggle to stay focused and on task when working from your dorm room, house, or apartment? Motivating yourself to go ... Read more

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Community of Learners, motivation

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As Zig Ziglar once said, "People often say that motivation doesn't last. Well, neither does bathing. That's why we recommend it daily."

Motivation is often misunderstood. It isn't a mentor who tells you what to do. It isn't a coach who wakes you up and makes you practice. Motivation is a selfish, individual frame of mind. It doesn't care about the person next to you. It doesn't care what you should be doing or what your friends, parents or spouse want you to do. It's about what you want. And in the end, if you don't really want it, then you will not be motivated.

There's nothing I can say that is going to get someone out of bed and make them work harder. There are no words or phrases that I can tell you that will be so profound that they will force you to do what you need to do to get to the next level.

It took me years to really get motivated -- to stop thinking about doing something and start getting it done. But it doesn't have to take you as long as it took me. Here are what I call the six methods of motivation that have helped keep me going:

This is a great method to use when you're working on something that you don't feel like working on. During the daily tasks I'm required to do that aren't necessarily the most interesting, I make a deal with myself. I convince myself that, if I finish this one task or this one chore, I will reward myself with doing something that I do enjoy. It's a simple, reward-based concept in psychology, but it works wonders.

2. Fake it until you make it.

I have disagreed with this thought process in some respects, but "faking it until you make it" can get you through some very difficult situations. On days when you really don't want to do what you need to do, just do it anyway. Do it with a smile, and do it to the best of your ability. Sometimes, faking it until you make it is all you can really do. On days in which I am not in the mood to go to the office, I tell myself, "Do it now. Act like you want to. It'll pay off later." So far, I have been correct. This tip also works on smaller scales, such as getting yourself prepared to handle a task that you may not enjoy.
3. Have a positive morning.
I attribute much of my success to my process. A major part of your process, be it professional or personal, is the introduction. How you introduce yourself to the day is crucial. To get motivated, you have to get started. So, wake up early. Get your clothes ready the night before. Don't wait until you get to the office to be prepared. Listen to a positive podcast, meditate, read a book, listen to peaceful music, eat a good breakfast and do whatever you need to do to get yourself into a positive frame of mind. Your attitude and mindset are everything.

Small goals aren't worth writing down. Dream big. Set goals worth working toward -- goals that will not discourage you but motivate you to work harder and get better. Keep your goals in front of you. Put a picture of that new car or house or of your kids on your desk. Write down what you want to accomplish, and hold yourself accountable to those goals.

5. Start with the hardest task.

This method differs slightly from making yourself a deal but is similar. Start with the task that you dislike the most. Once you have accomplished this goal, you're more likely to have a more positive outlook for the rest of your day. Don't dread an upcoming task that you can do now. Don't put it off, either, or you might never get it done.

Stop being afraid of failure. It's OK to fail -- and often. Just make sure that when you do, you are failing forward. Stop viewing failure as a setback. View it as feedback. Analyze, attempt, fail and then get up again. Failure is a natural part of life; accept it.

The point of these six methods for motivation is to find ways in which you can maximize your motivation. When you maximize your motivation, you can maximize your potential. This is the elimination of procrastination, the production of progress, and the manifestation of motivation.

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As Zig Ziglar once said, "People often say that motivation doesn't last. Well, neither does bathing. That's why we recommend it daily." Motivation is often misunderstood. It isn't a mentor who tells you what to do. It isn't a coach who wakes you up and makes you practice.

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Community of Learners, time-management

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10 smart productivity techniques you should know about

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10 smart productivity techniques you should know about

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Community of Learners, self-regulation

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A whole industry has grown around workplace productivity, spawning everything from productivity tech and professional coaching, to team retreats and workplace philosophies. But hacks and apps can only get us so far-and a lot of them are complete nonsense. To truly become more productive, we need to understand the individual way we work and learn, and identify how to work smarter. This process can largely be boiled down to making calculated behavioral changes, which is where tried-and-tested productivity techniques can help.

What are productivity techniques?

Productivity techniques are strategies designed to help you tap into productive flow states-to cut to quality with little effort. Most productivity techniques are grounded on some form of behavioral science, aimed to take advantage of the way your brain works. While structured, they are usually flexible and easy to adapt.

There are dozens of productivity systems out there, but some are more effective than others, and many just rebrand established approaches. To help you cut through the noise, we've selected ten of the smartest productivity techniques you should know about. They may not all work for you, but it's worth conducting your own mini productivity experiment to see if they could improve the way you approach and think about your work.

10 of the best productivity techniques

1. The Rule of Three

The Rule of Three is a great technique for people who are overly ambitious, or write to-do lists that they rarely ever complete. It's about prioritizing what's most important and focusing on having a meaningful outcome for your day. This technique simply entails writing down three things you want to achieve each day. Crucially, they shouldn't be tasks - they should be results, like "complete expenses report". By kicking off your day with three meaningful intentions, you're continually reminding yourself of what's important and what you should be focusing on. This seemingly small action can have a big outcome.

2. Deep work

Deep work is about regularly working in a state of intense concentration for prolonged periods of time. It's effectively a method for tapping into flow states, helping you stay present and focus entirely on what you're doing - which in turn allows you to push your cognitive capacities to their limit. A huge part of this involves removing distractions and "shallow work" that exhaust your attention. But deep work is also about training yourself to concentrate for longer - scheduling 90-minute sessions with one measurable goal, and gradually scaling their duration and frequency. It's touted as the world's ultimate job skill for good reason, and here at Memory we find it to be one of the most effective productivity techniques out there.

3. Time blocking

Time blocking is a productivity technique that breaks your daily schedule into set, time-controlled units - like 10 minutes for email, 60 minutes to work on a document and 20 minutes to scope a new project. Limiting the amount of time you spend on a task is a direct response to Parkinson's Law, which suggests that work often expands to fill the time we give it - instead of the time actually required to complete it. Instead of allowing a task to stretch out into a borderless schedule, time blocking encloses the time we can spend on them. Ensuring each time block is relatively small can add a competitive pressure, helping to keep us focused and results-driven. Whereas following a to-do list lets you move through tasks at your own pace, time blocking protects time for each and keeps all activity accountable. It allows you to become more intentional with how you allocate your time, and is especially useful for placing time boundaries around low-value daily tasks, like Slack, email and admin.

4. The two-minute rule

The two-minute rule comes from David Allen's book, Getting Things Done, and it suggests that if we have any tasks on our to-do list that will take two minutes or less to complete, we should just do them now. The purpose of this technique is to overcome procrastination by taking immediate action - so if you have an email to respond to and it's weighing on your mind, reply to it now if it will only take two minutes to do so. This will make you feel you've accomplished something, which in turn boosts your motivation and builds momentum. Plus, it helps clear our minds and stop us worrying about all those tiny tasks we still have to do.

5. Don't Repeat Yourself

The Don't Repeat Yourself technique (or DRY Principle) is about saving time by reusing and recycling work you've already done. Repetition is by its nature inefficient and needless, so the DRY Principles encourages you to create workflows and templates to minimize it. An obvious example is email templates: rather than writing out what's essentially the same email time and again, create a template for it, and tweak it as necessary. Pretty much every job requires writing of some form, so save yourself time by creating templates for docs you use regularly - like invoices, project reporting templates and documents. This strategy can also be extended to rooting out low-value, repetitive tasks - there are tons of apps that completely automate daily admin, including meeting scheduling, time tracking and minute taking. It's all about freeing up more time and headspace for complex, important tasks.

Low-value tasks you can automate right now

6. The Eisenhower Principle

The Eisenhower Principle is a productivity technique with several nicknames, one of the most popular being "eat the frog". It's about frontloading important tasks and focusing on what's important instead of what's urgent (and was used with great success by US President Eisenhower, who lends it his name). If we have a long list of jobs to do, many of us tend to prioritize the tasks with the closest deadlines, even if they don't actually advance us towards our goals. The Eisenhower Principle encourages us to instead prioritize the work that's truly valuable, regardless of deadline, advising us to select 1-3 tasks that are genuinely important and focus on them. In doing so, at the end of the day we'll always have achieved something substantive.

7. The 80/20 Rule

Also called the Pareto Principle, the 80 20 rule is another productivity technique that encourages us to do more of our highest-value work. It suggests that 80% of all of our output tends to stem from only 20% of our efforts - so 80% of your income may come from 20% of your projects. It's about identifying which of our tasks provide the biggest return and prioritizing them; spending our energy on the "right work" instead of wasting time on the minor details. Think of those days where you spend hours jumping from task to task, but have nothing of note to show for it at the end of the day; this is probably because you were spending your time on the wrong stuff. The 80/20 rule is designed to add meaning and value to your day by encouraging you to always prioritize what's meaningful.

8. Task batching

Task batching is simply grouping similar low-value tasks together and completing them back-to-back in one stint. Many of us intend to do this, but it's all too easy to get distracted. We might sit down to spend half an hour replying to emails, but get pulled down a rabbit hole by a request and find ourselves starting a new task we never intended to do. Task batching is about limiting context switching, multitasking and procrastination, and building a more focused workflow by creating momentum. It helps to fast-track the more mundane aspects of our work, so they don't occupy a disproportionate amount of our day. Using task batching, we can increase our focus on important work that pushes us forward, without constant interruption.

Graduate from task batching to day theming

9. Single-tasking

Single-tasking is the opposite of multitasking - which is one of the biggest killers of productivity. Most of us multitask because we think it helps us get more done, but actually the opposite is true. The human brain can only concentrate on one complex task at a time, and each time we switch context to work on something else, we dilute the quality of our work. Multitasking can also create a great deal of stress, which can seriously harm our productivity. As the name suggests, single-tasking is just about giving 100% of your focus to one specific job. Limit distractions, turn your phone off, close unrelated tabs and give yourself space to work on one task without getting sidetracked.

10. Productivity journaling

Productivity journaling is an intentionally slow, long-hand form of productive reflection. If you enjoy writing, this technique might suit you: essentially, you write out your goals and activities and document your achievements in a rich and descriptive manner. Each week, you read through your journal, reflect on your successes and failures, and use this information to improve.

Because a productivity journal allows you to document emotional aspects of your performance (like how you felt doing a task and what you didn't enjoy) it can give you space to consider more qualitative aspects of your productivity. Writing things down has the added benefit of being quite therapeutic, and feeling like you've given your mind a bit of clear out has its own positive effects for productivity.

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10 smart productivity techniques you should know about

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A whole industry has grown around workplace productivity, spawning everything from productivity tech and professional coaching, to team retreats and workplace philosophies. But hacks and apps can only get us so far-and a lot of them are complete nonsense. To truly become more productive, we need to understand the individual way we work and learn, and identify how to work smarter.

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The Pomodoro Technique Really Works, Says This Productivity-Hack Skeptic

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The Pomodoro Technique Really Works, Says This Productivity-Hack Skeptic

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Community of Learners, self-regulation, time-management

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I've never been big on productivity hacks and tricks. Instead, I keep things pretty simple. I take a look at my planner, jot down a list of things I want to get done that day, and then start hustling.

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But after hearing so much chatter about the Pomodoro Technique, I figured I should give it a try. So many different people have raved to me about how it helped them jumpstart their focus and boost their productivity. So I thought testing it out couldn't hurt -and, if all went well, maybe I'd even identify a new tactic for tackling my never-ending to-do list.

My findings are below, but first...

What is the Pomodoro Technique-and how do you use it?

The Pomodoro Technique is a time management system that encourages people to work with the time they have-rather than against it. The basic steps are:

Choose a single task to focus on.

Set a timer for 25 minutes and work only on your selected task.

After 25 minutes take a five-minute break.

Repeat steps 1-3 four times.

Take a longer break of about 15 to 30 minutes.

Using the Pomodoro method, you break your workday into 25-minute focus periods followed by five-minute breaks. Each of these focus periods plus a break period is called a Pomodoro-after the tomato-shaped timer first used to test the method.

What makes the Pomodoro method effective?

The idea behind the technique is that the timer instills a sense of urgency. Rather than feeling like you have endless time in the workday to get things done and then ultimately squandering those precious work hours on distractions, you know you only have 25 minutes to make as much progress on a task as possible.

The periodic forced breaks help to lessen that frazzled, burnt-out feeling most of us experience toward the end of the day. With this technique, you haven't spent hours in front of your computer without even realizing it. Instead, that ticking timer reminds you to get up and take a breather.

What apps can I download to help me Pomodoro?

If the concept of keeping such detailed track of your workday feels a little cumbersome-it did to me!-there are plenty of Pomodoro timer apps. Downloading one on my phone made things much easier for my experiment, and I highly recommend it if you're planning on trying this yourself. If you have an iPhone, try Focus Keeper for a no-frills (and low-distraction) option or Pomodoro - Focus Timer, which is a bit more customizable. Meanwhile, Android users can check out Pomodoro Timer Lite.

OK, but does the Pomodoro Technique really work?

Even though I'm a productivity "hack" skeptic, I tried the Pomodoro Technique for an entire week. Let's just get right to the heart of the matter: I actually ended up really liking this method-and it's probably something I'll continue to implement when I want to kick my productivity up a notch.

What I thought would happen when I tried the Pomodoro Technique

If I'm being perfectly honest, I'd anticipated not liking it at all. I'm the type of person who tends to sit in front of her computer and hammer out four hours of work without so much as a bathroom break. So the premise didn't seem like it would mesh well with me. But I went for it anyway.

What actually happened when I tried the Pomodoro Technique

At first, working in such small increments felt unnatural. There were quite a few times-especially in the beginning-when I was tempted to ignore the timer and continue working. But I forced myself to stick to the format.

What I loved about the Pomodoro Technique

After some time, the technique started to really gel with me. I was focused and super productive during my work time, as I was eager to get as much completed during that 25-minute interval as I could. I didn't find myself mindlessly scrolling through Facebook or getting sucked in by those pesky clickbait articles. And as a notorious multitasker, I noticed that I was totally zoned in on the one project at hand.

What I didn't love about the Pomodoro Technique

I wouldn't be an honest journalist if I didn't outline at least one drawback. While it worked great on the days when all of my time was my own, the Pomodoro Technique became quite complicated when I had scheduled calls and meetings. I didn't think my clients or colleagues would react too favorably to me yelling, "Be back in five! My timer just went off!" in the middle of a conversation.

So I ended up just completely deactivating my timer during these meetings-whether they were 15 minutes or an hour-and picking back up with the technique when those appointments were finished. Perhaps that means I bent the rules a bit, but I couldn't figure out a better way to handle that situation.

4 top tips for using the Pomodoro Technique

Here are a few pointers for getting the Pomodoro Technique to work for you:

1. Plan out your Pomodoros in advance.

Before you start your first timer, know what you're going to do with your 25-minute block. This lets you get right to work and keeps you from wasting time deciding what to do first.

2. Actually take your breaks.

Because I was so used to working in those long chunks of time (during which I thought I was being productive), the idea of splitting up my workday and-gasp!-wasting time on breaks seemed totally counterintuitive. How could working less actually help me accomplish more?

Because I was forced to get up and give myself a rest from staring at my laptop screen, I found that I actually did feel better at the end of each day. Not only did I feel like I had put in an honest day's work, but I also felt less stressed, blurry-eyed, and cramped up. Go figure-actually standing up a couple of times throughout the day really does help.

3. Don't be afraid to customize it.

If the timing of each time block doesn't feel quite right, you can always adjust the lengths of your breaks and focus periods until you've found the ideal balance for your workday.

4. Find a Pom partner.

Give yourself added accountability by finding someone to try out the method with. Tell each other what you plan to do with your Pomodoros and hit start at the same time. Then, check in during your breaks to give each other kudos and encouragement. Your partner doesn't need to be a coworker, or even in the same place as you!

And if you can't find someone who wants to try the method with you, see if there's a friend who you can share your intentions for each time block with-this added layer of accountability can help you stay on track.
Regina Borsellino contributed writing, reporting, and/or advice to this article.

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I Hate Productivity Hacks, Except for This One

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The Pomodoro Technique is a famous time management method that boosts your productivity. Here's how to use it-and what happened when a productivity-hack skeptic tried it.

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Guidelines for Creating a Study Schedule

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Guidelines for Creating a Study Schedule

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Community of Learners, study skills, time management

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Guidelines for Creating a Study Schedule – Learning Strategies Center

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Doing well on an exam involves preparation, which means developing a schedule so that you can study material over time rather than the night before an exam. How can students put all those effective strategies together to develop a coherent study plan? Make a study schedule!

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How much outside class study time is recommended for every hour of class time for college freshmen?

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How much outside class study time is recommended for every hour of class time for college freshmen?

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Community of Learners, planning, time management

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How much outside class study time is recommended for every hour of class time for college freshmen?

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Getting into the swing of things as a college freshman can be a little tricky, especially if the student is living on a campus away from home. All sorts of new

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A survey tool for assessing student expectations early in a semester

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A survey tool for assessing student expectations early in a semester

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Community of Learners

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The .gov means it's official.
Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site.

The site is secure.
The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

. 2013 Dec 2;14(2):255-7.

doi: 10.1128/jmbe.v14i2.581.

Affiliations

1 University of Maryland, Center for Teaching Excellence, College Park, MD 20742.

2 Arkansas Tech University, Russellville, AR 72801.

3 University of Maryland, Center for Teaching Excellence, College Park, MD 20742 ; University of Macau, Centre for Teaching and Learning Enhancement, Macau, SAR China.

Free PMC article

Karl R B Schmitt et al. J Microbiol Biol Educ.

Free PMC article

. 2013 Dec 2;14(2):255-7.

doi: 10.1128/jmbe.v14i2.581.

Affiliations

1 University of Maryland, Center for Teaching Excellence, College Park, MD 20742.

2 Arkansas Tech University, Russellville, AR 72801.

3 University of Maryland, Center for Teaching Excellence, College Park, MD 20742 ; University of Macau, Centre for Teaching and Learning Enhancement, Macau, SAR China.

Figures

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References

Collier PJ, Morgan DL. 'Is that paper really due today?': differences in first-generation and traditional college students' understandings of faculty expectations. Higher Educ. 2007;55:425-446. doi: 10.1007/s10734-007-9065-5. - DOI

Foral PA, et al. Faculty and student expectations and perceptions of e-mail communication in a campus and distance doctor of pharmacy program. Am J Pharm Educ. 2010;74:1-10. doi: 10.5688/aj7410191. - DOI - PMC - PubMed

Suchman E, Uchiyama K, Smith R, Bender K. Evaluating the impact of a classroom response system in a microbiology course. Microbiol Educ. 2006;7:3-11. - PMC - PubMed

Trudeau GP, Barnes KJ. Shared expectations: identifying similarities and differences between student and faculty teaching values based on student evaluation of faculty classroom performance. International Business & Economics Research Journal (IBER) 2011;1:67-79.

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national center for biotechnology information

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A survey tool for assessing student expectations early in a semester - PubMed

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The .gov means it's official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site. The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

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Community of Learners, discussions

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Discussion Strategies - Center for Teaching and Learning

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This sampling of strategies provide ideas for helping students prepare for discussions and for collaborating with others to develop those ideas. Instructor-Designed Questions (Help instructor to guide pre-discussion reading and preparation) Distribute questions on the course schedule or on a Learnin…

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Actively Engaging Students in Asynchronous Online Classes. IDEA Paper #64

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Actively Engaging Students in Asynchronous Online Classes. IDEA Paper #64

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Community of Learners, communication, online, discussion boards

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Active learning activities and pedagogical strategies can look different in online learning environments, particularly in asynchronous courses when students are not interacting with the instructor, or with each other, in real time. This paper suggests a three-pronged approach for conceptualizing active learning in the online asynchronous class: the creation of an architecture of engagement in the online classroom, the use of web-based tools in addition to the learning management system, and a re-imagining of discussion boards as interactive spaces. The adoption of these approaches invites meaningful action and reflection to create truly active learning activities in online asynchronous classes.

Descriptors: Asynchronous Communication, Online Courses, Student Participation, Active Learning, Learning Activities, Educational Strategies, Design Preferences, Orientation Materials, Course Objectives, Technology Integration, Database Management Systems, Database Design, Learner Engagement

IDEA Center, Inc. 301 South Fourth Street Suite 200, Manhattan, KS 66502. Tel: 800-255-2757; Tel: 785-320-2400; e-mail: info@IDEAedu.org; Web site: http://ideaedu.org

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ERIC - ED573672 - Actively Engaging Students in Asynchronous Online Classes. IDEA Paper #64, IDEA Center, Inc., 2016-Dec

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Active learning activities and pedagogical strategies can look different in online learning environments, particularly in asynchronous courses when students are not interacting with the instructor, or with each other, in real time.

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Toward an understanding of how threads die in asynchronous computer conferences

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Toward an understanding of how threads die in asynchronous computer conferences

# data[].attributes.body
Community of Learners, communication, online, discussion boards

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Previous computer conferencing research has been concerned with the organizational, technical, social, and motivational factors that support and sustain online interaction. This article studies online interaction from a different perspective. Rather than analyze the processes that sustain discourse, the following research examines how and why discussions shut down. A computer simulation of asynchronous threaded interaction suggests that certain common online habits, when practiced by many people, can adversely affect the lifespan of some threads. Specifically, the widespread practice of focusing attention on unread notes during computer conferencing sessions can produce a starvation condition that hastens the death of some threads and reduces the likelihood that inactive threads will become active again. The longevity of a thread, therefore, is partially affected by the kinds of routines that online participants follow when they use a computer conferencing interface. The educational implications of this finding are discussed, and strategies are presented for limiting adverse educational effects.

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Journal Subscription Department, 10 Industrial Avenue, Mahwah, NJ 07430-2262. Tel: 800-926-6579 (Toll Free); e-mail: journals@erlbaum.com.

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ERIC - EJ717975 - Toward an Understanding of How Threads Die in Asynchronous Computer Conferences, Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2005

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Previous computer conferencing research has been concerned with the organizational, technical, social, and motivational factors that support and sustain online interaction. This article studies online interaction from a different perspective. Rather than analyze the processes that sustain discourse, the following research examines how and why discussions shut down.

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Community of Learners, engagement

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Community of Learners, accessibility

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Video and multimedia open resources can help to convey concepts and can bring information to life. In this section, we provide recommendations to guide your inclusion of accessible multimedia content.

What Is Multimedia?

Multimedia includes: videos, audio, animations, slideshows

File types: .mp3, .mp4, ppt., etc.

Before You Begin

What Type of Multimedia Are You Including?

Before you can determine what you need to do to make media materials accessible, you need to understand what is required for different types of multimedia. Consider the following questions:

1. Does your multimedia resource include audio narration or instruction? If so, you should: Provide a complete transcript of all speech content and relevant non-speech content in the resource.

2. Does your multimedia resource include audio that is synchronized with a video presentation? If so, you should: Provide captions of all speech content and relevant non-speech content in the resource.

3. Does your multimedia resource include contextual visuals (e.g., charts, graphs) that are not addressed in the spoken content? If so, you should: Provide audio descriptions of relevant visual materials in the resource.

Who Are You Doing This For?

This work supports students who:

Are deaf or hard of hearing

Are blind or have low vision

Have a form of cognitive disability

Are in a location where they cannot play or hear audio

Are not native-English speakers and need written-word formats to support understanding

What Do You Need To Do?

Transcripts

Consider what your students would get out of your multimedia resource if they were not able to hear the audio portion, or if they had difficulty understanding your spoken word. A text transcript provides students with equivalent information to the audio content in a multimedia resource.

As you work on developing your text transcript, keep in mind the following recommendations about what to include:

Speaker's name

All speech content: If there is speech that is not relevant, it is usually best to indicate that it has been excluded from the transcript. For example: "[A & B chatted while slides were loading]."

Relevant descriptions about the speech: Descriptions that convey emotions, mood, etc. are usually provided in brackets. For example: "Don't touch that! [shouted]."

Descriptions of relevant non-speech audio: These are usually provided in brackets. For example: "[metal pipes crashing to concrete floor]." Background noise that isn't relevant can be left out.

Headings and sub-headings: Where they will make the transcript more usable or easy to navigate, headings and sub-headings can be helpful aids, especially when the transcript is long. When including these, put them in brackets to show that they were not part of the original audio. For example: [I

Transcripts and third-party videos

If you are not producing your own video resource but are planning to embed video materials from a third-party source (e.g., YouTube), be aware that not all third-party sources include transcripts. While services like YouTube technically support transcripts, not all contributors to YouTube include these. If you select a video resource that does not already have a transcript, you will need to produce one yourself.*

Copyright note: Producing your own transcript for a third-party video could infringe on copyright, depending on how the video has been licensed. Before you proceed with producing a transcript for media materials you did not create yourself, you should contact the copyright holder of that material to obtain permission to do so.

Timed text captions are essential to opening up a world of information for persons with hearing loss or literacy needs by making the readable equivalent of audio content available to them in a synchronized manner. Globally hearing loss affects about 10% of the population to some degree. It causes disability in 5% (360 to 538 million) and moderate to severe disability in 124 million people. Timed text captions also be helpful for learners whose native languages are languages other than the primary language of the media or who have cognitive conditions that benefit from visual.Captions are the text that is synchronized with the audio in a video presentation. Captions are important when people need to see what's happening in the video and get the audio information in text at the same time.

The work you put into creating a text transcript for a video resource can be repurposed to provide the captions. Keep in mind the following recommendations about what to include in your captions:

All speech content: If there is speech that is not relevant, it is usually best to indicate that it has been excluded from the captions. For example: "[A & B chatted while slides were loading]."

Descriptions of relevant non-speech audio: These are usually provided in brackets. For example: "[metal pipes crashing to concrete floor]"; "[background music by XXX plays]." Background noise that isn't relevant can be left out.

Text captions can be uploaded to YouTube and other platforms along with the video to create a timed text file in SubRip (SRT) format. Additional best practices for timed captions include:

Each caption frame should not be on screen for less than three seconds.

Each caption frame must not be on screen for less than two seconds.

Each caption frame should not exceed more than 2 lines.

Each caption frame must not exceed more than 3 lines.

Each line should not exceed more than 32 characters

All caption frames should be precisely time synched to the audio.

When multiple speakers are present, it is sometimes helpful to identify who is speaking, especially when the video does not make this clear.

Non-speech sounds like [MUSIC] or [LAUGHTER] should be added in square brackets.

Downloadable Transcripts

For both audio and video transcripts, consider including a text file that learners can download and review using tools such as word processing, screen reader, or literacy software. All learners can use transcripts of media-based learning materials for study and review.

Audio Descriptions

Consider what your students would get out of a multimedia resource if they were not able to see embedded visual materials critical for comprehension. Audio descriptions are helpful if visual content (e.g., a chart or a map) in a video or presentation provides important context that is not available through the audio alone. Actions that are only visible on screen without any audible equivalent are not accessible to learners who have visual impairments.

When describing visual elements in your multimedia resources, keep in mind the following recommendations and guidelines.

1. When contextual visual content on the screen is not described in the audio itself, you will need to provide an audio description that is an objective description of the visual element. Example:

To help students fully grasp a concept that you are trying to convey in your video, you have included some contextual visual references (e.g., maps, charts, physical demonstrations of a process). However, you realize after making the video that the audio portion does not describe these visuals in enough detail for a student with visual impairments to be able to access all of the concepts you intended to convey.

In this case, you would need to record an audio description of the visual material that provides enough detail to provide students like Jacob with the same content available to visual learners.

2. Whenever possible, avoid creating the need for audio descriptions in the first place by being proactive at the time of recording. If you pay attention to contextual visuals during the recording of the media piece, you may find opportunities to convey the visual content within the spoken material itself; you will not need to provide audio descriptions of the visual content after the fact. Example:

You are recording a video or presentation that includes a chart that tracks coal production in British Columbia, and as part of the presentation you want to focus attention on specific data in the chart. The narrator or presenter might point to sections on the chart and say:

"As you can see, metallurgical coal projection increased by 3 million tonnes over these two years."

In this case, audio descriptions would be necessary to provide the missing context to students with visual disabilities; these students cannot see the data on the chart that tells visual learners what the production figures are and for what dates. However, if the narrator or presenter instead says:

"This chart illustrates that metallurgical coal production in B.C. increased from 23 million tonnes in 1999 to 26 million tonnes in 2001,"

the visual content is conveyed through the audio and no audio description will be necessary.

Accessible Media Resources

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Video and multimedia open resources can help to convey concepts and can bring information to life. In this section, we provide recommendations to guide your inclusion of accessible multimedia content. Multimedia includes: videos, audio, animations, slideshows File types: .mp3, .mp4, ppt., etc. What Type of Multimedia Are You Including?

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Community of Learners, accessibility

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Accessible Syllabus Template

ETSU hopes to make all course syllabi accessible by the start of the Fall 2016 semester. To aid in this process, an accessible syllabus template has been developed and is available for download and customization.

Learn More About the Template

Online Training Materials

We expect that the library of materials available on this site will grow rapidly over time. Current materials are listed below. If you require training on a specific topic then we encourage you to make a request.

Support Staff

Several different Information Technology Services (ITS) staff members are equipped to provide training and support regarding a wide range of accessibility issues. Whether you need help assessing the accessibility of a particular file or learning how to use the accessibility features of an authoring software, we are happy to help. We can provide remote and/or in-person support, as well as one-on-one or group training. If you need help, please call the Academic Technology Services offices: 439-8611 | ats@etsu.edu.

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ETSU hopes to make all course syllabi accessible by the start of the Fall 2016 semester. To aid in this process, an accessible syllabus template has been developed and is available for download and customization. Learn More About the Template We expect that the library of materials available on this site will grow rapidly over time.

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Community of Learners, feedback, communication

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Around the semester midpoint it's a good idea to solicit feedback from students about how the course is going. Midsemester feedback:

Provides an opportunity to show that you're listening to student concerns.

Provides an opportunity for you to refocus, if necessary.

Start-Stop-Continue

Asking "how's it going?" doesn't usually get much concrete, actionable feedback, however. You're more likely to get some focused answers if you ask focused questions. One approach is the start-stop-continue. Ask students to tell you:

What you should start doing.

What you should stop doing.

What you should continue doing.

Collect the responses and organize them into a table or spreadsheet, then take a few minutes during the next class to discuss the feedback with your students. During the discussion, point out:

Conflicting messages. Students often believe that everyone in the class thinks the same way about the way a class is going, but the feedback may show that there are conflicting recommendations. For example, some students may want you to slow down, others to speed up. Pointing these out helps students to understand the needs of others in the class-as well as the instructor's need to satisfy different groups.

Things you are willing to do or change. Some student requests are very reasonable and you may be very willing to accommodate them. For example, students may request that you provide additional practice problems.

Things you are not willing to do or change. Students may request some changes that you are not willing to accommodate. For example, students may ask you to provide a structured approach to analyzing a case, but you may prefer that they deal with the uncertainty because it helps them to learn to formulate solutions to complex problems rather than following a "recipe," which they would be unlikely to have in a real situation. Explaining why you have chosen a particular approach helps students to better understand that approach-and perhaps to appreciate it more.

The spreadsheet below is an example of a start-stop-continue summary. You may find it useful to post your summary on your course website so students have a chance to review it. It's important to capture the comments honestly so that students feel their voice is being heard-but it's also practical to paraphrase so that students can see how often a comment on a particular issue occurs.

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Around the semester midpoint it's a good idea to solicit feedback from students about how the course is going. Midsemester feedback: Provides an opportunity to show that you're listening to student concerns. Provides an opportunity for you to refocus, if necessary. Asking "how's it going?" doesn't usually get much concrete, actionable feedback, however.

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Using Social Media to Improve Student-Instructor Communication in an Online Learning Environment

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Using Social Media to Improve Student-Instructor Communication in an Online Learning Environment

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Community of Learners, communication

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
Yide Shen Rohrer College of Business, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ, USA

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Using Social Media to Improve Student-Instructor Communication in an Onlinef Learning Environment | International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education

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The lack of effective faculty-student interaction has been identified as a main contributor
to the high dropout rate in online education. For this paper, the authors conducted
an empirical study using a social networking tool, specifically Facebook, to…

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Student-Instructor Communication: The Role of Email

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Student-Instructor Communication: The Role of Email

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Community of Learners, communication

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We report on the use of email lists as a supplement to teaching. We argue that email lists can provide a valuable students-instructor communication channel and describe the process of setting up and managing such lists. A case study of email messages exchanged in an introductory operations research course is also included. The case illustrates how a "strategic" use of email leads to a richer learning experience, by providing an extra medium for communication, and offers a valuable feedback database that can, among other things, be used to improve future editions of a course.

Descriptors: Teacher Student Relationship, Electronic Mail, Case Studies, Learning Experience, Feedback, Databases, Introductory Courses, Educational Media, Computer Assisted Instruction, Teaching Methods, Instructional Improvement, Computer Mediated Communication

Elsevier Customer Service Department, 6277 Sea Harbor Drive, Orlando, FL 32887-4800. Tel: 877-839-7126 (Toll Free); Fax: 407-363-1354; e-mail: usjcs@elsevier.com.

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ERIC - EJ732128 - Student-Instructor Communication: The Role of Email, Computers and Education, 2006-Aug

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
We report on the use of email lists as a supplement to teaching. We argue that email lists can provide a valuable students-instructor communication channel and describe the process of setting up and managing such lists. A case study of email messages exchanged in an introductory operations research course is also included.

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Respect for Students, diversity

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ETSU LGBTQ+ Resources

National and International LGBTQ Resources

Tennessee LGBTQ+ Resources

National and International LGBTQ Resources
African-American Community AIDS/HIV
AIDS-DOT-ORG/Immunet: A nonprofit HIV/AIDS Web channel featuring complete AIDS Treatment News archive; audiovisual Continuing Medical Education;
Asian Community Bisexual
: As an umbrella organization and voice for bisexual people, BiNet USA will facilitate the development of a cohesive network of bisexual communities, promote bisexual visibility, and collect and distribute educational information regarding bisexuality. To accomplish these goals, BiNet USA will provide a national network for bisexual organizations and individuals across the United States, and encourage participation and organizing on local and national levels.(http://www.binetusa.org)
-Bookstores - Gay and Lesbian Coming Out

Human Rights Campaign - Coming Out: (http://www.hrc.org/issues/coming-out)

LGBTQ Workplace Guide:Coming out at work: Zippia provides a comprehensive guide on things to consider if you come out at work as a member of the LGBTQ community. The guide includes workplace rights, insights and tips on how to research companies to tell how they foster diversity inclusion:(https://www.zippia.com/advice/lgbt-resource-guide/)

When I Came Out...: Your coming out stories. Any gender identity or sexuality. Happy, sad, serious, successful, funny or however it went. You can share your own experience, or the experience of someone else coming out to you, or talk about your lack of need to come out. (http://www.whenicameout.tumblr.com/)

Congress Education
The Safe Schools Coalition: A public-private partnership of 80+ organizations (government agencies, schools, community agencies, churches, youth/student groups, gay/lesbian groups, human rights groups) and 400+ individuals working to help schools become safe places where every family can belong, where every educator can teach, and where every child can learn, regardless of gender identity or sexual orientation.
Entertainment/Celebrities Family and Parenting
Hearing Impaired

Immigration

Latina and Latino Community
Law
Lesbian and Gay Law Association of Greater New York: A group promoting the expertise and advancement of lesbian and gay legal professionals. Theirs is the first Web site by an association of lesbian and gay lawyers.
Media

The Advocate Magazine: (http://www.advocate.com/)

Autostraddle: (http://www.autostraddle.com/)

The Gaily Grind: (http://www.thegailygrind.com)

LGBTQ Nation: (http://www.lgbtqnation.com)

National Lesbian & Gay Journalists Association (NLGJA): An organization of professional journalists that works to ensure equal benefits and workplace conditions for lesbian and gay employees in news organizations. NLGJA works within the news industry for fair, accurate, and comprehensive coverage of gay issues. (http://www.nlgja.org)

OUT Magazine: (http://www.out.com/)

Military
Service Members Legal Defense Network: With a nationwide network of over 200 attorneys from the best law firms in the nation, SLDN offers the legal advice and assistance that service members need to effectively respond to investigations. SLDN works closely with its allies in the military, Congress, and the media to serve those military members at risk. In addition, SLDN carefully documents abuses of the military policy on homosexuals and uses the data gathered from the field to push for policy change.
Partnerships and Relationships Political Organization Pride Prison Religion Science and Research
Sexual Orientation: Science, Education and Policy: This site features work by Dr. Gregory Herek-a noted authority on antigay prejudice (or homophobia), hate crimes, and AIDS stigma--and his Northern California Community Research Group at the University of California, Davis. It provides factual information about sexual orientation and HIV/AIDS to promote the use of scientific knowledge for education and enlightened public policy.
Self-Help
The Hate-Crime Network: Formerly called HCDN, was created by a team of experienced hate crime victim advocates who know the importance of hate crime laws, recovery services, and improved police response. But they also know that for the thousands of people affected by hate crimes each year, none of that matters if they can't tell anyone what happened.
Sexually Transmitted Infections
The Center for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) LGBT page: (http://www.cdc.gov/lgbthealth/)
tSTD: tSTD was created in 2003 to provide STD counseling and testing. Exclusively. We understand your situation, help you reach and informed decision, and make your testing experience successful. Use this website to: research your situation, evaluate your options, and get tested successfully.
(http://www.tstd.org)

Federation of Gay Games: Since 1982 the Gay Games have been a powerful force for positive change around the world. Perpetuating and safeguarding the Gay Games and their founding principles of inclusion, participation, and the pursuit of personal best are what the Federation of Gay Games is all about. (https://gaygames.org/wp/)

Out Sports: Their mission is to build the broadest, deepest, most informative, and most entertaining online sports community. (http://www.outsports.com)

The Gay and Lesbian International Sport Association (GLISA)

Sports

Athlete Ally: (https://www.athleteally.org/)

Federation of Gay Games: Since 1982 the Gay Games have been a powerful force for positive change around the world. Perpetuating and safeguarding the Gay Games and their founding principles of inclusion, participation, and the pursuit of personal best are what the Federation of Gay Games is all about.
(https://gaygames.org/wp/)

LGBT SportSafe: (http://lgbtsportsafe.com/)

Out Sports: Their mission is to build the broadest, deepest, most informative, and most entertaining online sports community.
(http://www.outsports.com)

The Gay and Lesbian International Sport Association (GLISA): (http://www.glisa.org/)

TransAthlete.com: (http://www.transathlete.com/)

Transgender Vision Impaired
Blind LGBT Pride International: Is a chartered affiliate of The American Council of the Blind and is the only national organization dedicated to serving the special needs of individuals who are both, visually impaired and lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender.
Youth
Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Helpline: The Gay and Lesbian Helpline provides free confidential information, referrals, crisis intervention, and support to callers seven evenings a week. Typical topics include safer sex, coming out, and where to find gay-friendly businesses in the Boston area. Call 617-267-9001, or toll-free 888-340-4528.

TENNESSEE STATE LGBTQ+ RESOURCES

State Groups and Organizations

Nashville Cares: Community-based AIDS service organization providing education, advocacy, and supportive services to anyone affected by HIV and AIDS.
(http://www.nashvillecares.org)

Out and About Newspaper: Out & About Nashville, Inc. (D/B/A Out & About Newspaper) debuted in the fall of 2002 as a monthly newspaper designed to fill a growing need in the Nashville gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender (GLBT) community. Since then it has grown to provide coverage of the GLBT community for all of Tennessee. With a target audience of more than 250,000 people, O&AN provides in-depth local news coverage along with political, business, feature, sports and entertainment stories.

Tri-Cities and Northeast Tennessee Groups and Organizations

Pride Community Center of the Tri-Cities: (http://pridetricities.com/)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
National and International LGBTQ Resources Tennessee LGBTQ+ Resources National and International LGBTQ Resources African-American Community AIDS/HIV AIDS-DOT-ORG/Immunet : A nonprofit HIV/AIDS Web channel featuring complete AIDS Treatment News archive; audiovisual Continuing Medical Education; Asian Community Bisexual : As an umbrella organization and voice for bisexual people, BiNet USA will facilitate the development of a cohesive network of bisexual communities, promote bisexual visibility, and collect and distribute educational information regarding bisexuality.

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Respect for Students, 1st gen, diversity

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Cite this guide: Galina, B. (2016). Teaching First-Generation College Students. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/teaching-first-generation-college-students/.

What does it mean to be first?

"Even when presenting academic credentials and a level of academic motivation equal to that of their peers whose parents graduated from college, first-generation students are at a somewhat greater risk of being academically, socially, and economically left behind." Pascarella, et al., 2004: 276.

U.S. Supreme Court Justice Sonia Sotomayor, the first Latino and third ever woman to hold that position, graduated first in her class at Cardinal Spellman High School in the Northeast Bronx. Her path to class valedictorian was hardly a certain one. A child of Puerto Rican immigrants, Justice Sotomayor grew up in the New York City projects known as the Bronxdale Houses. She was diagnosed with Type I diabetes as a young girl. Having overcome all of these odds to beat out her peers for the number one spot at "a school for high achievers," why was she warned that she'd need to bolster herself to make it through college (Stolberg, 2009: A1)? Yet, this is precisely what happened to Justice Sotomayor. A neighborhood friend who had gone to Princeton one year ahead of the young judge, Kenneth K. Moy, remembers telling her, "I don't want you to come here with any illusions. Social isolation is going to be a part of your experience, and you have to have the strength of character to get through it intact" (qtd. in Stolberg, 2009: A1). While Sotomayor did make it through intact, Mr. Moy was right to warn his friend. Not only did this young woman from The Bronx face racial and sexual barriers to access at Princeton-when she entered in the fall of 1972, Latinos on campus numbered in the double digits and the school's first female students had entered only three years earlier, in 1969-she also had to confront barriers because she was the first in her family to attend college (Stolberg, 2009: A1).

Justice Sotomayor is a first-generation college student, a group that includes such famous figures as Senator Elizabeth Warren, First Lady Michelle Obama, Starbucks CEO Howard Schultz, and Ruth Simmons, 18 th president of Brown University. Estimates suggest that first-generation students comprise between 15% and 40% of all college students in the United States (Davis, 2010; Nuñez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998).

What exactly defines the term "first-generation student" varies somewhat. The definition used most frequently-and that of this guide-defines students as "first-generation" when neither parent has completed a four-year college degree (Davis, 2010). These students, research shows, struggle to succeed in college when compared to students whose parents attended college, so-called "continuing-generation students." Sticking points include longer time to degree completion (Chen & Carroll, 2005), lower family incomes (Lohfink & Paulsen, 2005), and higher dropout rates among first-generation students (Engle & Tinto, 2008). Of course, many first-generation students, like Justice Sotomayor, will succeed at college.

Even matriculating to a four-year institution as a first-generation student is no easy feat in light of the many financial, emotional, and academic obstacles set against them. In other words, the first- generation students we encounter in our classrooms have already overcome great barriers, and they deserve respect for their tenacity and perseverance. Despite these positive characteristics, discrepancies persist in the academic achievement and overall college experience of first-generation students as compared to continuing-generation students. Unfortunately for the college educator, many of the obstacles faced by first-generation students have already been established before they ever set foot on campus. Factors such as income, pre-college educational resources, and guidance in the college selection process cannot be altered through our teaching. This is not to say, however, that there are no ways we can facilitate the successes of first-generation students on campus. Many of the necessary interventions will be undertaken at the institutional and administrative levels.

What can we do in our teaching to support institutional efforts? This guide answers this question by offering evidenced-based high-impact teaching practices. Best of all, the majority of these high-impact practices will benefit all students in your classroom. It turns out that this is a case where a rising tide can indeed lift all boats.

This guide is organized according to the trajectory of a first-generation student through process of college. Following this introduction, we offer data on first-generation students before they enter college, followed by a section about the college experience for first-generation students. From there, we describe a number of high-impact teaching and learning strategies that can be employed to facilitate the success of first-generation students in the classroom. Lastly, we provide a conclusion with a number of resources for educators, administrators, and first-generation students themselves. Each section has its own purpose in the context of this teaching guide, but they can, nevertheless, be read out of order.

Before College: Aspiration and achievement deficits

As we have already pointed out, many of the obstacles that first-generation students face have been set in place long before the first day of classes. Indeed, college attendance itself represents a significant milestone for first-generation students. According to the data 2012 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study, the proportion of Americans with a college degree-around 40%-hovers just slightly higher than the proportion of the current college population that is first-generation-roughly 32% (Georgetown University Center on Education, 2012). That's a lot of first-generation college students!

Data from a comprehensive survey by researchers at the UCLA Higher Education Research Institution (HERI) show college attendance and degree attainment are highly correlated with parental education (Saenz et al., 2007: 8). Students whose parents have not completed more than a high school education are much less likely to attend or graduate college than their peers with college-educated parents (Pascarella et al., 2004; Astin & Oseguera, 2005). The difficulty to be the first person in your family to earn a college degree represents a solidification of the current social system. First-generation students are disproportionately likely to be low-income, female, Hispanic, and African-American (Terenzini et al., 1996).

Many are the challenges faced by first-generation students. First and foremost, first-generation lack the critical cultural capital that their continuing-generation peers have been soaking up their entire lives (Davis, 2010). The "culture of college," to borrow Davis' turn of phrase, comprises "the insider knowledge, the special language, and the subtle verbal and nonverbal signs that, after one has mastered them, make one a member of any in-group, community, or subculture" (Davis, 2010: 29). Or, in the words of journalist Laura Pappano, "the bright children of janitors and nail salon workers, bus drivers and fast-food cooks may not have grown up with the edifying vacations, museum excursions, daily doses of NPR and prep schools that groom Ivy applicants" (Pappano, 2015). Making the transition to college-always a fraught experience-is a particular difficult process of first-generation students. Other significant characteristics of first-generation students include:

Financial concerns: Lohfink and Paulsen (2005) point out that first-generation students are disproportionately low-income (418). Lack of access to financial capital and lack of information about financial aid negatively affect students' college persistence rates and overall college experiences. Indeed, researchers observe that first-generation students with "higher incomes were significantly more likely to persist than those with lower incomes" (Lohfink & Paulsen, 2005: 418). In one study, researchers showed that first-generation students who are also low-income dropped out of college at a rate four times their non-low-income, non-first-generation peers (Engle & Tinto, 2008). What is more, first-generation students more regularly assume financial responsibility for their education (Aspelmeier, 2012: 774).

Motivations for attending college: First-generation students often attend and persist in college for different reasons than their continuing-generation peers (Saenz et al., 2007). These students are more likely to attend college in order to help their parents, bring honor to their family, and gain personal respect (Bui, 2002). Moreover, first-generation students more commonly internalize their educational attainment (Aspelmeier, 2012). This internalization places students at increased risk for experiencing "stereotype threat" (Steele & Aronson, 1995) and "impostor syndrome" (Claude & Imes, 1978; Ewing et al., 1996).

Stereotype Threat: Negative stereotypes about socially marginalized groups hold that any lack of socioeconomic success may be attributed to internal deficits rather than social, historical, or situational injustice. A student who identifies as a member of one of these groups may feel anxious about confirming such negative stereotypes through her individual achievement. Insidiously, this experience commonly leads to academic underachievement through an unconscious self-handicapping (Steele & Aronson, 1995). For more on stereotype threat, see ReducingStereotypeThreat.org.

Impostor Syndrome: High-achieving people may feel that their success has nothing to do with their individual efforts or talents. Instead, they attribute their success to external factors such as luck, coincidence, or the ease of an endeavor. These feelings of "phoniness" negatively affect academic performance, social integration, and emotional health (Claude & Imes, 1978; Ewing et al., 1996). For more on impostor syndrome, see this article from the Caltech Counseling Center.

Levels of Parental Engagement: Upon making the decision to attend college, first-generation students may feel disconnected or misunderstood by their families and communities (Davis, 2010: 192). These students commonly report feeling they are being disloyal to their parents and peers (Inman & Mayes, 1999). Differences between the goals and life paths of parents and first-generation students is "likely to cause dissonance," according to Somers et al. (2004: 429). This dissonance has been termed called, alternatively, "survivor guilt" (Somer et al., 2004: 431) and "breakaway guilt" (London, 1989: 153) by researchers. Regardless of the term used, feeling unsupported has consequences on the educational attainment of first-generation students. Parental involvement in education has been shown to improve students' educational aspirations and reduce the shock of transitioning to college (McCarron & Inkelas, 2006).

Sources of knowledge about college: The transition to college may be especially difficult for first-generation students because of the foreignness of the experience among their social networks. Davis (2010) reports that first-generation students are likely to limit themselves to "one or two sources of information" about college culture (30). As a result, integrating into this new culture is a much more fraught experience. First-generation students must learn not only the content of their classes but the social rules and roles of academia. Even the vocabulary of college-words like "registrar," "bursar," and "GPA"-may be completely unfamiliar to these students.

Educational differences: First-generation students are more likely than their continuing-education peers to attend lower performing schools and take less challenging courses while in high school (Harrell & Forney, 2003; Martinez, et al., 2009; Pascarella et al., 2004). Taking less rigorous courses in high school may be at least partially to explain for first-generation students' weaker cognitive skills in reading comprehension, math, and critical thinking (Terenzini et al., 1996). K-12 educational experiences have a large effect on college academic performance and psychological health (Tinto, 1993). During the first year of college, first-generation students report markedly lower GPAs than continuing-generation students (Warburton et al., 2001: 38).

The characteristics of first-generation students, of course, do not exist in a social vacuum. The first-generation label exists in conjunction with other social differences- race, ethnicity, religion, dis/ability, nationality, citizenship, gender, and sexual orientation, for example-and these differences must also be considered along with students' first-generation label. An intersectional lens can help educators account for the unstable, combinatory nature of difference.

"Intersectionality" refers to the overlapping nature of social differences in the creation of unique social identities (Crenshaw, 1989). In its simplest form, it is the understanding that race, class, gender, and sexuality always exist in relation to one another. To be a black woman, then, is not the same as being black, or as being a woman, but rather it is a specific embodiment. This term, popular in the social sciences and humanities, is a valuable analytic to understand student experience. For more information on intersectionality in teaching and learning, see the Vanderbilt Guide to Feminist Pedagogy. To read Crenshaw's original paper outlining intersectionality, click here. For more on teaching and difference, see the following guides from the Vanderbilt Center for Teaching: Disability, Stress, and Feminist Pedagogy.

This is all to say that, the following picture of first-generation students is extrapolated from existing data, but, significantly, it does not apply to every situation or student. Differences that make students unique must be accounted for.

In demographic terms, though, there are useful data for us to consider on race, class, and gender. While the portion of first-generation students, relative to all students, has diminished since 1971-a fact attributable, in part, to greater educational attainment in the United States overall-the demographic composition of this group has also shifted (Saenz et al., 2007). Since 1971, the first-generation student population has skewed increasingly toward women and Hispanic. This shift should gives us pause because it represents decreasing access to higher education among certain populations. The decline in black first-generation students, for instance, "is faster than the relative proportion of African American adults without a college education" (Saenz et al., 2007: 13). This discrepancy should motivate us, as educators, to comprehend the pervasive social consequences of college attainment and universalize the experience for all who seek it.

At College: Struggles with isolation and invisibility

Academically, first-generation students perform poorly compared to their continuing-generation peers. Not only do first-generation students have lower overall college attainment rates (Billson & Terry, 1982), but those who do complete their undergraduate degrees take significantly longer than non-first-generation students (Terenzini et al., 1996). While in college, first-generation students report lower GPAs than continuing-generation students (Warburton et al., 2001).

In a 1995 study, average freshman GPA was 2.7 for all students but only 2.4 for first-generation students (Warburton et al., 2001).

They are both more likely to be enrolled in remedial classes (Chen & Carroll, 2005; Horn & Bobbitt, 2000) and less likely to be enrolled in college honors programs (Pascarella et al., 2004: 251). Unfortunately, a need for remediation is significantly linked to dropping out of college (Pulley, 2008).

A deficit of rigorous high school coursework often leaves first-generation students unprepared for the learning practices that facilitate success at college, such as effective studying, peer collaboration, and efficient note taking. When combined with the general invisibility of study skills in college classrooms (Wingate, 2006), the newfound rigor of college coursework places first-generation students at a disadvantage compared to other students. Research shows that first-generation students study fewer hours than other students (Terenzini et al., 1996: 10). What is more, this studying is often less effective because first-generation students "need to be introduced directly to the methods and procedures of efficient study" (Davis, 2010: 41). For example, Treisman (1992) found that almost 90% of first-generation students studied only by themselves for a college calculus, a sharp contrast from other students, who were much more likely to combine studying alone with studying in peer groups.

The distinct academic lives of first-generation and continuing-generation students is partially attributable to the different courses and majors first-generation students are likely to choose. Perhaps because, as we have seen, first-generation students are more likely to attend college to get ahead financially and help their families, they are more likely to choose vocational or vocationally-oriented programs. For instance, first-generation students are more likely to major in business or a technical field than other students. Conversely, they are less likely to choose a major in the humanities, fine arts, and sciences (Terenzini et al., 1996; Chen & Carroll, 2005). Without the informed advice of parents or other college-educated adults, first-generation students often struggle to choose courses that are appropriate for their academic level and correspond to their motivations for pursuing a college degree. These students may not find the advising they need on campus, either. Academic advisors are not always trained on the differences between first-generation and continuing-generation students and thus often fail to meet the needs of the former (Kocel, 2008; Payne, 2007). That first-generation students take significantly longer to choose a major-an early indicator of college attrition-is evidence of their poorly met advising needs.

In the classroom, first-generation students demonstrate several notable characteristics that may alter their experience in the classroom and negatively impact overall learning. First-generation students often hold back in classroom discussions, unsure of the rules of the classroom space or unfamiliar with the practice of academic discussion (Rendón, 1995). When it comes to academic aspirations and achievement generally, first-generation students report anxiety more frequently and more acutely than other students (Martinez et al., 2009; Terenzini et al., 1996). Researchers, including Davis (2010) and Peetet, Montgomery, and Weekes (2015), attribute this anxiety to the imposter syndrome and the stereotype threat phenomenon. Feelings of anxiety intensify the isolation of first-generation students in the classroom. Not only are they less likely to speak out in class than other students, but first-generation students are also much less likely to report positive interactions with faculty. Indeed, first-generation students have fewer interactions with faculty either in or outside of class when compared to continuing-generation students, even when controlling for other social factors like race and gender (Kim & Sax, 2009). Regardless of parental educational attainment, "positive and close interactions between undergraduates and their professors" positively affects student GPA, as well as personal growth and enjoyment of learning (Kim & Sax, 2009: 437). Thus, the distress and isolation of first-generation students further hampers a successful college experience.

Unfortunately, impostor syndrome and stereotype threat hinder first-generation students beyond the classroom, as well. As Mr. Moy told Justice Sotomayor before she entered Princeton, "social isolation is going to be part of your experience" as a first-generation student. The data support Mr. Moy on this point. When asked to reflect on their college experience, first-generation students report feeling less confident and isolated at higher rates than continuing-generation students (Davis, 2010). Indeed, first-generation students are more likely to "suffer from depression and other emotional problems" (Davis, 2010: 199). Compared to the average student, first-generation students participate in fewer extracurricular activities, credit-bearing or unpaid internships, and networking opportunities (Glenn, 2004; Moschetti & Hudley, 2008). Several groups of researchers have pointed out how common it is for first-generation students to feel socially and emotionally marginalized (Francis & Miller, 2008; Bui, 2002; Lundberg, et al., 2007). Considering that these students are also more likely to live off campus (Davis, 2010: 193), work more hours in a job outside of school (Saenz et al., 2007), and have dependent children (Terenzini et al., 1996), college can be a very lonely moment in the lives of first-generation students.

In the Classroom: Make expectations visible and respect difference

How does all of this research about first-generation students translate into classroom principles and practices? Unfortunately, little research exists about the most effective strategies for enhancing the learning outcomes of first-generation students. At least partially, this dearth in the research literature should be understood as an effect of the complexities of collecting reliable data from the patchwork quilt of classrooms that make up higher education. Differences between institutions (4-year vs. 2-year; public vs. private; large vs. small) and disciplines, along with demographic variation at the campus and classroom levels, make it difficult to issue generalized recommendations on how to improve academic achievement and increase learning among first-generation students. Lastly, as mentioned in the introduction to this guide, interventions for first-generation students at the institutional level may yield the most significant positive results, given that students will take many courses from many different instructors during their path to an undergraduate degree.

This is not to say, however, that classroom instructors are powerless in the effort to help first-generation students be successful. The following list comprises the most impactful recommendations for teaching first-generation college students.

Conclusions

In Investment in Learning (1977), former president of Grinnell College and the University of Iowa Howard Bowen argues that society must vigorously support higher education. A college degree is an investment whose benefits exceed the individual degree holder to disperse throughout society. This simple idea-college completion benefits the individual and the community-is central to the missions of many institutions of higher education. It should give us pause, then, that first-generation students attain college degrees at lower rates and with more difficulties than continuing-generation students. Although our nation has more college students than ever, the majority of these college degrees go to students from higher income brackets. Between 1970 and 2013, the percentage of students earning a degree from the top quarter of household income increased from 40 to 77%; among the lowest quarter of household income that same rate rose from 6% to 9% (Pell Institute, 2015). What happened to the social mission of higher education?

The findings of this teaching guide can be summarized as follows. First-generation students learn differently from other students. Before college starts, they are likely to have missed out on many opportunities that facilitate attainment of a college degree, including completion of rigorous coursework, development of study skills, and accumulating cultural capital. Once at college, first-generation students are likely to experience isolation from their peers and faculty. Classroom instructors can foster first-generation student success by addressing the unique obstacles facing first-generation students.

The composition of this guide relied heavily upon the report of UCLA Higher Education Research Institute First In My Family: A Profile of First-Generation College Students at Four-Year Institutions Since 1971 (Saenz et al., 2007) and Jeff Davis' The First-Generation Student Experience: Implications for Campus Practice, and Strategies for Improving Persistence and Success (2010). These texts are invaluable resources for educators and administrators seeking to learn more about first-generation students, along with any of the texts cited in the references section of this guide.

Several advocacy and research organizations exist for first-generation students. FirstGenerationCollegeBound and I'mFirst! both offer plentiful resources for first-generation students, and their parents and advisers.

This guide focuses on teaching first-generation undergraduate students. For information on first-generation graduate students, the InsideHigherEd articles "Graduate Study for First-Generation Students," by Jess Waggoner (2013) and "From First-Gen College Student to First-Gen Grad Student," by Alicia Peaker and Katie Shives (2013) serve as useful departure points.

Lastly, in following the recommendations offered here within, the author of this guide, Ben Galina, would like to come out as a first-generation student.

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Rodríguez, R. (1983). Hunger of memory: The Education of Richard Rodríguez. New York: Bantam Books.

Saenz, V. B., Hurtado, S., Barrera, D., Wolf, D., & Fanny Yeung (2007). First in my family: A profile of first-generation college students at four-year institutions since 1971. Los Angeles, Higher Education Research Institute, UCLA.

Smart, J. C., & Umbach, P. D. (2007). Faculty and Academic Environments: Using Holland's Theory to Explore Differences in How Faculty Structure Undergraduate Courses. Journal of College Student Development, 48(2), 183-195.

Steele, C., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797-811.

Stevens, D. D., & Levi, A. (2005). Leveling the Field: Using Rubrics to Achieve Greater Equity in Teaching and Grading. Essays on Teaching Excellence, Professional and Organizational Development Network in Higher Education, 17 (1).

Stolberg, S. G. (2009). Sotomayor, a Trailblazer and a Dreamer. The New York Times, A1.

Terenzini, P., Springer, L., Yaeger, P., Pascarella, E., & Nora, A. (1996). First-generation college students: Characteristics, experiences, and cognitive development. Research in Higher Education, 37, 1-22.

Treisman, U. (1992). Studying students studying calculus: A look at the lives of minority mathematics students in college. The College Mathematics Journal, 25(5), 362-372.

Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student: attrition (2 nd ed.). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Tokarczyk, M. M., & Fay, E. A. (Eds.). (1993). Working class women in the academy: Laborers in the knowledge factory. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press.

Waggoner, J. (2013, December 8). Graduate Study for First Generation Students. Retrieved from InsideHigherEd.com.

Warburton, E., Gugarín, R., & Nuñez, A. (2001). Bridging the gap: Academic preparation and postsecondary success of first-generation students (NCES 2001-153). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Government Printing Office.

Wingate, U. (2006). Doing away with "study skills." Teaching in Higher Education, 11(4), 457-469.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

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by Ben Galina Print Version Cite this guide: Galina, B. (2016). Teaching First-Generation College Students. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/teaching-first-generation-college-students/. What does it mean to be first? "Even when presenting academic credentials and a level of academic motivation equal to that of their peers whose parents graduated from college, first-generation...

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Strategies for Teaching First Gen Students

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Strategies for Teaching First Gen Students

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Respect for Students, 1st gen, diversity

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Strategies for Teaching First Gen Students

Understanding and Supporting FirstGen Students

First generation faculty can:

Identify yourself as first-generation on the first day of classes each quarter and invite students (first generation or otherwise) who would like to learn more about your academic journey to attend office hours.

Initiate conversations with other first-generation faculty in your department and college or school, and identify student outreach opportunities with your department or college.

Add your profile to the directory and consider submitting your story to the #FirstGen project. Email scknox@ucdavis.edu for more information.

All faculty can:

Make a positive statement about the high percentage of 'first gen' students at UC Davis and express interest in supporting their success.

Learn about issues confronting first generation students by reading the research.

Familiarize yourself with support services available on campus and encourage first-generation students to make use of those services.

Resources

Teaching Resources

UC Davis FirstGen Student Data

Press and Media

FirstGen Faculty and Student Speakers

Would you like to have a first-gen faculty member or student speak to your class, group, or event? We have a list of faculty willing to share their stories to connect with first-gen students.

To request a student presenter, email firstgenucdavis@ucdavis.edu .

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Understanding and Supporting FirstGen Students First generation faculty can: Identify yourself as first-generation on the first day of classes each quarter and invite students (first generation or otherwise) who would like to learn more about your academic journey to attend office hours.

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Respect for Students, diversity

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ETSU Language and Culture Resource Center

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Welcome to the Language and Culture Resource Center!

We offer opportunities for people within the ETSU and regional communities to share cultural experiences, to celebrate our diverse backgrounds, and to build connections between native English speakers and multilingual speakers. Our programs include translation and interpretation services in Spanish and Portuguese, language tables, and conversation partners for international students. We host special events such as Hispanic Student Day for high school students in the Latinx community and the Corazón Latino festival. Check out our mission statement, other services, partnerships, and virtual events!

SPRING 2023

Interpretation and Translation Services

We are available by phone at (423) 439-8342. In order to schedule an interpretation or to request a translation, please send an email to lcrc@etsu.edu.

Hispanic Student Day - January 31st, 2023

This event welcomes Hispanic high school students from the region to visit ETSU and learn about attending a college or university. This year's event will be held at the ETSU D. P. Culp Center Ballroom on Tue., January 31st, 2023 from 8:30 am - 2:30 pm. If you are interested in attending, please contact sanchezsalazar@etsu.edu.

Corazón Latino Festival - May 5th, 2023

This year's festival will be held from 4 pm - 10 pm on Friday, May 5th, 20223. We are considering moving to a different location and we hope to make an announcement about it soon. Come enjoy live music, food, dance, art, and more! The event will feature Mariachis, Mexican Folk dance, Tango, Salsa, and DJ Torrado.

Free Swahili Lessons

Classes meet weekly on Thurdays via Zoom. Contact michieka@etsu.edu for more information and for the Zoom link.

Conversation Partner Program

International students and multilingual speakers in the community are invited to practice your English with us!

Individualized meetings available with LCRC students in person or via Zoom. Contact norrish@etsu.edu to schedule a partner.

We Read:

Golazo is an Ecuadorian website that displays short stories, personal narratives, interviews, and discussions about soccer in the world from a Latin American perspective.

El Tomato Guide - El Nuevo in the news via Dr. Ken Silver, ETSU Associate Professor of Environmental Health - https://www.aspph.org/east-tennessee-community-based-research-partnership-publishes-tomato-workers-guide/

We Listen:

WETS-FM is a public radio station operated as a partnership between East Tennessee State University and the station's listeners.

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We offer opportunities for people within the ETSU and regional communities to share cultural experiences, to celebrate our diverse backgrounds, and to build connections between native English speakers and multilingual speakers. Our programs include translation and interpretation services in Spanish and Portuguese, language tables, and conversation partners for international students.

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12 Ways to Support English Learners in the Mainstream Classroom

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12 Ways to Support English Learners in the Mainstream Classroom

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Respect for Students, diversity

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Listen to this post as a podcast:
A note on terminology: The acronym ESL is used less often now in schools than it used to be, because we recognize that many students who are learning English already speak several other languages, so English would not be a "second" language. I use it several times in the post because schools sometimes refer to the teachers as ESL teachers, and the term is still widely used as a search term for this topic. My intent in using the acronym is to make this post easier to find online.

You have a new student, and he speaks no English. His family has just moved to your town from Japan, and though he receives English as a Second Language (ESL) support, he will also be sitting in your room every day to give him more exposure to his new language. How can you be a good teacher to someone who barely understands you?

According to the National Center for Education Statistics, an average of 9 percent of students in U.S. public schools are English Language Learners (ELLs); that number is closer to 14 percent in cities. Although many of these students start off in high-intensity, whole-day English programs, most are integrated into mainstream classrooms within a year, well before their English language skills would be considered proficient.

How prepared are you to teach these students? If you're like most classroom teachers, you have little to no training in the most effective methods for working with English language learners (Walker, Shafer, & Iiams, 2004). So that means we have a problem here: Lots of ELL kids in regular classrooms, and no teacher training to ensure the success of that placement.

Below, three ESL teachers tell us what they know about the things regular classroom teachers can do to improve instruction for ELL students. These 12 strategies are simple, they are not very time consuming, and best of all, they will help everyone in your class learn better:

1. Make it Visual

"Avoid giving instructions in the air," says Melissa Eddington, an Ohio-based ESL teacher. "ELL kids have a harder time processing spoken language." So instructions - even basic directions for classroom procedures - should be written on the board whenever possible. Challenging concepts should be diagrammed or supported with pictures. And modeling the steps of a process or showing students what a finished product should look like can go a long way toward helping students understand. "Sometimes showing our students what to do is all they need in order to do it," Eddington says. Not only will this kind of nonlinguistic representation improve comprehension for ELL students, it will help all of your students grasp concepts better.

2. Build in more group work.

"Kids aren't just empty glasses that we pour stuff into and then at the end of the day they dump it back onto a test," says Kim, an ESL teacher who was the subject of my very first podcast interview. "If you really want the kids to learn, they've got to be engaged." That means less teacher-led, whole-class instruction, and more small groups, where students can practice language with their peers in a more personal, lower-risk setting. And if ELL students attend your class with a resource teacher, make use of that person: In most cases the resource teacher doesn't have to work exclusively with the ESL students; they can work with smaller groups that happen to contain these students, helping to improve the teacher-student ratio and give kids more time to practice.

3. Communicate with the ESL teacher.

Mary Yurkosky, a former ESL teacher in Massachusetts, credits much of her students' success to the strong relationship she had with the regular classroom teachers. "The classroom teachers were always talking to me about what they were doing in their classes," she says. "They made it so easy for me to support them: If a teacher was going to be doing a unit on plants, I could make sure we used some of that same vocabulary in the ESL class."

Ideally, this could be systematized, where ESL teachers could regularly get copies of lesson plans or collaborate with regular classroom teachers to build solid back-and-forth support, but "it doesn't have to be that much work," Yurkosky insists. "Just talk to each other. Talk about what's going on in your classrooms, invite each other to special presentations, share what your students are learning, and the words will naturally find their way into the ESL class."

4. Honor the "silent period."

Many new language learners go through a silent period, during which they will speak very little, if at all. "Don't force them to talk if they don't want to," says Eddington, "A lot of students who come from cultures outside of America want to be perfect when they speak, so they will not share until they feel they are at a point where they're perfect." Just knowing that this is a normal stage in second language acquisition should help relieve any pressure you feel to move them toward talking too quickly.

5. Allow some scaffolding with the native language.

Although it has been a hotly debated topic in the language-learning community, allowing students some use of their first language (L1) in second-language (L2) classrooms is gaining acceptance. When a student is still very new to a language, it's okay to pair him with other students who speak his native language. "Some students are afraid to open their mouths at all for fear of sounding stupid or just not knowing the words to use," Yurkosky says. "Letting them explain things or ask questions in their first language gets them to relax and feel like a part of the class."

And this doesn't only apply to spoken language. If you give students a written assignment, but the ELL student doesn't yet have the proficiency to handle writing his response in English, "Don't make them just sit there and do nothing," Eddington says. "Allow them to write in their first language if they're able. This allows them to still participate in journal writing or a math extended response, even if you can't read what they write." There has even been some evidence that allowing second-language learners to pre-write and brainstorm in L1 results in higher-quality writing in L2 in later stages of the writing process (Yigzaw, 2012).

6. Look out for culturally unique vocabulary.

"For most of these kids, their background knowledge is lacking, especially with things that are unique to American or westernized culture," says Eddington. It's important to directly teach certain vocabulary words: "Show them videos of what it looks like to toss pizza dough, show pictures of a juke box or a clothing rack - things that are not common in their own language."

One way to differentiate for ELL students is to consider the whole list of terms you're going to teach for a unit, and if you think an ELL student may be overwhelmed by such a long list, omit those that are not essential to understanding the larger topic at hand.

7. Use sentence frames to give students practice with academic language.

All students, not just English language learners, need practice with academic conversations. Sentence frames - partially completed sentences like "I disagree with what _________ said because..." - show students how to structure language in a formal way. Keep these posted in a highly visible spot in your classroom and require students to refer to them during discussions and while they write.

For this kind of language to really sink in, though, Kim says it has to become a regular part of class. "They won't do it if it's not the norm in the class, because they'll be embarrassed to use it among their peers," she says. "But if they can put it off on the teacher and say, Oh, well, you know, Miss Kim makes me talk like this, then they don't look as hoity-toity as they would otherwise."

8. Pre-teach whenever possible.

If you're going to be reading a certain article next week, give ESL students a copy of it now. If you plan to show a YouTube video tomorrow, send a link to your ESL students today. Any chance you can give these students to preview material will increase the odds that they'll understand it on the day you present it to everyone else. "That kind of thing is wonderful," Yurkosky says. "The kids feel so empowered if they've had a chance to look at the material ahead of time."

9. Learn about the cultural background of your students...

Our second-language populations grow more diverse every year. Taking the time to learn the basics of where a child comes from - exactly, not 'somewhere in the Middle East/South America/Asia/Africa' - tells the student that you respect her enough to bother. Kim remembers one time when she had to set the record straight about the diverse South American population at her school: "I was listening to the teachers talking about the 'Mexican' kids in our building," she says, "and I was like, 'We don't have any Mexicans.'" Not taking the time to at least correctly identify a child's country of origin, much like not bothering to pronounce their name correctly, is a kind of microaggression, a small, subtle insult that communicates hostility toward people of color. Make a commitment to be someone who bothers to get it right.

Once you have the country straight, take things up a notch by learning about students' religious and cultural practices. If he is a practicing Muslim, he should be told if one of the pizzas you ordered for the class party has sausage on it. If she comes from a culture where eye contact with adults is viewed as disrespectful, you'll know not to force her to look you in the eye when she's talking.

10. ...but don't make a child speak for his entire culture.

In her podcast interview, Kim shared a story about watching a teacher ask a new Iraqi student how he felt about the war in his country, right in the middle of class. "That's not cultural inclusiveness," she explains. "I've seen teachers do this and then pat themselves on the back. The students' English is limited so they can't express themselves very well, and they don't want to 'represent'; they just want to be there." If you anticipate a theme coming up in your class that's going to be relevant to one of your students, have a conversation with them in advance, or check with your ESL teacher to see if they think it's appropriate for in-class discussion.

11. Show them how to take themselves less seriously...

By modeling the risk-taking that's required to learn a new language, you help students develop the courage to take their own risks, and to have a sense of humor about it. "I tried to say the word 'paint' ( pinta) in Portuguese and instead I said the word for 'penis' ( pinto). They all roared with laughter while I stood there with a What?? look on my face," Yurkosky says. "When they explained what I'd said, I laughed so hard! I told them that laughing was fine because sometimes mistakes are really funny, but ridicule is never okay."

12. ...but always take them seriously.

One of Kim's pet peeves about how teachers interact with English language learners is the way they often see students' efforts as 'cute,' missing the whole point of what the student is trying to say. "A student will be desperate to communicate, and the teacher will get distracted by the delivery and miss the message," she says. "That's painful for me to watch." It bothers her when teachers mistake a lack of language for a lack of intelligence or maturity. When a child can't express themselves as well as they would in their native language, it's far too easy to assume the concepts just aren't in their heads.

"It breaks my heart when I hear teachers say (ELL kids) don't know anything," says Eddington. "These are brilliant kids and they know a lot. They just can't tell us in English yet." Make a conscious effort to see past the accent and the mispronunciations and treat every interaction - every student - with the respect they deserve.

"They're doing twice the job of everybody else in the class," Kim adds, "even though the result looks like half as much." ♦

Further Reading

The ESL/ELL Teacher's Survival Guide is one of the highest-rated books on teaching English-language learners available. In addition to offering an overview of the research on second-language learners and best practices in teaching ESL, it also includes a whole section on teaching ESL in the content areas and another specifically geared toward teaching ELL students in mainstream classrooms.
References:
Walker, A., Shafer, J., & Iiams, M. (2004). "Not in my classroom": Teacher attitudes towards English language learners in the mainstream classroom. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, 2(1), 130-160.

Yigzaw, A. (2012). Impact of L1 use in L2 English writing classes. Ethiopian Journal of Education and Sciences, 8(1), 11-27.

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12 Ways to Support English Learners in the Mainstream Classroom

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Advice from three ESL teachers on the things regular classroom teachers can do to help English language learners thrive in mainstream classrooms.

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Respect for students, diversity

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The Danger of a Single Story: "Novelist Chimamanda Adichie ... warns that if we hear only a single story about another person or country, we risk a critical misunderstanding." In addition to our biases and misunderstandings, it is also important to recognize how we can send hidden messages to our students by the content we select, what and who we use as examples, language we use or don't use, etc.

A Class Divided: "The day after Martin Luther King, Jr. was killed, Jane Elliott, a teacher in a small, all-white Iowa town, divided her third-grade class into blue-eyed and brown-eyed groups and gave them a daring lesson in discrimination. This is the story of that lesson, its lasting impact on the children, and its enduring power 30 years later ( original clips along with supplemental resources).​"
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english language learners teaching strategies

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Effective teaching strategies for English Language Learners in K-12 classes.

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Respect for Students, value

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Cite this guide: Yarborough, C. B., & Fedesco, H. N. (2020). Motivating students. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu//cft/guides-sub-pages/motivating-students/.

Introduction

Fostering student motivation is a difficult but necessary aspect of teaching that instructors must consider. Many may have led classes where students are engaged, motivated, and excited to learn, but have also led classes where students are distracted, disinterested, and reluctant to engage-and, probably, have led classes that are a mix. What factors influence students' motivation? How can instructors promote students' engagement and motivation to learn? While there are nuances that change from student to student, there are also models of motivation that serve as tools for thinking through and enhancing motivation in our classrooms. This guide will look at three frameworks: the expectancy-value-cost model of motivation, the ARCS model of instructional design, and self-determination theory. These three models highlight some of the major factors that influence student motivation, often drawing from and demonstrating overlap among their frameworks. The aim of this guide is to explore some of the literature on motivation and offer practical solutions for understanding and enhancing student motivation.

Expectancy - Value - Cost Model

The purpose of the original expectancy-value model was to predict students' achievement behaviors within an educational context. The model has since been refined to include cost as one of the three major factors that influence student motivation. Below is a description of the three factors, according to the model, that influence motivation.

Expectancy refers to a student's expectation that they can actually succeed in the assigned task. It energizes students because they feel empowered to meet the learning objectives of the course.

Value involves a student's ability to perceive the importance of engaging in a particular task. This gives meaning to the assignment or activity because students are clear on why the task or behavior is valuable.

Cost points to the barriers that impede a student's ability to be successful on an assignment, activity and/or the course at large. Therefore, students might have success expectancies and perceive high task value, however, they might also be aware of obstacles to their engagement or a potential negative affect resulting in performance of the task, which could decrease their motivation.

Three important questions to consider from the student perspective:
1. Expectancy - Can I do the task?

2. Value - Do I want to do the task?

* Intrinsic or interest value: the inherent enjoyment that an individual experiences from engaging in the task for its own sake.

* Utility value: the usefulness of the task in helping achieve other short term or long-term goals.

* Attainment value: the task affirms a valued aspect of an individual's identity and meets a need that is important to the individual.

3. Cost - Am I free of barriers that prevent me from investing my time, energy, and resources into the activity?

It's important to note that expectancy, value and cost are not shaped only when a student enters your classroom. These have been shaped over time by both individual and contextual factors. Each of your students comes in with an initial response, however there are strategies for encouraging student success, clarifying subject meaning and finding ways to mitigate costs that will increase your students' motivation. Everyone may not end up at the same level of motivation, but if you can increase each student's motivation, it will help the overall atmosphere and productivity of the course that you are teaching.

Strategies to Enhance Expectancy, Value, and Cost

Hulleman et. al (2016) summarize research-based sources that positively impact students' expectancy beliefs, perceptions of task value, and perceptions of cost, which might point to useful strategies that instructors can employ.

Research-based sources of expectancy-related beliefs

Expectancy source

Definition

Research-based sources of value

Research-based sources of cost

Sources:

Barron K. E., & Hulleman, C. S. (2015). Expectancy-value-cost model of motivation. International Encyclopedia of Social and Behavioral Sciences, 8, 503-509.

Hulleman, C. S., Barron, K. E., Kosovich, J. J., & Lazowski, R. A. (2016). Student motivation: Current theories, constructs, and interventions within an expectancy-value framework. In A. A. Lipnevich et al. (Eds.), Psychosocial Skills and School Systems in the 21st Century. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

ARCS Model of Instructional Design

The ARCS model of instructional design was created to improve the motivational appeal of instructional materials. The ARCS model is grounded in an expectancy-value framework, which assumes that people are motivated to engage in an activity if it's perceived to be linked to the satisfaction of personal needs and if there is a positive expectancy for success. The purpose of this model was to fill a gap in the motivation literature by providing a model that could more clearly allow instructors to identify strategies to help improve motivation levels within their students.

ARCS is an acronym that stands for four factors, according to the model, that influence student motivation: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction.

Attention refers to getting and sustaining student attention and directing attention to the appropriate stimuli.

Relevance involves making instruction applicable to present and future career opportunities, showing that learning in it of itself is enjoyable, and/or focusing on process over product by satisfying students' psychological needs (e.g., need for achievement, need for affiliation).

Confidence includes helping students believe that some level of success is possible if effort is exerted.

Satisfaction is attained by helping students feel good about their accomplishments and allowing them to exert some degree of control over the learning experience.

To use the ARCS instructional design model, these steps can be followed:

Define

Classify the problem

Analyze audience motivation

Prepare motivational objectives (i.e., identify which factor in the ARCS model to target based on the defined problem and audience analysis).

Design

Generate potential motivational strategies for each objective

Select strategies that a) don't take up too much instructional time; b) don't detract from instructional objectives; c) fall within time and money constraints; d) are acceptable to the audience; and e) are compatible with the instructor's personal style, preferences, and mode of instruction.

Develop

Prepare motivational elements

Integrate materials with instruction

Evaluate

Conduct a developmental try-out

Assess motivational outcomes

Strategies to Enhance Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction

Keller (1987) provides several suggestions for how instructors can positively impact students' attention, perceived relevance, confidence, and satisfaction.

Attention Strategies
Incongruity, Conflict

Introduce a fact that seems to contradict the learner's past experience.

Present an example that does not seem to exemplify a given concept.

Introduce two equally plausible facts or principles, only one of which can be true.

Play devil's advocate.

Concreteness Variability

In stand up delivery, vary the tone of your voice, and use body movement, pauses, and props.

Vary the format of instruction (information presentation, practice, testing, etc.) according to the attention span of the audience.

Vary the medium of instruction (platform delivery, film, video, print, etc.).

Break up print materials by use of white space, visuals, tables, different typefaces, etc.

Change the style of presentation (humorous-serious, fast-slow, loud-soft, active-passive, etc.).

Shift between student-instructor interaction and student-student interaction.

Humor Inquiry Participation
Use games, role plays, or simulations that require learner participation.

Relevance Strategies
Experience Present Worth
State explicitly the present intrinsic value of learning the content, as distinct from its value as a link to future goals.
Future Usefulness

State explicitly how the instruction relates to future activities of the learner.

Ask learners to relate the instruction to their own future goals (future wheel).

Need Matching Modeling Choice

Provide meaningful alternative methods for accomplishing a goal.

Provide personal choices for organizing one's work.

Confidence Strategies
Learning Requirements Difficulty
Organize materials on an increasing level of difficulty; that is, structure the learning material to provide a "conquerable" challenge.
Expectations Attributions

Attribute student success to effort rather than luck or ease of task when appropriate (i.e., when you know it's true!).

Encourage student efforts to verbalize appropriate attributions for both successes and failures.

Self-Confidence
Satisfaction Strategies
Natural Consequences Unexpected Rewards

Reward intrinsically interesting task performance with unexpected, non-contingent rewards.

Reward boring tasks with extrinsic, anticipated rewards.

Positive Outcomes

Give verbal praise for successful progress or accomplishment.

Give personal attention to students.

Provide informative, helpful feedback when it is immediately useful.

Provide motivating feedback (praise) immediately following task performance.

Negative Influences Scheduling
Source: Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instructional design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10, 2-10.

Self-Determination Theory

Self-determination theory (SDT) is a macro-theory of human motivation, emotion, and development that is concerned with the social conditions that facilitate or hinder human flourishing. While applicable to many domains, the theory has been commonly used to understand what moves students to act and persist in educational settings. SDT focuses on the factors that influence intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, which primarily involves the satisfaction of basic psychological needs.

Basic Psychological Needs

SDT posits that human motivation is guided by the need to fulfill basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Autonomy refers to having a choice in one's own individual behaviors and feeling that those behaviors stem from individual volition rather than from external pressure or control. In educational contexts, students feel autonomous when they are given options, within a structure, about how to perform or present their work.

Competence refers to perceiving one's own behaviors or actions as effective and efficient. Students feel competent when they are able to track their progress in developing skills or an understanding of course material. This is often fostered when students receive clear feedback regarding their progression in the class.

Relatedness refers to feeling a sense of belonging, closeness, and support from others. In educational settings, relatedness is fostered when students feel connected, both intellectually and emotionally, to their peers and instructors in the class. This can often be accomplished through interactions that allow members of the class to get to know each other on a deeper, more personal level.

Continuum of Self-Determination

SDT also posits that motivation exists on a continuum. When an environment provides enough support for the satisfaction of the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness, an individual may experience self-determined forms of motivation: intrinsic motivation, integration, and identification. Self-determined motivation occurs when there is an internal perceived locus of causality (i.e., internal factors are the main driving force for the behavior). Integration and identification are also grouped as autonomous extrinsic motivation as the behavior is driven by internal and volitional choice.

Intrinsic motivation, which is the most self-determined type of motivation, occurs when individuals naturally and spontaneously perform behaviors as a result of genuine interest and enjoyment.

Integrated regulation is when individuals identify the importance of a behavior, integrate this behavior into their self-concept, and pursue activities that align with this self-concept.

Identified regulation is where people identify and recognize the value of a behavior, which then drives their action.

When an environment does not provide enough support for the satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, an individual may experience non-self-determined forms of motivation: introjection and external regulation. Introjection and external regulation are grouped as controlled extrinsic motivation because people enact these behaviors due to external or internal pressures.

Introjected regulation occurs when individuals are controlled by internalized consequences administered by the individual themselves, such as pride, shame, or guilt.

External regulation is when people's behaviors are controlled exclusively by external factors, such as rewards or punishments.

Finally, at the bottom of the continuum is amotivation, which is lowest form of motivation.

Amotivation exists when there is a complete lack of intention to behave and there is no sense of achievement or purpose when the behavior is performed.

Below is a figure depicting the continuum of self-determination taken from Lonsdale, Hodge, and Rose (2009).

Although having intrinsically motivated students would be the ultimate goal, it may not be a practical one within educational settings. That's because there are several tasks that are required of students to meet particular learning objectives that may not be inherently interesting or enjoyable. Instead, instructors can employ various strategies to satisfy students' basic psychological needs, which should move their level of motivation along the continuum, and hopefully lead to more self-determined forms of motivation, thus yielding the greatest rewards in terms of student academic outcomes.

Below are suggestions for how instructors can positively impact students' perceived autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Strategies to Enhance Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness

Autonomy Strategies

Have students choose paper topics

Have students choose the medium with which they will present their work

Co-create rubrics with students (e.g., participation rubrics, assignment rubrics)

Have students choose the topics you will cover in a particular unit

Drop the lowest assessment or two (e.g., quizzes, exams, homework)

Have students identify preferred assignment deadlines

Gather mid-semester feedback and make changes based on student suggestions

Provide meaningful rationales for learning activities

Acknowledge students' feelings about the learning process or learning activities throughout the course

Competence Strategies

Set high but achievable learning objectives

Communicate to students that you believe they can meet your high expectations

Communicate clear expectations for each assignment (e.g., use rubrics)

Include multiple low-stakes assessments

Give students practice with feedback before assessments

Provide lots of early feedback to students

Have students provide peer feedback

Scaffold assignments

Praise student effort and hard work

Provide a safe environment for students to fail and then learn from their mistakes

Relatedness Strategies

Share personal anecdotes

Get to know students via small talk before/after class and during breaks

Require students to come to office hours (individually or in small groups)

Have students complete a survey where they share information about themselves

Use students' names (perhaps with the help of name tents)

Have students incorporate personal interests into their assignments

Share a meal with students or bring food to class

Incorporate group activities during class, and allow students to work with a variety of peers

Arrange formal study groups

Convey warmth, caring, and respect to students

Sources:

Lonsdale, C., Hodge, K., & Rose, E. (2009). Athlete burnout in elite sport: A self-determination perspective. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27, 785-795.

Niemiec, C. P., & Ryan, R. M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Theory and Research in Education, 7, 133-144.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. New York: Guilford.

Additional Strategies for Motivating Students

Below are some additional research-based strategies for motivating students to learn.

Become a role model for student interest. Deliver your presentations with energy and enthusiasm. As a display of your motivation, your passion motivates your students. Make the course personal, showing why you are interested in the material.

Get to know your students. You will be able to better tailor your instruction to the students' concerns and backgrounds, and your personal interest in them will inspire their personal loyalty to you. Display a strong interest in students' learning and a faith in their abilities.

Use examples freely. Many students want to be shown why a concept or technique is useful before they want to study it further. Inform students about how your course prepares students for future opportunities.

Use a variety of student-active teaching activities. These activities directly engage students in the material and give them opportunities to achieve a level of mastery.

Teach by discovery. Students find it satisfying to reason through a problem and discover the underlying principle on their own.

Cooperative learning activities are particularly effective as they also provide positive social pressure.

Set realistic performance goals and help students achieve them by encouraging them to set their own reasonable goals. Design assignments that are appropriately challenging in view of the experience and aptitude of the class.

Place appropriate emphasis on testing and grading. Tests should be a means of showing what students have mastered, not what they have not. Avoid grading on the curve and give everyone the opportunity to achieve the highest standard and grades.

Be free with praise and constructive in criticism. Negative comments should pertain to particular performances, not the performer. Offer nonjudgmental feedback on students' work, stress opportunities to improve, look for ways to stimulate advancement, and avoid dividing students into sheep and goats.

Give students as much control over their own education as possible. Let students choose paper and project topics that interest them. Assess them in a variety of ways (tests, papers, projects, presentations, etc.) to give students more control over how they show their understanding to you. Give students options for how these assignments are weighted.

Sources:

Bain, K. (2004). What the best college teachers do. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

DeLong, M., & Winter, D. (2002). Learning to teach and teaching to learn mathematics: Resources for professional development. Washington, D.C.: Mathematical Association of America.

Nilson, L. (2016). Teaching at its best: A research-based resource for college instructors (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Josey-Bass.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

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by Chelsea Yarborough and Heather Fedesco Print Version Cite this guide: Yarborough, C. B., & Fedesco, H. N. (2020). Motivating students. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu//cft/guides-sub-pages/motivating-students/. Introduction Expectancy - Value - Cost Model ARCS Model of Instructional Design Self-Determination Theory Additional Strategies for Motivating Students Introduction Fostering student...

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Using Reflective Writing to Deepen Student Learning

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Using Reflective Writing to Deepen Student Learning

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Respect for Students

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Using Reflective Writing to Deepen Student Learning | Writing Across the Curriculum

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Research in learning sciences illustrates the many benefits of reflective writing.

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Enhancing adult motivation to learn: A comprehensive guide for teaching all adults

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Enhancing adult motivation to learn: A comprehensive guide for teaching all adults

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Respect for Students, motivation

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Motivating Students with Teaching Techniques that Establish Relevance, Promote Autonomy

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Motivating Students with Teaching Techniques that Establish Relevance, Promote Autonomy

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Respect for Students, motivation

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Faculty Focus | Higher Ed Teaching & Learning

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Underachievement in college students is linked to lack of motivation (Balduf, 2009 and references therein). Two major factors that contribute to poor motivation are inability of students to see the relevance of classroom activities to their chosen careers (Glynn et al., 2009) and lack of a sense of autonomy (Reeve and Jang, 2006; Reeve, 2009).

In this article, I provide examples of how I addressed these two issues with activities that promote experiential learning and encourage students to be more active participants in their learning. These techniques were used mainly in science courses but could be adapted to other disciplines.

Establishing Relevance
Experiential learning is a process through which students develop skills through direct experience. While most people think of experiential learning as something that happens outside the classroom, it is possible to give students real-life experiences in the classroom, too.

I am explicit with my students about the desired outcomes and utility of my assigned activities, but the key to my success has been to design activities that simulate real-life scenarios. Oftentimes, this simply involves re-naming an activity using professional rather than academic jargon. For example, rather than asking my students to write a lab report (academic jargon), I refer to it as a primary article (professional jargon). In several of my courses I have taken this one step further. I have adopted the style of a relevant journal for their lab reports (e.g. I use Development, for my developmental biology course, and Animal Behaviour for my animal behavior course) and give my students the Instructions for Authors from the publishers to use as formatting guidelines. Learning to write correctly for a real journal was more motivating for my students than simply learning to write in a way that "pleases Dr. Robertson," and the quality of their lab reports improved.

Other similar techniques my colleagues and I have used to simulate "real life scenarios" in the classroom include asking students to write an NIH grant proposal following actual NIH grant proposal guidelines (NIH, 2010). This assignment replaces one which asked them to write a senior research project proposal, which implied (in their minds) that they were being tasked with something that only college seniors do. Since changing our approach, we have noticed an improvement in the quality of their proposals.

In addition, I no longer ask my students to write essays (after all, who in the professional world writes essays?). I ask them to write articles in the style of the New York Times. I also have stopped asking students to write summaries; I now ask them to write reviews in the style of a secondary article from a journal such as Scientific American. Instead of writing reflections, I ask them to write self-evaluations or personal statements in the style of a professional self-evaluation or a statement that they might use for an application to graduate school.

Encouraging Autonomy
It is common practice for professors to provide explicit instructions and grading rubrics to students. However, overly-comprehensive instructions can stifle creativity, hinder independence, and actually lower motivation (Reeve, 2009; Robertson, 2013). Autonomy-supportive teaching styles improve student motivation as well as encourage independent thought and critical thinking (Reeve, 2009).

To enhance student autonomy, I don't give my students explicit guidelines or grading rubrics, but rather get them to write their own. As an extension to the activity described above, in which students model the style of a particular journal for their lab reports, I often ask my students to write detailed Instructions for Authors as an assignment. In doing so, they must identify for themselves (mostly correctly) what qualities a good paper should possess. Following that activity, I asked them to use those instructions to write a grading rubric, and then use the grading rubric to grade their own papers. This not only gives them a sense of autonomy, but it helps them develop their self-editing skills.

Others things I've done to encourage students as partners in the learning process, include:

asking students to pick a topic from their textbook, which they are then responsible for teaching to the rest of the class;

soliciting input on the syllabus by allowing the class to select the topics for a few "students' choice" lectures; and

assigning students to write a personal statement about their experiences in the course in which they identify their own weaknesses and request exercises to help them overcome those weaknesses.

The latter was particularly beneficial in helping me improve the course because many of the weaknesses they identified were common to the group and reflected a problem of general student perception or in my teaching style - both of which I was able to address.

These adjustments to the way I approach teaching were easy to make and have resulted in better student engagement and better quality assignments, which was my main goal. However, I also believe that my students left my classes with the perception that they had also learned something "useful" that they can apply in their professional careers.

References:
Balduf, M. (2009) Underachievement among College Students. J. Adv. Academics, 20 (2), 274-294.

Glynn, S. M., Taasoobshirazi, G. and Brickham, P. (2009) Science Motivation Questionnaire: Construct Validation with Nonscience Majors. J. Res. Sci. Teaching, 46 (2), 127-146.

NIH, (2010) Quick Guide for Grant Applications. Available online from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/ep/Tutorial.html.

Reeve, J. (2009) Why Teachers adopt a Controlling Motivating Style Toward Students and How They can Become More Autonomy Supportive. Educational Psychologist, 44 (3), 159-175.

Reeve, J. and Jang, H. (2009). What Teachers Say and Do to Support Students' Autonomy during a Learning Activity. J. Ed. Psych. 98 (1), 209-218.

Robertson, K. (2013) Assessment as an Opportunity for Developing Independent Thinking Skills in Students. Faculty Focus, April 1, 2013. Available online at https://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/educational-assessment/assessment-as-an-opportunity-for-developing-independent-thinking-skills-in-students/.
Dr. Katherine Robertson is an associate professor in the Department of Biology at Westminster College.

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Motivating Students with Teaching Techniques that Establish Relevance, Promote Autonomy

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Underachievement in college students is linked to lack of motivation (Balduf, 2009 and references therein). Two major factors that contribute to poor motivation are inability of students to see the relevance of classroom activities to their chosen careers (Glynn et al., 2009) and lack of a sense of autonomy (Reeve and Jang, 2006; Reeve, 2009).

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Beating the Mid-Semester Slump: Increasing Motivation Through Student Autonomy

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Beating the Mid-Semester Slump: Increasing Motivation Through Student Autonomy

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Respect for Students, motivation, autonomy

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As we leave fall break and Daylight Savings Time behind, and look forward to Thanksgiving break and the end of the year, you may find that your students' motivation is flagging. This is a good time to take stock of the plans you have for the remainder of your course and to think about ways to keep students engaged and inspired through the end of the semester.

Motivation is a complex phenomenon, but psychologists have broken it down into broad two categories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In education, extrinsic motivators include external rewards like grades and are related to the expectations of instructors, peers, and parents. Intrinsic motivators, by contrast, are related to the student's own expectations and may include things like interest in the subject matter or a sense that what students are studying is relevant to their lives. Our classes are full of, and necessarily organized around, extrinsic motivators. But fostering intrinsic motivation is a key part of helping students reach their full potential.

One good way to increase intrinsic motivation is to promote student autonomy. When students feel ownership over their learning and a sense of empowerment in the classroom, they not only perform better on assigned tasks but also leave the course with a greater sense of satisfaction and a good deal of knowledge that will stick with them long past the final exam.

So, how can you increase students' autonomy in your classes? One way is to treat students as active collaborators in the production of knowledge rather than passive receivers of it. Encourage students to see themselves as developing experts by asking them to explain concepts; engaging them in problem-solving or inquiry-based activities; encouraging multiple opinions and approaches; and allowing them to generate their own discussion questions or to take control of class conversation in some way.

You can also promote student autonomy by giving students meaningful control over the learning process. Consider your activities and assignments for the remainder of the semester: is there any way to incorporate student choice (within reasonable parameters) into those assignments or activities without making major changes? For example, you might let students choose their own topic for a final project, perhaps working from a list of approved topics you compile. You could likewise involve the students in creating the assessment criteria for such an assignment. You might also let students choose the topic of discussion, or the means by which that discussion is conducted, for one or two class days. Allowing your students to make these kinds of choices can increase both their investment in the course and their motivation to finish the semester strong.

Finally, you can help foster student autonomy by avoiding or deemphasizing external rewards and punishments. While extrinsic motivators have their place, psychological studies have shown that offering extrinsic rewards can actually decrease people's intrinsic motivation. A key part of developing student autonomy is helping your students see the value not in the rewards system of the class but in the subject matter itself. Giving students the freedom and the tools to interest themselves in course content is one good way to beat the mid-semester slump.
Further Reading
Crone, I. & MacKay, C. (2007). Motivating today's college students. Peer Review 9.

Garcia, Teresa & Pintrich, Paul R. (1996). The effects of autonomy on motivation and performance in the college classroom. Contemporary Educational Psychology 21, 477-486.

Gorham, J. & Millette, D.M. (1997). A Comparative Analysis of Teacher and Student Perceptions of Sources of Motivation and Demotivation in College Classes. Communication Education 46, 245- 61.

Lowman, J. (1990). Promoting motivation and learning. College Teaching 38, 136-140.

Motivating Students, Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching.

Niemiec, Christopher P. and Ryan, Richard M. (2009). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice. Theory and Research in Education 7, 133-144.

Stefanou, Candice R., Perecevich, Kathleen C., DiCintio, Matthew, & Turner, Julianne C. (2004). Supporting autonomy in the classroom: Ways teachers encourage student decision-making and ownership. Educational Psychologist 39, 97-110.
Kaneb Center Resources Fostering Student Motivation Through Instruction Motivation and Learning Keeping Students Motivated

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As we leave fall break and Daylight Savings Time behind, and look forward to Thanksgiving break and the end of the year, you may find that your students' motivation is flagging. This is a good time to take stock of the plans you have for the remainder of your course and to think about ways to keep students engaged and inspired through the end of the semester.

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Respect for Students, engagement, accessibility

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The UDL Guidelines are a tool used in the implementation of Universal Design for Learning, a framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn. Learn more about the Universal Design for Learning framework from CAST. The UDL Guidelines can be used by educators, curriculum developers, researchers, parents, and anyone else who wants to implement the UDL framework in a learning environment. These guidelines offer a set of concrete suggestions that can be applied to any discipline or domain to ensure that all learners can access and participate in meaningful, challenging learning opportunities.

Reenvisioning the UDL Guidelines

Because the UDL Guidelines are meant to be informed by feedback from the field as well as new research, they have been updated several times in the past. We are in the process of updating the Guidelines once again in our UDL Rising to Equity initiative.

This update will focus specifically on addressing systemic barriers that result in inequitable learning opportunities and outcomes. CAST aims to develop a transparent, inclusive, and community-driven process. If you are interested in collaborating and staying updated on our progress, we invite you to complete a brief survey.

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The UDL Guidelines are a tool used in the implementation of Universal Design for Learning, a framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn. Learn more about the Universal Design for Learning framework from CAST. The UDL Guidelines can be used by educators, curriculum developers, researchers, parents, and anyone else who wants to implement the UDL framework in a learning environment. These guidelines offer a set of concrete suggestions that can be applied to any discipline or domain to ensure that all learners can access and participate in meaningful, challenging learning opportunities.

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Student Goal Orientation, Motivation, and Learning - IDEA Paper 41

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Student Goal Orientation, Motivation, and Learning - IDEA Paper 41

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Respect for Students, motivation

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ABSTRACT

Of the factors that influence student learning, motivation is surely one of the most potent. Teachers can affect student motivation in ways that either facilitate or impede learning. This paper describes why this is so, and offers specific suggestions for promoting positive student motivation.
Download IDEA Paper 41

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Student Goal Orientation, Motivation, and Learning

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Of the factors that influence student learning, motivation is surely one of the most potent. Teachers can affect student motivation in ways that either facilitate or impede learning. This paper describes why this is so, and offers specific suggestions for promoting positive student motivation. Download IDEA Paper 41

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Respect for Students, mindset

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It is very likely that you already possess a mastery mindset - at least about your area of expertise. After all, you wouldn't be teaching your course(s) as an expert if you had said to yourself, "I'm just no good in this discipline - I'll never get any better."

Statements such as these, however, reflect the beliefs of many of our students. These beliefs lead to a lack of motivation among our students and a self-fulfilling prophecy of failure to improve in the areas in which they believe they are unalterably limited.

"Mastery mindset" refers to having a goal of mastering certain subjects, skills, or materials, and a belief that this can be done.

Daniel Pink (2009) outlines some crucial points to understand about a mastery mindset:

Individuals with a mastery mindset believe intelligence is not fixed but instead can be increased.

Striving for mastery is arduous. There will be setbacks and obstacles on the path to mastery, and even without these, aiming for mastery requires a dedication of time and effort.

Mastery is an asymptote - always approaching perfection, but perfection is never reached. This elusiveness makes mastery both fascinating and, at times, frustrating.?

How Can I Encourage a Mastery Mindset Among my Students?

1. Make sure your statements and actions reflect a mastery belief.

It can be easy at times to fall into thinking that certain students "don't have what it takes" to master the subject you teach. The only thing that students may lack is a mastery mindset - the belief that with effort, they can improve. Make sure this is how you think, rather than communicating (intentionally or not) to a student that they lack the intelligence to succeed.

2. Introduce the concept of a mastery mindset to your students.

There is no need to keep this concept a secret! Explain to students what a mastery mindset is and what its key characteristics are - then tell them you want them to have this mindset for the subject matter and skills required in your course. Resurrect the idea from time to time during the semester, particularly as you give feedback on work. For example, you might tell students, "Remember that mastery is an asymptote - we all work to get to perfection, but it's an unreachable goal. That's why, as you improve on your work in this course, my feedback will get more refined and detailed - to help you get closer to that goal of mastery!"

3. Call students on their lack of mastery mindset.

Students often make statements that reflect their belief that they cannot get better at something (e.g., a task, a set of concepts, C-level work). How many times have you heard, "I'm a bad test-taker."? When students make remarks such as this, counter them immediately with a statement reflecting your firm belief that improvement is possible. For example, "I think you would definitely improve on that skill - you just need to work at it and practice!"

4. Use rubrics.

Grading rubrics, which describe levels of performance on an assignment, communicate to students how improvements can be made with effort. They also provide explicit information about exactly where efforts should be focused in order to produce quality work. Consider providing rubrics to students ahead of their assignment due dates, so they can assess their work against your grading standards. Not only does a rubric communicate rich information to students about their performance, but they economize the time you spend giving that feedback.

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It is very likely that you already possess a mastery mindset - at least about your area of expertise. After all, you wouldn't be teaching your course(s) as an expert if you had said to yourself, "I'm just no good in this discipline - I'll never get any better."

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The 3 Essential Functions of Your Syllabus, Part 1

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The 3 Essential Functions of Your Syllabus, Part 1

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Respect for Students, syllabus

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The 3 Essential Functions of Your Syllabus, Part 1

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Our campus teaching center recently invited a brave group of student tutors to share their views on effective teaching with our faculty. The four tutors reported what they had heard from students about course designs and teaching practices that seemed to help, and ones that seemed to interfere with learning.

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How A Simple Checklist Can Improve Learning

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How A Simple Checklist Can Improve Learning

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Respect for Students

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by TeachThought Staff

From reminding us of what to pack for a trip to helping doctors perform surgery, checklists are crucial for projects that require sequential steps or a series of tasks.

As Atul Gawande points out in his book ' Checklist Manifesto ' (affiliate link), checklists break down complex tasks and also ensure consistency and efficiency if more than one person is working on a project. If checklists are so effective for airline pilots, skyscraper construction teams, and heart surgeons, why shouldn't students use them as well?

Checklists can benefit students in the following ways:

For younger students, simple, task-based checklists can help them become accustomed to following steps, adding order to the relative chaos of learning, and offering a pathway to accomplishing complex tasks. For older students, they can do all of the above, and also serve as memory aids as they work on unfamiliar or complicated tasks.

Checklists help students feel in control and hold them accountable by removing obstacles to success such as "I didn't know we were supposed to do that," or "I forgot to do that part."

Checklists keep students on task. Rather than losing focus and forgetting where they left off or abandoning the task altogether, they always know where they are in a task or project. (Or should know.)

Checklists can help communicate the details or goals of an assignment or project to other teachers, parents, or relevant community members.
Improving Metacognition
Education specialist Dr. Kathleen Dudden Rowlands believes checklists are more than just a way for students to stay organized and on-task. As she explains in "Check It Out! Using Checklists to Support Student Learning," checklists can aid students in developing metacognitive awareness of their own learning process.

"Used effectively, checklists can help students develop metacognitive awareness of their intellectual processes," Rowlands explained. Metacognitive awareness is essentially people's understanding of both the process of learning and how they can optimize their learning of certain knowledge or skills.

"Metacognitive research consistently suggests that students who know how to learn, know which strategies are most effective when faced with a problem or a task, and have accurate methods of assessing their progress, are better learners than those who don't," Rowlands noted. She also discussed checklists' role in the process of fostering strong metacognitive awareness: "

By articulating and labeling operational steps, checklists scaffold students' metacognitive development."
10 Resources To Use Checklists In Your Classroom
1. Wunderlist

This turbo-charged mobile app checklist allows users to collaborate on shared lists, turning it into a project management tool. You can create simple "to do" lists or different lists (subtasks) based on more complicated tasks. It syncs across iPhone, iPad, Mac, Android, Windows, and web browsers.

You can leave notes, set recurring tasks, share your lists and set alarms. The app lets you break big projects or tasks into manageable smaller goals. Of special benefit to the classroom is the fact that Wunderlist lists can be printed. It is also free, with an option for Wunderlist pro at $4.99 a month.
2. Overstrike
An app designed for easy checklists with the ability to create reminders and due dates, perform drag and drop sorting, and change backgrounds to fit the nature of your checklist.
3. Pinterest
You can do a search on Pinterest and find a variety of checklist resources. Search on 'checklist classroom' and find simple, pre-made checklists such as the 'Dismissal Checklist,' a list of tasks to help young students prepare for leaving school at the end of the day. A writing checklist for older students helps them make sure they are taking the necessary steps to successfully write essays and compositions. Other checklists include 'end of the year,' 'field trip,' and 'active listening.'
4. ReadWriteThink.org
This site, a collaboration between the International Reading Association, The National Council of Teachers of English and Verizon's Thinkfinity program, offers several in-depth and useful lesson plans that are accompanied by comprehensive checklists.

The 'Editing Checklist for Self and Peer Editing' offers a step-by-step guide for students to edit their own work as well as their classmates' work. A quick web search on any school subject will yield checklist ideas as well.
5. Templates
From the simple 'Homework Checklist' for young students to more in-depth rubrics for older students, there are countless checklists for both teachers and students across the internet. Even if you don't find quite what you need here, you'll discover plenty of ideas that you can incorporate into your own custom checklists.

You can start by searching several templates available from Microsoft and Adobe.
Other Checklist Resources
6. App: Google Keep (browser, Android, and iOS)

7. App: Microsoft To-Do (browser)

8. App: Checklist+ (iOS)

9. App: Productive (iOS)

10. Book: The Checklist Manifesto (affiliate link)
Conclusion
Any checklist you use in the classroom should be a flexible document that adapts to the needs of your students. Remember to visit your checklist with a critical eye frequently to make sure it's still working for you and your class. As you work through your checklist and realize ways to make it better, take the time to do so. Ask for feedback from your students as you implement new checklists to ensure that they are working as effective learning tools.

They might surprise you.
Kristin Marino writes about education for several websites, including onlineschools.com. She has a bachelor's degree in English composition from the University of Nevada, Reno; How A Simple Checklist Can Improve Learning; How A Simple Checklist Can Improve Learning

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How A Simple Checklist Can Improve Learning

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by TeachThought Staff From reminding us of what to pack for a trip to helping doctors perform surgery, checklists are crucial for projects that require sequential steps or a series of tasks. As Atul Gawande points out in his book ' Checklist Manifesto ' (affiliate link), checklists break down complex tasks and also ensure consistency and efficiency if more than one person is working on a project.

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Respect for Students, syllabus

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A syllabus quiz acts as a contract to verify understanding of important elements of the syllabus. The purpose of a syllabus quiz is not only to familiarize students with the syllabus content, but also gives students a chance to reflect on questions that were asked in previous terms. This helps the instructor avoid answering the same questions repeatedly, and a syllabus quiz can ensure that students are responsible for their own learning.

A syllabus quiz helps to clarify any misconceptions about course content or policies, such as late work. Important procedures can be reviewed and technical issues can be covered. The course structure and where to locate due dates can be included, as well as the instructor's preferred method of communication. Providing immediate feedback after completing the syllabus quiz will minimize confusion.

The syllabus quiz is unique to each instructor's preferences and course, but here are some popular questions that may help get you started:
Sample Syllabus Quiz Questions

What are the preferred methods of communicating with the instructor?

Why is logging in regularly and reading announcements helpful to succeeding online?

Where are the assignment due dates located?

Is late work accepted?

What is the policy for making up an exam?

Where is technical support information located?

What does substantive mean in regards to discussion posts?

How are the learning materials, such as readings, videos and lectures helpful?

What happens if a student plagiarizes material?

Are there extra credit opportunities?

What helpful syllabus quiz questions do you recommend?
Cowritten with DeAnna Soth

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Sample Syllabus Quiz Questions - Teach Online

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A syllabus quiz acts as a contract to verify understanding of important elements of the syllabus. The purpose of a syllabus quiz is not only to familiarize students with the syllabus content, but also gives students a chance to reflect on questions that were asked in previous terms. This helps the instructor avoid answering the same questions repeatedly, and a syllabus quiz can ensure that students are responsible for their own learning.

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The Needless Complexity of Academic Writing: A new movement strives for simplicity

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The Needless Complexity of Academic Writing: A new movement strives for simplicity

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Respect for Students, transparency

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A new movement strives for simplicity.

francois schnell / Flickr

Some research funders, such as National Institutes of Health and The Wellcome Trust, have mandated in recent years that studies they finance be published in open-access journals, but they've given little attention to ensuring those studies include accessible writing. "NIH has no policies for grantees that dictate the style of writing they use in their research publications," a spokesperson told me in an emailed statement. "We do advise applicants about the importance of using plain language in sections of the application that, if funded, will become public on the RePORT website."

Bosley is ever so slightly optimistic for a future of clear academic writing, though. "Professors hate rules for themselves," she says. "They become academics because it's almost like being an entrepreneur. So academia isn't like government or private business where laws or mandates work. But if we get more people like Pinker taking a stand on this, the culture could change."

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Indeed, there are an increasing number of academics taking it upon themselves to blog, tweet or try other means to convey their research to wider audiences. The news site TheConversation.com, for example, sources authors and stories from the academic and research communities. Academics get the byline but are edited by journalists adept at making complex research clear and writing palatable, according to the outlet's managing editor, Maria Balinska. "We see a real interest among academics across the board in what we're doing," Balinska says. "Our editing process is rigorous, but they still want to learn how to communicate their research and reach more people." She says The Conversation, which is being piloted in the U.S. and currently features articles by 1,500 academics from 300 institutions, is already getting hundreds of thousands of unique visitors each month mostly through word of mouth and social media.

Will this kind of interest in communicating about research by some academics help change status-quo academic writing? "Believe it or not," when compared to their peers in other parts of the world, "U.S. academics are probably the most open to the idea of accessible language," says Bosley. "I gave a presentation in France and academics there flat out told me that academics shouldn't write to express, they should write to impress." Bosley says bucking tradition and championing the clear-writing cause would be to an academic's advantage, to a university's advantage, and certainly to the public's advantage. "Here in the U.S. at least we're seeing some academics acknowledge this reality."
Advice on writing from The Atlantic's Ta-Nehisi Coates
But don't look for the clear-writing pitbull Cheek to solve this problem. She's working on one more bil l that calls for government regulations-not just info put out by agencies-to be written in clear language. Another try at getting that legislation passed and she's truly retiring."I think the government is easier to change than academics," says Cheek. "I'm not going to get into a battle with academia."

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Why Is Academic Writing So Needlessly Complex?

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A new movement strives for simplicity. Some research funders, such as National Institutes of Health and The Wellcome Trust, have mandated in recent years that studies they finance be published in open-access journals, but they've given little attention to ensuring those studies include accessible writing.

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A Guide to Giving Clear Instructions to Students (That They Will Actually Follow)

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A Guide to Giving Clear Instructions to Students (That They Will Actually Follow)

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Respect for Students, transparency

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Teachers are sometimes surprised to discover just how much giving clear instructions to students can affect students' success in the classroom. When given effective directions, students can engage with the material more effectively and ultimately have more productive experiences.

There are several steps teachers can take to ensure that their students understand instructions and are able to complete assignments with ease.

1. Use Clear and Precise Language

Thirty-three years ago, Chilcoat and Stahl wrote the definitive framework for giving clear directions. They advised using short, complete sentences and precise, concrete terms so that students will be able to understand what's expected of them. They also suggested using nouns instead of pronouns-especially when teaching younger students-and avoiding vague terms such as "some," "a few," or "a couple."
Further Reading: A 'how to' for aspiring teachers.
Teachers should also clearly articulate the expectations of the assignment or task. Explaining what students have to do, how they have to do it, and when they have to complete it by can help them understand-and follow-your directions. Providing a strong, detailed rubric with the assignment can also make both the teacher's and the student's job clearer and easier.

2. Repeat Your Directions

We assume that our students listen when we speak-but anyone who has been teaching for more than five minutes knows this isn't always the case. A teacher might give directions and find that their students haven't been paying attention, or that the students only half-grasped the instructions. A quick look around the room, some redirection, and some repetition can ensure that every student is focused and understands what they need to do. I often write assignment directions on the board, on the assignment sheet, and in our computer platform so that students can refer to them as they work.

3. Explain the Purpose of the Task

When you explain to students why they're being asked to complete an assignment, they're more able to appreciate the experience. Connecting the task to existing student knowledge, previous lessons, or covered material will help students feel more confident about tackling the task.

4. Make Sure Your Students Understand

After giving them directions, ask your students to repeat or rephrase what's expected of them. Ask them specific questions about the requirements. Clarify any confusing points. Provide students with feedback that can help them comprehend and complete the task.

5. Use an Appropriate Tone

It's not just what you say; it's also how you say it. Don't yell, mumble, or castigate. Ensure the pace of information is appropriate for grade level and ability. Don't rush or move too slowly. Pause frequently to give students time to digest the information.

6. Describe the Specifics

If the assignment requires specific materials or a particular format, be sure to let students know. In my class, for example, every question must be answered in a complete sentence, and one-sentence responses are usually not sufficient to answer a question. Creating and clearly explaining such specifics sets your students up for success.

7. Provide Examples

In 1965 (but I remember it like it was yesterday), my first grade teacher had us create an alphabet booklet. I was excited about the assignment and worked hard on it every day for a week. After I handed it in, I realized that many of the students had created clever covers for their booklets. Because I didn't have an example to mirror, I didn't include a cover, and my pride in my work quickly faded.

That I remember this lesson nearly 55 years later underscores the importance of using examples when giving instructions. As a teacher today, I almost always provide my students with examples of outstanding work from previous years, and as a result, students clearly understand my expectations. Doing so has also helped me build better relationships with my students.

8. Break Tasks into Manageable Chunks

If an assignment is large or multifaceted, section it into smaller tasks, especially if you teach younger students who can't handle a long list of directions. Breaking assignments into manageable tasks can help students feel more confident in their work.
Further Reading: 5 Active Listening Strategies That Work
Giving clear instructions to students can ensure that they fully comprehend what they need to do to achieve in your classroom. It will ease students' nerves, assuage their insecurities, and help them confirm your expectations so that they can be happy and successful in school.

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A Guide to Giving Clear Instructions to Students (That They Will Actually Follow)

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Giving clear instructions to students is key to their success in the classroom. These steps can help ensure that your students tackle tasks confidently.

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Transparency in Teaching: Faculty Share Data and Improve Students' Learning

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Transparency in Teaching: Faculty Share Data and Improve Students' Learning

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Respect for Students, transparency

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The Illinois Initiative on Transparency in Learning and Teaching is a grassroots assessment project designed to promote students' conscious understanding of how they learn and to enable faculty to gather, share, and promptly benefit from data about students' learning by coordinating their efforts across disciplines, institutions, and countries. Faculty rarely have opportunities to research their students' views about how their best learning happens in college or graduate school. Even less common are the means for teachers to gather such information from colleagues on a large scale and distill it into pragmatic insights about teaching practices best suited to their own particular students. The Illinois Initiative on Transparency in Learning and Teaching is a grassroots assessment project doing just that, and it demonstrably enhances students' learning. The project has two main goals: (1) to promote students' conscious understanding of how they learn; and (2) to enable faculty to gather, share, and promptly benefit from data about students' learning by coordinating their efforts across disciplines, institutions, and countries. The Illinois Initiative on Transparency in Learning and Teaching is presented in this article.

Descriptors: State Programs, Learning Processes, College Students, Educational Practices, Educational Assessment, Student Evaluation, Student Attitudes, Educational Attitudes, Data Analysis, Interdisciplinary Approach, Educational Benefits, Statistical Significance, Learning Experience, Metacognition, Benchmarking, Teaching Methods, Disproportionate Representation, Nontraditional Students, Large Group Instruction, Best Practices, Accountability

Association of American Colleges and Universities. 1818 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20009. Tel: 800-297-3775; Tel: 202-387-3760; Fax: 202-265-9532; e-mail: pub_desk@aacu.org; Web site: http://www.aacu.org/publications/index.cfm

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ERIC - EJ1094742 - Transparency in Teaching: Faculty Share Data and Improve Students' Learning, Liberal Education, 2013

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The Illinois Initiative on Transparency in Learning and Teaching is a grassroots assessment project designed to promote students' conscious understanding of how they learn and to enable faculty to gather, share, and promptly benefit from data about students' learning by coordinating their efforts across disciplines, institutions, and countries.

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Helping students by using transparent writing assignments

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Helping students by using transparent writing assignments

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Respect for Students, transparency

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A Review of Rubric Use in Higher Education

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A Review of Rubric Use in Higher Education

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Respect for Students, rubrics

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This paper critically reviews the empirical research on the use of rubrics at the post-secondary level, identifies gaps in the literature and proposes areas in need of research. Studies of rubrics in higher education have been undertaken in a wide range of disciplines and for multiple purposes, including increasing student achievement, improving instruction and evaluating programmes. While, student perceptions of rubrics are generally positive and some authors report positive responses to rubric use by instructors, others noted a tendency for instructors to resist using them. Two studies suggested that rubric use was associated with improved academic performance, while one did not. The potential of rubrics to identify the need for improvements in courses and programmes has been demonstrated. Studies of the validity of rubrics have shown that clarity and appropriateness of language is a central concern. Studies of rater reliability tend to show that rubrics can lead to a relatively common interpretation of student performance. Suggestions for future research include the use of more rigorous research methods, more attention to validity and reliability, a closer focus on learning and research on rubric use in diverse educational contexts. (Contains 1 table.)

Descriptors: Higher Education, College Students, Research Methodology, Validity, Scoring Rubrics, Student Evaluation, Evaluation Methods, Evaluation Research, Interrater Reliability, Teacher Attitudes, College Faculty, Student Attitudes, Academic Achievement, Program Evaluation, Reliability, Formative Evaluation

Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106. Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals

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ERIC - EJ885356 - A Review of Rubric Use in Higher Education, Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 2010-Jul

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This paper critically reviews the empirical research on the use of rubrics at the post-secondary level, identifies gaps in the literature and proposes areas in need of research. Studies of rubrics in higher education have been undertaken in a wide range of disciplines and for multiple purposes, including increasing student achievement, improving instruction and evaluating programmes.

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Respect for Students, transparency, rubrics

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A key element of formative assessment is feedback. The trouble is, most teachers have difficulty finding time to give all students the feedback they need when they need it. Fortunately, students themselves can be excellent sources of feedback. Under the right conditions, student self-assessment can provide accurate, useful information to promote learning.

During self-assessment, students reflect on the quality of their work, judge the degree to which it reflects explicitly stated goals or criteria, and revise. Self-assessment is formative-students assess works in progress to find ways to improve their performance. Self-evaluation, in contrast, is summative-it involves students giving themselves a grade. Confusion between the two has led to these misconceptions about self-assessment that make many teachers hesitant to try it: (1) Students will just give themselves A s, and (2) They won't revise their work anyway, so there's no point in taking time for self-assessment.

Can these misconceptions be true? Yes, sadly true- if the results of a self-assessment are counted toward a grade or students are not given time for and help with revision. If, on the other hand, students understand the value of self-assessment, are taught how to do it, share their teacher's understanding of quality (Sadler, 1989), and have the support needed to improve their work, they can accurately self-assess and effectively revise.

The differences between self-evaluation and self-assessment may seem subtle, but they are powerful in practice. When my colleagues and I asked students about their attitudes toward self-assessments they had done that did not count toward grades, the responses were positive (Andrade & Du, 2007). Students commented that self-assessment helped them feel prepared, improved the quality of their work, and gave them a better understanding of what they had achieved. Specific perceived benefits included improved ability to focus on key elements of an assignment, increased effectiveness in identifying strengths and weaknesses in their work, and higher motivation. Said one student,

Self-assessment ... just eases your mind about doing your papers and stuff; it doesn't make you so anxious, and you can actually work ahead a little bit.

Yet in another study, when the researchers asked students about self-evaluations they had done that counted for 5 percent of their grades, those students' attitudes were somewhat negative: They voiced concerns about fairness and the possibility of cheating by inflating self-evaluations (Ross, Rolheiser, & Hogaboam-Gray, 1998). Other research (Boud & Falchikov, 1989) has shown that students do tend to inflate self-evaluations when they will count toward formal grades. For these reasons, I subscribe to a purely formative notion of self-assessment as feedback for oneself from oneself.

One way to support thoughtful self-assessment is to provide a rubric or create one with students. A rubric is a document that lists criteria and describes varying levels of quality, from excellent to poor, for a specific assignment (Andrade, 2000). Many teachers use rubrics for scoring student work, but rubrics can do much more. In the hands of students, a good rubric can orient learners to the concept of quality as defined by experts in a field, inform self- and peer assessment, and guide revision and improvement. Rubrics can be informative as well as evaluative.

Unfortunately, some rubrics define quality for an assignment too narrowly, leading teachers to worry that rubrics result in cookie-cutter products from students and limited feedback from teachers. If that is the case, the rubric in question is a bad one and should be shredded.

Popham (2006) contrasts a poor rubric description with an effective one. On a rubric to assess students' performance on a writing assignment about donating blood, in which one of the criteria is organization, a narrow, overly task-specific description of the highest level of performance might require that the piece "describe the importance of blood giving, the steps in giving blood, the impact of 'Mad Cow' disease, and the reasons people cannot give blood too frequently." A more effective description of the highest level of organization might state that the piece "contains an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. The structure is appropriate for the task: for instance, an order-of-importance, logical, or chronological structure."

When carefully designed, perhaps collaboratively with students, good rubrics can provide students with important guidelines without constraining creativity and can be a boon to self-assessment. The process of rubric-referenced self-assessment involves three basic steps.

The expectations for the task or performance should be clearly articulated by either the teacher, the students, or both. Because students become better acquainted with the task at hand when they are involved in thinking about what counts and how quality is defined, I often create all or part of my rubrics in class with students.

For example, in a recent study in English/language arts and social studies classes in grades 3 through 7 (Andrade, Du, & Wang, in press), I began by asking students to analyze an example of a relatively strong persuasive essay. After the class had thoroughly appraised the sample in terms of its strengths and weaknesses (something students tend to be amazingly good at), I asked them to list the qualities of a really good persuasive essay, drawing on their critique of the sample. If a class overlooked a quality that I thought was important, I added it to the list with an explanation. This activity generated a list of qualities- clearly states the opinion; supports it with facts; makes sense; is convincing; has a good beginning, middle, and ending; and so on-that provided the basis for the criteria on our rubric.

With my own classes for undergraduate and graduate students, I go on to ask students to combine related qualities into rubric-sized criteria: For instance, clearly states opinion, supports it with facts, and is convincing would become part of an Ideas and Content criterion. I create the rest of the rubric outside class, sketching out four levels of quality for each criterion. I show the rubric to the students, ask them for their questions and comments, and revise the rubric for clarity as needed. Only after I am confident that students understand and accept the rubric do I ask them to begin an assignment.

Students create rough or first attempts at their assignment, be it a story, word problem, lab report, baseball bat swing, or speech. They monitor their progress on the assignment by comparing their performances to the rubric. In my research on writing, I have had students in grades 3 through 8 use pencils in various colors to underline key phrases in the rubric, then underline or circle in their drafts the evidence of having met the standard articulated by each phrase. For example, students underlined clearly states an opinion in blue on their persuasive essay rubric and then underlined in blue the opinion they had stated in their persuasive essay drafts-if they could find it. If they discovered they had not met the standard, they wrote themselves a reminder to make improvements when they created their final drafts.

This procedure can take one or two class periods. Students working on a persuasive essay can look at global criteria like ideas and content, organization, and voice on one day and then self-assess more fine-grained criteria like word choice, sentence fluency, and conventions on another day.

Students use the feedback from their self-assessments to guide revision. For example, in the colored-pencil activity just described, we used orange pencils to look at sentence beginnings, which were part of the sentence fluency criterion. Students circled in orange the first word in each sentence in their essay and then counted up the number of times they used the most common sentence starters. If they had a word or phrase that appeared a lot (in the case of the persuasive essays, it was usually "I" as in "I think ... ") they made a note of this problem. In their next draft, they attempted to change the beginnings of some sentences to increase variety.

The revision step is crucial. Students are savvy, and they will not self-assess thoughtfully unless they know that their efforts can lead to opportunities to actually make improvements.

Although my students have told me that they thought the self-assessment I required was "a big pain" at first, their attitudes have usually become positive after they try it. They have to try it: I generally will not review or grade a piece of work that is not accompanied by a self-assessment. After experiencing rubric-referenced self-assessment, they tend to value it. In a study of my former undergraduates (Andrade & Du, 2007), students reported that they could self-assess effectively, that they were more likely to self-assess when they knew what their teachers expected, and that their self-assessments were typically followed by serious attempts to revise and improve their work.

The process of student self-assessment through rubrics can be enhanced with peer assessment and teacher feedback, of course. Just the three steps described here, however, have been associated with improvements in elementary and middle school students' writing (Andrade & Boulay, 2003; Andrade, Du, & Wang, 2007). In these and other studies (Ross, Rolheiser, & Hogaboam-Gray, 1999), students improved not just in mechanics, but also in their ability to handle such sophisticated qualities as content, organization, and voice. Further, the improvements in the quality of student writing had practical significance. For instance, when the findings of the 2007 study by Andrade, Du, and Wang were translated into typical classroom grades, the average grade for the group that engaged in rubric-referenced self-assessment was a low B whereas the average grade for the comparison group was a high C.

Similar results have been found in mathematics. After teaching some teachers but not others to implement self-assessment in their 5th and 6th grade math classes, Ross, Hogaboam-Gray, and Rolheiser (2002) found that students in the treatment group outperformed students in the comparison group. Self-assessment has also been shown to be effective in social studies (Lewbel & Hibbard, 2001); science (White & Frederiksen, 1998); and even on external national examinations (MacDonald & Boud, 2003).

Self-assessment can be useful in any subject. If students produce it, they can assess it; and if they can assess it, they can improve it.

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Rubrics can be a powerful self-assessment tool-if teachers disconnect them from grades and give students time and support to revise their work.

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Respect for Students

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Whether you've taught online a lot or a little, chances are you didn't enjoy it as much as teaching in person. Maybe you didn't experience that fizz after a particularly invigorating face-to-face class. Indeed, according to a 2017 Educause survey, only 9 percent of academics prefer to teach "in a completely online environment." That means a whopping 91 percent of us don't. And I suspect that a good majority of that 91 percent would prefer to teach anywhere but online.

Clearly, many academics don't see the value of online courses or of trying to become a better online teacher. Almost none of us set out to be great online teachers when we decided to go to graduate school. We've spent years in campus classrooms, but we don't have the same depth and breadth of experience in the online classroom, as either students or teachers. Most of us don't know how to teach online or how to get better at it - and we may not be motivated to learn. Even more likely, we may not feel like we have time to learn.

For all of those reasons, you may not feel fully invested in your online teaching practice. Yet it can be just as rewarding as teaching in a bricks-and-mortar classroom, if in different ways. Good teaching is good teaching.

Which brings me to the purpose of this guide. What you will find here is advice on how to make your online pedagogy as effective and satisfying as the in-person version, including:

Online classes aren't going away - enrollments continue to grow year after year. Further, online education increases access for students who, with work and family obligations, would not otherwise be able to go to college. Those people are just as much our students as the ones who show up on the campus, and they, too, deserve the best teaching we can offer.

First let's define a few commonly used terms of online teaching.

Learning management system. Otherwise known as an LMS. Online classes typically take place via your institution's chosen learning-management system - a platform that include communication, content delivery, and assessment tools to facilitate the teaching-and-learning process. The specific features of an LMS can vary from campus to campus, but usually you will find the following common elements and functions:

A grade book to record student progress.

Web pages or sites that allow you to present text, videos, or links to other sources.

Assessment tools so students can submit their assignments, or take a quiz or an exam.

Discussion forums that enable students to engage in conversations about class content with you and with one another.

Module. The most common unit of organization for an online class is a module (it has different naming conventions). If the term is new to you, think of it as tantamount to a unit in your in-person class. Instructors use modules to organize class materials into topics. They're ordered sequentially and contain all course materials and learning activities for that particular topic or unit.

Asynchronous. Most online courses are asynchronous - meaning students aren't all together in class at the same time, and class activities don't take place in real time. Instead, students can complete the tasks whenever their schedules permit. Flexibility is one of the main advantages offered by online education, and a primary reason why many students elect to attend class online.

The jargon and the setup are similar in many online courses, but there are some differences. For example, some online classes include a synchronous element or two. Some have a small number of students - 30 or fewer - while others have large enrollments, which can be challenging to teach effectively (a difference that also happens to be true of face-to-face courses). Some online courses are entirely homegrown, unique to the individual instructor, while others are highly coordinated across sections or rely heavily on publisher content and activities.

You will also encounter differences among the circumstances of online students. Some are well equipped tech-wise, with a good computer and fast, reliable internet access. Others do all of their coursework in a computer lab on campus. Still others take their laptops to public places with good Wi-Fi (malls, restaurants, libraries) because they don't have internet at home.

Even given such variances in class formats and student circumstances, the fact remains that the flexibility of online education makes it a more accessible option than traditional courses for more than 6.3 million students, and counting. There are lots of things you can do to be a better online teacher for those students. Read on.

The teaching suggestions in this guide are not revolutionary. Once you read them, they'll probably seem like common sense. But that's just the point.

Professors often fail to make the connection between what we do in a physical classroom and what we do online. This guide aims to make that connection explicit - to help you think about what you do well in person so that you can do those things in your online classes, too. If you already employ some of these practices, the intent here is to help you think more comprehensively about what else you can do to be an excellent online teacher. With that goal in mind, let's get to work.

Show Up to Class

Fundamentally, good teaching requires you to be in the classroom with your students. When you teach in person, you don't leave students to their own devices. You're with them, engaging in any number of teacherly activities: explaining, guiding, asking, illustrating, answering questions. You arrive early to set up for class. You stay a few minutes afterward to talk one-on-one with a student who needs extra support. You're present and actively involved. You're there for your students.

Many of you haven't translated that to online practice. After all, when teaching in person, you have a set schedule for when to be in class. That schedule also may determine the weekly blocks of time during which you prepare for class and grade students' work. But such a set framework does not exist for an online class. And without intentional planning, you may go several days at a time without engaging in teacherly activities with your online students.

Instead, create a schedule for meaningful and active involvement in your online classes. For example, how many hours a week do you spend teaching an in-person, 15-week course? Maybe it's 10 hours a week, on average - combining the time you spend in the actual classroom with the time you devote to prepping and grading (and, of course, even longer after major assignments and tests).

Schedule the same amount of time each week to be visibly present and engaged in your semester-long online class. And I do mean visible, meaningful engagement. Here are some ways to do that:

Post a weekly announcement to provide an overview of the coming week's topic or a recap of the previous week's work, or both.

Respond to questions posted in an online question-and-answer discussion forum or sent to you by email.

Hold online office hours according to a schedule, by appointment, or both.

Post a quick video to clarify misconceptions about a class topic or assignment.

Grade and return students' work in a timely fashion.

Talk with students in online discussions.

When you are regularly present and engaged in the online classroom, your students are more likely to be, too.

Be Yourself

Most professors enjoy teaching in person because of the opportunity to interact with students, share our passion for a subject, and watch understanding dawn on their faces. Some of us, admittedly, enjoy the performative aspect. We feed off the energy in the room. We use it to fuel our own energetic communication. Many of us have a unique teaching persona - different from the person we are in a hallway conversation or in a department meeting. We employ humor. We vary our delivery to best effect. We pause. We raise our voices. We gesticulate for emphasis.

In an online classroom, your teaching style can get lost in translation. Although this is beginning to change, it is still the case that a primary means of communication in an online course is the written word. A wall of text can be dry and demotivating to students. Where is the vocal intonation? Where are the facial expressions? How do you stride up and down the front of the room to help make your point?

The solution, by the way, is not to post a video of yourself delivering a standard lecture in a classroom. The physical energy gets lost in that medium, too. Instead, capture your personality and your passion in ways that are different from what you might do in person, yet authentic.

Written content is inevitably part of any online course, but strive to use a unique voice in your writing. Mini-lectures, assignment instructions, answers to questions, weekly announcements - you can write those in such a way as to represent your true self:

Infuse your writing with warmth. Convey your support. In your weekly announcement, for example, don't write, "Some of you have skipped the past few quizzes. You won't pass this class if you continue to do so." Instead, write, "Thank you for your work in this class. I know it's a lot to manage. Just a reminder, make sure you're taking all the quizzes to help you be successful here. Please contact me if I can help or answer any questions. Thanks!"

Be human. Sometimes the inherent distance between professor and student in an online class infects your written communication. But you needn't write in a detached tone. Instead, practice immediacy. For example, at the end of a set of assignment instructions, you could write, "If you have any questions at all about what you are supposed to do on this assignment, please remember I am here to help. Reach out any time so I can support your success." That is more friendly, more caring, and more reassuring than, "Questions? Post them in the Q&A discussion forum."

Recording yourself whenever possible is another great way to bring your whole self to class. Whether by audio or video, capture your expertise, your empathy, your teacher persona in a way that comes across with much more impact than in writing (again, I don't mean videos of you lecturing). These recordings don't have to be professionally produced, and you don't have to have a video in every module. Instead, start small. For example, record a quick introduction and greeting to include in the "Start Here" module of your course.

Many learning-management systems include a built-in feature to record audio and video. Or you can capture a quick video on your smartphone using the YouTube app or similar. Either way, experiment with providing guidance and instruction via the technology tools you have at hand.

Students appreciate seeing your face and hearing your voice. Don't worry about making sure every stray hair is in place. If you trip over your tongue while recording, that's OK, too. Pause and start again. After all, you're not always perfectly polished and articulate in the classroom, are you? Those little foibles make your recordings authentic. They show you're a real person. Students need to know you in order to engage with you online. So look for ways to be yourself via technology, just as you do in person.

Put Yourself in Their Shoes

Your online students aren't physically near you or other students when they're "in class." Most do their coursework when they are alone, whether at home or in a public space with Wi-Fi, like a library or a coffee shop. They can't turn to a neighbor for help or raise a hand to ask a question. That leads to a strong sense of isolation and creates a need for support - different from the kind you offer when you teach in person.

In a physical classroom, you can pick up on nonverbal cues. Are students bored? Tuning out? Confused? You can observe the signals and adjust what you're doing. When students are taking class at home, puzzling over your explanation of a complex concept, you're not there in real time to allay their confusion. You can't observe when you've lost their attention or when your instructions aren't clear. Yet you want to support them just as you would in a campus-based classroom.

How can you do that? By anticipating their isolation and planning for it in your course design.

Imagine that you are the student, on your own, trying to make sense of what is in front of you on the screen. Get outside your own head - where your online class makes sense and everything is clear. Instead, try to envision how your students are experiencing the class. I will talk in more detail below about each of these, but for instance: Are your instructions clear on how long students' discussion posts should be, and on how they should cite sources? Do you include a detailed grading rubric? Do you provide an example of a successful final project, so that students can see your expectations and don't have to muddle through while they wait for a reply from you?

Better yet, have a trusted colleague evaluate your online class. Ask experienced online-faculty members or campus instructional designers to go in and poke around as if they were students. You'll be surprised at what they might see that you can't - a confusing organization of course materials, an overly intimidating tone in textual instructions, a lack of clarity on what to do first to get started with the course. Use their observations to help you make a few tweaks.

Ideally, students should know exactly what you are teaching and what they are supposed to do as a result. That rarely happens by accident, though. You must be intentional, put yourself in your students' shoes, and design for clarity. This principle should guide your practice for the next few suggestions.

Organize Course Content Intuitively

Try to think like a student when you organize course materials. Commonly, online students become confused, frustrated, and disengaged simply because you or the campus LMS have made it too hard to find the content and activities. When students use a lot of cognitive resources just trying to figure out where to go to access readings, videos, discussions, or quizzes, they have little mental energy left for the content itself. Discouraged and/or irritated students are less likely to learn.

Once again, compare the organization and support services of your in-person courses with what you provide in your online teaching. In both contexts, there should be a method to your madness that is not hidden from students. The design and sequence of content and learning activities in both realms should be methodical, systematic, and purposeful.

In person, you have the advantage of giving verbal explanations, reminders, and nudges. Since that opportunity doesn't exist in quite the same way online, you need to give structural support to head off points of confusion. To identify those points:

Activate the student-preview function (most LMSs have this feature) and navigate your course as if you were new to online learning in general and to your LMS in particular.

Is it clear where things are found? Note times when it's not immediately evident what a student should do. In some LMSs, for example, a text heading may actually be a link that students have to click to access a content page or assignment. The need to click to get to more information might not be clear to them. When possible, add a simple line of guidance: "Click the link above to access the assignment submission area."

Remember, online students can't generally ask a quick question in real time. Remove any opacity brought on by the design of the LMS by giving quick pointers wherever you can.

Think about how the use of menus, modules, folders, and other organizing structures helps or hinders students' progress through the course. Strike a balance between scrolling and clicking. Students should be able to access content, assessments, and learning activities without constantly clicking more and more links. Equally important, use LMS tools such as folders and pages to keep things organized. An online course should not be one giant website of endless scrolling. Nor should it be a warren of nested and subnested folders. Aim for a good mix of navigational approaches so students experience neither scrolling nor clicking fatigue.

Strive for a course organization that is clear, methodical, and intuitive. Help students move through content and activities smoothly and seamlessly, so that their attention remains focused on learning the material. If they have to click out of a module and into another folder to watch a required video, that can be distracting - or frustrating if it's hard to find. Similarly, requiring students to exit from a sequence of content pages and access a quiz by navigating to a different location wastes time and mental energy. Instead, try to order materials and activities such that the flow makes sense for someone new to the course. Ask an online-savvy colleague for help if you are too close to the content and unable to see it from a newcomer's perspective.

Add Visual Appeal

Online courses suffer a well-earned reputation of being ugly, dry, boring, and unappealing. Humans are more likely to want to be in a space if it is pleasant to look at. Plenty of students would rather learn in a new building than in a dingy lecture hall that hasn't been renovated in decades. The appearance of our surroundings affects our enjoyment and therefore our engagement.

That's why you need to give serious thought to the way your online courses look. You may be surprised at the impact a few small touches can make.

When thinking about the visuals of an online class, look to your favorite websites. Study the layouts of books and magazines that you enjoy. A great deal of thought has gone into their design. Why not apply this philosophy to an online class?

You don't have to be a graphic designer to enhance course appearance. A little attention to presentation goes a long way. Do you have a lot of written lecture notes or instructions? Break up long chunks of text with subheads and space between paragraphs. Embed relevant images. Include thumbnail videos that you've either created or sourced from YouTube, news sites, or library resources. Aim for attractive yet appropriate.

Not sure where to start? Many institutions have media designers who can help. Or approach the campus teaching center or the LMS-support staff. An online course that is visually appealing (or at least not completely ugly) helps students to engage more frequently and more meaningfully. Unfortunately, public links to visually effective online courses are few, but here's an example (open in view-only format): " Modern Mythology and Geek Culture." Notice the visual impact of the home page, then click around to observe its logical, student-friendly organization.

Note: All visuals should be accessible to all students. Use the formatting tools in your text editor, such as heads and subheads, to enable screen readers (a tool to help blind students). Pictures, graphs, and formulas need alternate text descriptions (again, for screen readers). Videos should be captioned or a written transcript provided. Principles of Universal Design for Learning show us that such supports benefit all learners, not just those with disabilities. Work with your local instructional designer and disability-resources specialist for help on this front. By no means should you deny students access to any content just because you want your course to look nicer. Work with the experts on your campus to ensure good looks and accessibility.

Explain Your Expectations

When you're standing at the front of a classroom and you assign a task, a paper, or a project, you don't simply hand out written instructions and not say a word about the assignment. Nor do you display the instructions on a PowerPoint slide without explaining more about what you are looking for and what students should do to succeed.

Yet that is what often happens in online classes: The only instructions come in the form of written text. You might think your writing is clear, but what's missing is the kind of nuanced explanation that you routinely provide in a physical classroom.

Remember, online students typically work by themselves. They can't ask for, or receive, clarification in the moment they first encounter your assignment instructions. Which is why you need to explain what you're looking for as clearly as possible in an online class.

But don't go to the other extreme and create tomes of written instructions, overly detailed directions, pages and pages of material that students won't bother to read. In that case, you haven't really solved the problem. Aim for a balance between thorough and digestible. Here are a few ways to do that:

Write down the directions as if you were having a conversation with a student, so they don't read like a textbook.

Create an informal two-minute explainer video to flesh out some details of an assignment.

Provide a rubric.

Share an example of student work that earned top marks. Maybe even share an example of mediocre work so students can compare the two.

In short, provide as much meaningful support as you can - without going overboard - so that students don't have to guess what you want them to do.

Scaffold Learning Activities

When you teach in person, you do a lot of modeling that you may not even be aware you're doing. For example, when you demonstrate how to solve an equation, you're explaining your thinking process. When you share examples and analogies, you're showing how you connect concepts for deeper understanding. When you ask critical questions, you're modeling how thinkers in your discipline make sense of theories and approaches.

You explain things - step by systematic step - to help students learn and perform successfully on tests, projects, papers, and other assignments.

That kind of modeling and "scaffolding" doesn't happen quite as naturally in online classes, where real-time interactions are limited. To help students succeed, you must be creative. Scrutinize your assessments, both large and small. Have your students had the opportunity to build - step by step, as they would in an in-person classroom - the knowledge and skills they will need do well on those assessments?

Here are some examples of how to scaffold activities in an online course. When possible, make these an opportunity for you to give incremental feedback so students know whether or not they are on the right track:

Let's say you want students to record a video presentation of their research topics. It's hard enough to give a good presentation without the video-recording element. So help your online students gain practice with the technology before they have to use it for a high-stakes project. For example, in the first week or two of class, give them a low-stakes, low-stress assignment: Ask them to record and post a two-minute video introducing themselves to the class.

As part of an orientation module, ask students to send you a message using the LMS messaging/email system so they know how to do this later in the class if they have a question for you. Ask them to answer a question about the syllabus or to list two goals for their learning in the course. Reply with a short personal greeting so they know you received the message and are available to help.

During Week 1, ask students to upload a PDF file of their handwritten work solving the first step of a problem. This exercise will help them learn how to turn a photo on their mobile device into a PDF file, and how to submit it as an assignment in the LMS. It's a good way correct any missteps early on.

At the beginning of the first module, ask students use one of the many free mind-mapping tools available on the web to create a concept map of what they already know about the course topic. Then, at the end of each module, assign students to create a summary concept map to help them make sense of each topic.

Look for ways to break down complex tasks so that students make timely progress and receive feedback on their work while there is still time to adjust their approach if needed.

Provide Examples

During an in-person course, if students raise their hands and say they just don't get some concept, you find another way to explain it. You come up with examples, maybe from another realm of life. That variety of examples and explanations helps learners grasp the information in a way that makes the most sense to them. Examples are even more crucial in online teaching.

Consider the first time you taught a college course. Maybe you borrowed a syllabus from a previous instructor to guide you in developing your own. Likewise, the first time you taught online, you may have relied on someone else's content in the LMS so that you didn't have to start from scratch. Those of you who had to create your first online class without any model to emulate know how challenging it is to produce something entirely new.

Online learners, too, benefit from multiple explanations of difficult concepts and multiple examples of the kind of work you want to see. Among other options, you might:

Source existing videos that put another spin on a particular topic.

Record a short guest-lecture video to let students hear from another expert in your field.

Structure ways for students to explain new information to one another - as novice learners, they may come up with examples and illustrations that make more sense to their peers than your explanations do. For example, you could assign semester-long groups of two and ask students to interact with their partners every week by phone or text to explain course concepts - in an introductory psychology class, for example, how neurons fire in the brain. Students could submit a short summary of their work with their partner and tell how it helped them better understand that week's concepts.

How many examples should you provide? Lots of them, wherever possible. You may want to make some examples optional or supplemental, for students who want more help. Requiring all students to read or watch multiple examples and explanations may feel like busy work for some.

In addition to sharing explanations of concepts, give as many examples of previous students' work as appropriate. Show their full work or just pieces. For a persuasive essay, you can show examples of effective introductions; for a complex clinical process, provide work showing only the first step.

In your teaching and writing for the course, model the kind of work you wish to see. For example, use a professional yet conversational tone in your discussion posts. Demonstrate how you respect and value diverse perspectives. When you show students what you're looking for, they're likely to be more confident in their ability to succeed on a task, which in turn increases their motivation to engage meaningfully.

Make Class an Inviting, Pleasant Place to Be

Ask yourself: Do you enjoy going into your online classroom? Do you like being there? Do you look forward to communicating with your online students in the same way you look forward to interacting with students in a physical classroom?

Those are hard questions, but they shine a light on an important issue for many faculty members. If we're honest, many of us would have to say that we don't enjoy being in our online classes as much as we enjoy teaching in person. Indeed, that could help explain why only 9 percent of us prefer to teach online exclusively. We simply may not enjoy being there as much.

If you struggle to enjoy the online learning environment as an instructor, it's not hard to imagine that this struggle is even harder for students.

When you teach in person, you do a lot of things to help students feel welcome and comfortable in the classroom. You greet students. Smile. Make eye contact. Answer questions. You show your support in countless ways. Even when the physical classroom is not particularly attractive, you do a lot to improve the atmosphere in the room to make it more pleasant and therefore more conducive to learning.

Apply that same principle to your online classes. A deliberate effort to make them more inviting and pleasant is likely to result in more interesting classes. Students will want to be in your online class if you:

Use plenty of visuals, media, interactive tools, and learning activities.

Streamline course organization and navigation. Organize the furniture in the room, so to speak, to create maximum flow. (The proprietary nature of most online courses makes it difficult for me offer open examples of what I mean, but the "Modern Mythology and Geek Culture" course I've already mentioned illustrates many of these design strategies.)

Convey positivity and optimism that students can succeed.

Demonstrate compassion and caring for your busy online learners.

Respect their time and engagement by being present and engaged yourself.

By making your online class more enjoyable, you make students want to show up. And students have to want to be in class before they can learn anything.

Commit to Continuous Improvement

A hallmark of good teaching is the desire to keep getting better at it. Bring that zeal into your online classroom the same way you bring it to your campus classroom. Invest a little time and energy into developing as an online teacher. Even small efforts can have a big impact.

Compared with teaching in person, online teaching is still rather new, but there are things you can do to improve and find fresh ideas to try:

Participate in workshops offered by your institution's teaching-and-learning center.

Join book-discussion groups with your colleagues to delve into books about effective online-teaching strategies.

Subscribe to teaching-related newsletters, such as Faculty Focus and The Chronicle's Teaching Newsletter. Sometimes they feature articles specifically related to online teaching; other times, reading about a new approach in the physical classroom leads to an idea for your online teaching.

Explore best practices presented in the Teaching Online Pedagogical Repository.

Demonstrate your commitment to student success by pursuing your own professional development from time to time.

Many dedicated online teachers have figured out some good approaches, but mistaken ideas about online learning persist. Here are some of the most common.

"Online classes are like slow cookers: Set and forget." Despite the efforts of leading online educators and educational developers to debunk this myth, many faculty members still treat it as gospel, consciously or not. Perhaps in part because online courses take so much preparation before the first day of class - ideally, all content (assessments, activities, prompts) is created in advance and in place for a turnkey experience - many academics seem to believe that students should be able to walk themselves through an online course without much active guidance from the instructor.

That is a recipe for disaster.

In the early days of online learning, many online classes were treated like electronic correspondence courses. Students worked through the content alone, submitted their assignments, and received grades only after they had completed the entire course. For some people, correspondence courses work. But they take a high level of motivation, which other online learners, struggling to balance work and family obligations, simply can't muster on their own.

Instead, plan to guide your online class actively and frequently. Just as you advise your students to do, block out time in your weekly calendar as if you were attending class in person. Post announcements, give further explanations, provide tips on forthcoming assignments, answer questions, reply to online discussion posts, grade students' work. When teaching in person, you don't expect students to proceed without regular guidance. The same need for continuous faculty involvement holds true online.

"Online students are lazy/disengaged/(insert negative adjective here)." Many online students are prone to minimal engagement or drifting away from class altogether. Does online education attract a certain type of personality, people who are not highly motivated to succeed? Or have we inadvertently created conditions online that contribute to student disengagement? Things like:

Confusing and unappealing course designs.

A shortage of faculty expertise in excellent online instruction.

The inherent technical challenges of learning online.

A student population that tends to be working and/or raising children while pursuing degrees.

With that combination of circumstances, it's not surprising that some online students do only the minimum required.

Online learning requires high-level executive-function skills that some students may not possess. The lack of social and logistical support that is an inherent part of in-person education - where students interact with the instructor and their peers on a regular basis inside a physical classroom - means that online students must be able to manage their time well, motivate themselves, direct and regulate their own learning, and seek appropriate help when needed. But often they simply can't do all of that on their own, and online courses are their only option to a degree.

Good online teaching requires you to make an extra effort to help those students persist, learn deeply, and experience transformation as a result of your online classes. That takes some awareness of the challenges of online education. It takes careful thought. Planning. Caring. But it can be done. And it seems well worth doing.

"Online classes don't work." Almost half of the 13,451 faculty respondents in the 2017 Educause survey on faculty and information technology don't agree that online learning is effective. About 45 percent of faculty respondents said that students don't learn as well online as they do in person. In short, they believe that online education just doesn't work. But we have plenty of evidence that online courses can produce student-learning outcomes comparable to those of in-person courses.

Note my use of the word "can." Much like the best in-person courses, the high-quality online versions require excellent online teachers. It's on us to design and teach those highly engaging and effective online classes.

"Teaching online is not as enjoyable as teaching in person." We all know that many academics don't perceive online teaching to be as rewarding as teaching in person. But could that be because we aren't doing it right?

If you find online education to be unsatisfying, that might be because the activities you undertake when "teaching" online resemble administrative tasks more than dynamic co-construction of new knowledge with students. You log in to grade student work, check boxes, go through the motions, manage operational functions. No wonder it doesn't seem fulfilling. Those activities are drudgery.

But online teaching can certainly be rewarding - if in ways different from the face-to-face version. My own experience is a case in point: Most of my online students are working and caring for children or other family members. They're taking online classes because it's the only way for them to earn a degree and improve their lot. One of my students, who was serving in the Air Force, recorded his video introduction from his young daughter's pink-and-purple "princess" bedroom. Yes, he was a little embarrassed, but I was impressed - no, moved - by his resourcefulness. It was the only room in the house where he could find a few minutes of quiet during the family evening routine to do his classwork. So he swallowed his pride and greeted us from the floor of his little girl's bedroom, surrounded by toys and dolls. You just don't get those glimpses into your students' personal lives, those tangible experiences of the challenges they choose to overcome, when teaching classes on campus.

Embracing those differences - the advantages of online classes, the technological opportunities afforded by a classroom without walls - is how we find joy in teaching online.

Ideally, you're now energized to reinvigorate your online teaching. There's no need to go it alone. Take advantage of resources and support as you seek to grow in this pursuit.

Make friends with your campus instructional designer. You are an expert in your subject matter. Instructional designers (like me) are expert in effective online teaching and learning. Collaborate with this often underutilized colleague to refine your approach. Maybe you attend a workshop, meet for coffee, or pick up the phone for a 15-minute conversation about a new idea. Whatever your preference, this person can significantly improve your experience and satisfaction with teaching online. Go ahead. Give us a call.

Seek an experienced online teaching mentor. Teaching online is a skill different from teaching in person. Find someone who does it well. Learn from that person's expertise. Emulating the example of someone in the online-teaching trenches - who is not only surviving but thriving - can be transformative.

Connect with colleagues who are trying to be excellent online teachers. Interacting with others who are grappling with the same teaching issues can lead to important new insights and ideas. Propose that a five-minute tip about online teaching be a regular agenda item at department meetings. Join a book-discussion group on excellent online teaching. Attend workshops, showcases, and conferences to learn what others at your institution and elsewhere are doing in online education. Talk with your fellow online educators, learn from their approaches, and contribute your own ideas. We're all in this together. Let's commit to learning from and with one another.

At this point, you may feel overwhelmed by all the ways of improving your online teaching practice. So start small. Pick one thing. When you have that down, choose another. Continue step by step, always striving to get better for the sake of your online students' learning and success. With some effort, with creative thinking, with curiosity and courage, you can discover the fizz of teaching within an online classroom.

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principles of universal design for learning

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Whether you've taught online a lot or a little, chances are you didn't enjoy it as much as teaching in person. Maybe you didn't experience that fizz after a particularly invigorating face-to-face class. Indeed, according to a 2017 Educause survey, only 9 percent of academics prefer to teach "in a completely online environment."

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Respect for Students

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Printable Version (PDF)
This article explores whether providing past students' examples of assignments and assessments is effective as a means of improving student marks by conveying work quality expectations.

Students frequently ask for assignment and exam examples to help them determine what they need to do. Instructors often fear that providing examples of past student work (with permission, and with personal information removed, of course) will unduly constrain students because many will simply do their own version of what they see rather than what they could imagine if they had to figure it out on their own. This is similar to a criticism of grading rubrics as making assignments too formulistic and process-focused, thus stifling creativity.

Turns out that research shows that under certain circumstances, providing exemplars does improve student performance, so the article also provides guidance on what works best should you decide to use exemplars.

Optimal way of providing exemplars

Research suggests that the approach resulting in the most positive improvement in student marks is to provide three examples of varying quality (low, medium, and high), in conjunction with marking sheets or answer keys or some equivalent type of indication of where things went astray, such as comments.

Variations on this theme are providing two exemplars, borderline and excellent, with a marking sheet (Rust et al. 2003); and providing one exemplar for each grade level from borderline to high distinction (Newlyn and Spencer, 2009; Wimshurst and Manning, 2013).

With all of the approaches outlined above, there was a significant improvement in marks.

A critical part of most of the studies outlined below is that there was an associated instructor-organized activity that got students involved in applying or critiquing the application of the marking scheme, rubric or comments and discussing the results. Helping students and instructors come to a common understanding of what is expected is the key. The exemplars and marking schemes and discussion are effective tools for doing so.

Details

Only those study results with control groups that compared student marks are included. All had student perceptions surveys, which are fine, but I wanted indication of actual student marks improvement. One study, Hendry, Bromberger and Armstrong (2011), had wonderful methodology and great insights from student perceptions survey results, but there was no statistically significant improvement in student performance. Hence the "research suggests" and not "research indicates."

Kean (2012) gives a good example of the optimal three exemplars approach. She used this method at Leeds Metropolitan University in her first year Journalism, Research and Writing assignment worth 100%, done in stages. There were 41 students. Summative assessment for this module was an exam in which students had to write a press release from a brief, plus one other piece of specialist writing. A mock exam was given in preparation. It was returned in class along with answers by the previous year's students - a good (68%), a middling (52%) and a fail (35%) - but without the marks on the exemplars. Students graded the exemplar papers and used the same feedback/marking sheet to explain their marks as had been used for their own papers. The average mark on the module final exam was 56% compared to 50.8% the previous year, and there were fewer failures: 2 out of 41 (or 0.05%) compared to 9 out of 59 the previous year (or 0.15%).

Scoles, Huxham and McArthur (2012) used qualitative and quantitative analysis to report on a project they had undertaken to measure the effectiveness of using three annotated exemplars (average 50-60%, good 60-70% and excellent 70%+) to improve the exam performance of their students at a Scottish University. Undertaking a statistical analysis between those students who accessed the available exemplars (available online) and those students who did not access them showed a highly significant difference in the mean marks students achieved in the final exam (54.8 vs 48.7). (Of 520 students, 397 accessed exemplars with feedback, and 123 did not.)

Newlyn and Spencer (2009) conducted research on using exemplars with over 2,500 students at an Australian university over a two-year period in an attempt to improve the students' final exam performance in introductory law. (For some time, the introductory law unit had seen relatively good interim assessment marks but very poor summative exam ones). A series of exam exemplars from previous years' work representing the full range of grades (Fail, Pass, Credit, Distinction, and High Distinction) was provided to students during the teaching semester. They were annotated to reflect the published criteria and standards. The researchers concluded that the provision of exemplars led to an increase in students marks ("before" medians of 24.2 and 26.4 vs "after" medians of 37.0 and 37.9), particularly at the highest grade levels.

Wimshurst and Manning (2013) conducted exemplar research on 97 students in a criminology course at an Australian university. Eighty-seven students from the previous year's course were the control group. Researchers provided six exemplars from previous students of grade levels from borderline pass to high distinction. The researchers took into account various factors such as gender, age, mode of study (on campus or distance based) and grade point average (GPA). They concluded that not only did exemplars improve students overall grades for the unit (by 7%), but they also enhanced student interest in and involvement with the subject.

Rust et al. (2003) provided first-year business students at Oxford Brookes University with a marking sheet, a borderline exemplar and an A grade exemplar, and asked students to mark the assignments individually. In an optional 90-minute 'workshop' held one week later, students discussed and shared the justification for their marks, and staff explained how the criteria and standards were applied to the assignments. Students who participated in the optional workshop (approximately half of just over 300 students, for two years in a row) subsequently achieved significantly better results in their own summative assessments compared with those who did not attend.

References:

Hendry, Graham D.; Bromberger, Nikki; and Armstrong, Susan. (2011). Constructive guidance and feedback for learning: the usefulness of exemplars, marking sheets and different types of feedback in a first year law subject, Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 36(1), 1 - 11. URL.

Kean, J. (2012). Show and Tell: Using Peer Assessment and Exemplars to Help Students Understand Quality in Assessment. Practitioner Research in Higher Education, 6(2), 83-94.

Newlyn, D. (2013). Providing Exemplars in the Learning Environment: the Case for and against. Universal Journal of Educational Research 1(1), 26-32. DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2013.010104

Newlyn D, Spencer L. (2009). Using Exemplars in an Interdisciplinary Law Unit: Listening to the student's voices, Journal of the Australasian Law Teachers Association, 2(1 & 2), 121-133.

Rust, C.; Price M.; and O'Donovan, B. (2003). Improving students' learning by developing their understanding of assessment criteria and processes. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 28(2), 147-64. Doi: 10.1080/0260293032000045509

Scoles, J.; Huxham M.; & McArthur, J. (2012). No longer exempt from good practice: using exemplars to close the feedback gap for exams. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 38(6) DOI:10.1080/02602938.2012.674485

Wimshurst, K. & Manning, M. (2013). Feed-forward assessment, exemplars and peer marking: evidence of efficacy. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 38(4), 451-465.

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Providing Assignment Examples | Centre for Enhanced Teaching & Learning | UNB

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Printable Version (PDF) This article explores whether providing past students' examples of assignments and assessments is effective as a means of improving student marks by conveying work quality expectations. Students frequently ask for assignment and exam examples to help them determine what they need to do.

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Creating an Effective Online Instructor Presence

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Creating an Effective Online Instructor Presence

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Respect for Students

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Student outcomes in online courses trail considerably behind those in face-to-face courses. In order to gain insight into why this might be, the Community College Research Center (CCRC) undertook a series of studies that examined 23 high-demand, entry-level online courses at two community colleges in one state. CCRC researchers observed the online courses, reviewed course materials, and interviewed course instructors as well as 46 students who were enrolled in at least one of the courses. Together, these studies shed light on the fact that it is important for online instructors to actively and visibly engage with students in the teaching and learning process--perhaps with even greater intentionality than in face-to-face courses. In interviews, online students said that they placed a high value on interaction with their instructors, and a quantitative analysis indicates that higher levels of interpersonal interaction were correlated with better student performance in online courses. Drawing on research, this guide discusses how instructors can increase their presence in online courses in ways that may contribute to improved student retention and performance. It also describes a case study of a course in which the instructor used some basic interactive technologies to create a meaningful instructor presence. (Contains 12 endnotes.)

Descriptors: Online Courses, Community Colleges, College Faculty, Teacher Student Relationship, Academic Achievement, Educational Technology, Technology Uses in Education, Case Studies, Introductory Courses, Chemistry, Science Instruction, Lecture Method, Homework, Discussion Groups, Laboratory Experiments

Community College Research Center. Available from: CCRC Publications. Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 West 120th Street Box 174, New York, NY 10027. Tel: 212-678-3091; Fax: 212-678-3699; e-mail: ccrc@columbia.edu; Web site: http://www.tc.columbia.edu/ccrc

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ERIC - ED542146 - Creating an Effective Online Instructor Presence, Community College Research Center, Columbia University, 2013-Apr

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Student outcomes in online courses trail considerably behind those in face-to-face courses. In order to gain insight into why this might be, the Community College Research Center (CCRC) undertook a series of studies that examined 23 high-demand, entry-level online courses at two community colleges in one state.

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Effect of syllabus tone: students’ perceptions of instructor and course

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Effect of syllabus tone: students’ perceptions of instructor and course

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Respect for Students, syllabus

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References

Harnish, R. J., O'Brien McElwee, R., Slattery, J. M., Frantz, S., Haney, M. R., Shore, C. M., & Penley, J. (2011). Creating the foundation for a warm classroom climate: Best practices in syllabus tone. APS Observer, 24, 23-27.

Kilbourne, J. (2003). Deadly persuasion: The advertising of alcohol and tobacco [DVD]. Available from Media Education Foundation.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2008). Distance education at degree-granting postsecondary institutions: 2006-2007. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2009044

Rubin, S. (1985). Professors, students, and the syllabus. The Chronicle of Higher Education 56.

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Effect of syllabus tone: students' perceptions of instructor and course - Social Psychology of Education

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It is not uncommon for students to complain that faculty are unapproachable, while faculty complain that students are not engaged. Such perceptions, especially when formed at the start of a semester, can impact what students learn and how instructors teach; therefore, it is critical that these perceptions are prevented if a course is to be successful.

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Do Your Students Care Whether You Care about Them?

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Do Your Students Care Whether You Care about Them?

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Respect for Students, Community of Learners

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The author integrates research and theory to suggest that caring is an important dimension of effective college teaching. Despite the fact that students are acutely aware of whether their professors care about them, professors do not necessarily prioritize this aspect of teaching to the same extent. This article provides concrete suggestions about how professors can develop such rapport with their students, addresses common criticisms and concerns about professors expressing care, and offer avenues for future inquiry. (Contains 2 tables.)

Descriptors: College Faculty, Teacher Student Relationship, Caring, Classroom Techniques, Interpersonal Competence, College Instruction, Teacher Characteristics, Student Attitudes, Teacher Attitudes, Teacher Responsibility, Instructional Effectiveness

Heldref Publications. 1319 Eighteenth Street NW, Washington, DC 20036-1802. Tel: 800-365-9753; Tel: 202-296-6267; Fax: 202-293-6130; e-mail: subscribe@heldref.org; Web site: http://www.heldref.org

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ERIC - EJ857953 - Do Your Students Care Whether You Care about Them?, College Teaching, 2009

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The author integrates research and theory to suggest that caring is an important dimension of effective college teaching. Despite the fact that students are acutely aware of whether their professors care about them, professors do not necessarily prioritize this aspect of teaching to the same extent.

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A Survey Tool for Assessing Student Expectations Early in a Semester

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A Survey Tool for Assessing Student Expectations Early in a Semester

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Respect for Students, expectations

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The Currency of Studenthood: Behavioral Economics in the Higher Education Classroom

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The Currency of Studenthood: Behavioral Economics in the Higher Education Classroom

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Respect for Students, motivation

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Students may not always be intrinsically motivated to complete learning activities in our courses. For these instances, we suggest taking advantage of heuristics, discovered through behavioral economics research, as one way to nudge students toward task completion. To date, most educational applications of behavioral economics' heuristics use grades or points as the "currency." We propose that time and effort may be additional currencies to employ when making use of the heuristics of loss aversion, goal framing, attribute framing, and anchoring. However, educational research first needs to be conducted to determine if using heuristics with these currencies is effective.

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ERIC - EJ1299963 - The Currency of Studenthood: Behavioral Economics in the Higher Education Classroom, International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 2020

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Students may not always be intrinsically motivated to complete learning activities in our courses. For these instances, we suggest taking advantage of heuristics, discovered through behavioral economics research, as one way to nudge students toward task completion. To date, most educational applications of behavioral economics' heuristics use grades or points as the "currency."

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Teacher Immediacy and Student Learning: An Examination of Lecture/Laboratory and Self-Contained Course Sections

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Teacher Immediacy and Student Learning: An Examination of Lecture/Laboratory and Self-Contained Course Sections

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Respect for Students

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This study examined teaching assistant's immediacy in lecture/laboratory and self-contained classes. Two hundred fifty-six students responded to instruments measuring teachers' immediacy behavior frequency, perceptions of instruction quality, and cognitive learning. No significant difference was identified when comparing lecture/laboratory and self-contained teaching assistants' immediacy behaviors. But all students who observed frequent immediate behaviors demonstrated higher affective and cognitive learning. Teaching assistants' ratings had significantly higher levels of faculty-student interaction for self-contained sections but lecture/laboratory sections were significantly higher for student effort/involvement.

Descriptors: Teaching Assistants, Proximity, Lecture Method, Teaching Methods, Laboratories, Teacher Behavior, College Students, Introductory Courses, Public Speaking, Behavior Rating Scales, Affective Measures, Cognitive Processes, Self Esteem, Teacher Student Relationship, Activity Units

Indiana University. 755 West Michigan Street UL 1180D, Indianapolis, IN 46202. Tel: 317-274-5647; Fax: 317-278-2360; e-mail: josotl@iupui.edu; Web site: http://www.iupui.edu/~josotl

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ERIC - EJ1034599 - Teacher Immediacy and Student Learning: An Examination of Lecture/Laboratory and Self-Contained Course Sections, Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 2014-May

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This study examined teaching assistant's immediacy in lecture/laboratory and self-contained classes. Two hundred fifty-six students responded to instruments measuring teachers' immediacy behavior frequency, perceptions of instruction quality, and cognitive learning. No significant difference was identified when comparing lecture/laboratory and self-contained teaching assistants' immediacy behaviors.

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Respect for Students, names

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One of the most effective ways to establish a productive classroom environment is learning what your students want to be called in the classroom–both their names and pronouns.

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Feedback, assessment

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Print Version
What Are CATs?

Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs) are generally simple, non-graded, anonymous, in-class activities designed to give you and your students useful feedback on the teaching-learning process as it is happening.

Examples of CATs include the following.

The Background Knowledge Probe is a short, simple questionnaire given to students at the start of a course, or before the introduction of a new unit, lesson or topic. It is designed to uncover students' pre-conceptions.

The Minute Paper tests how students are gaining knowledge, or not. The instructor ends class by asking students to write a brief response to the following questions: "What was the most important thing you learned during this class?" and "What important question remains unanswered?"

The Muddiest Point is one of the simplest CATs to help assess where students are having difficulties. The technique consists of asking students to jot down a quick response to one question: "What was the muddiest point in [the lecture, discussion, homework assignment, film, etc.]?" The term "muddiest" means "most unclear" or "most confusing."

The What's the Principle? CAT is useful in courses requiring problem-solving. After students figure out what type of problem they are dealing with, they often must decide what principle(s) to apply in order to solve the problem. This CAT provides students with a few problems and asks them to state the principle that best applies to each problem.

Defining Features Matrix: Prepare a handout with a matrix of three columns and several rows. At the top of the first two columns, list two distinct concepts that have potentially confusing similarities (e.g. hurricanes vs. tornados, Picasso vs. Matisse). In the third column, list the important characteristics of both concepts in no particular order. Give your students the handout and have them use the matrix to identify which characteristics belong to each of the two concepts. Collect their responses, and you'll quickly find out which characteristics are giving your students the most trouble.

Why Should I Use CATs?

CATs can be used to improve the teaching and learning that occurs in a class. More frequent use of CATs can...

Provide just-in-time feedback about the teaching-learning process

Provide information about student learning with less work than traditional assignments (tests, papers, etc.)

Encourage the view that teaching is an ongoing process of inquiry, experimentation, and reflection

Help students become better monitors of their own learning

Help students feel less anonymous, even in large courses

Provide concrete evidence that the instructor cares about learning

How Should I Use CATs?

Results from CATs can guide teachers in fine-tuning their teaching strategies to better meet student needs. A good strategy for using CATs is the following.

Decide what you want to assess about your students' learning from a CAT.

Choose a CAT that provides this feedback, is consistent with your teaching style, and can be implemented easily in your class.

Explain the purpose of the activity to students, and then conduct it.

After class, review the results, determine what they tell you about your students' learning, and decide what changes to make, if any.

Let your students know what you learned from the CAT and how you will use this information.

Where Can I Find More CATs?

The standard references on CATs is Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers, 2nd edition, by Thomas A. Angelo and K. Patricia Cross (Jossey-Bass, 1993). This book includes 50 CATs, indexed in a variety of useful ways. The book is available at the Center for Teaching library. See its ACORN record for call number and availability.

A number of web sites also feature information on and examples of CATs, including the following.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

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Print Version What Are CATs? Why Should I Use CATs? How Should I Use CATs? Where Can I Find More CATs? What Are CATs? Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs) are generally simple, non-graded, anonymous, in-class activities designed to give you and your students useful feedback on the teaching-learning process as it is happening.

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Why should assessments, learning objectives, and instructional strategies be aligned?

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Why should assessments, learning objectives, and instructional strategies be aligned?

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Feedback, assessment, course design

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Assessments should reveal how well students have learned what we want them to learn while instruction ensures that they learn it. For this to occur, assessments, learning objectives, and instructional strategies need to be closely aligned so that they reinforce one another.

To ensure that these three components of your course are aligned, ask yourself the following questions:

Learning objectives: What do I want students to know how to do when they leave this course?

Assessments: What kinds of tasks will reveal whether students have achieved the learning objectives I have identified?

Instructional strategies: What kinds of activities in and out of class will reinforce my learning objectives and prepare students for assessments?

What if the components of a course are misaligned?

If assessments are misaligned with learning objectives or instructional strategies, it can undermine both student motivation and learning. Consider these two scenarios:

Your objective is for students to learn to apply analytical skills, but your assessment measures only factual recall. Consequently, students hone their analytical skills and are frustrated that the exam does not measure what they learned.

Your assessment measures students' ability to compare and critique the arguments of different authors, but your instructional strategies focus entirely on summarizing the arguments of different authors. Consequently, students do not learn or practice the skills of comparison and evaluation that will be assessed.

What do well-aligned assessments look like?

This table presents examples of the kinds of activities that can be used to assess different types of learning objectives (adapted from the revised Bloom's Taxonomy).

Type of learning objective

Examples of appropriate assessments

Recall
Recognize
Identify

Objective test items such as fill-in-the-blank, matching, labeling, or multiple-choice questions that require students to:

recall or recognize terms, facts, and concepts

Interpret
Exemplify
Classify
Summarize
Infer
Compare
Explain

Activities such as papers, exams, problem sets, class discussions, or concept maps that require students to:

summarize readings, films, or speeches

compare and contrast two or more theories, events, or processes

classify or categorize cases, elements, or events using established criteria

paraphrase documents or speeches

find or identify examples or illustrations of a concept or principle

Apply
Execute
Implement

Activities such as problem sets, performances, labs, prototyping, or simulations that require students to:

use procedures to solve or complete familiar or unfamiliar tasks

determine which procedure(s) are most appropriate for a given task

Analyze
Differentiate
Organize
Attribute

Activities such as case studies, critiques, labs, papers, projects, debates, or concept maps that require students to:

discriminate or select relevant and irrelevant parts

determine how elements function together

determine bias, values, or underlying intent in presented material

Evaluate
Check
Critique
Assess

Activities such as journals, diaries, critiques, problem sets, product reviews, or studies that require students to:

test, monitor, judge, or critique readings, performances, or products against established criteria or standards

Create
Generate
Plan
Produce
Design

Activities such as research projects, musical compositions, performances, essays, business plans, website designs, or set designs that require students to:

make, build, design or generate something new

This table does not list all possible examples of appropriate assessments. You can develop and use other assessments - just make sure that they align with your learning objectives and instructional strategies!

CONTACT US to talk with an Eberly colleague in person!

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Align Assessments, Objectives, Instructional Strategies - Eberly Center - Carnegie Mellon University

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Assessments should reveal how well students have learned what we want them to learn while instruction ensures that they learn it. For this to occur, assessments, learning objectives, and instructional strategies need to be closely aligned so that they reinforce one another.

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Using Formative Assessment and Metacognition to Improve Student Achievement

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Using Formative Assessment and Metacognition to Improve Student Achievement

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Feedback, assessment, metacognition

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This paper describes a multistep Enhanced Formative Assessment Program (EFAP) that features a Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) component. The program, which teaches students to become more effective learners, has been applied in a wide range of academic disciplines. In this paper we report on how the EFAP-SRL model can be applied to the area of developmental mathematics. In a 3-year series of studies, EFAP-SRL students enrolled in associate degree developmental mathematics courses consistently earned higher pass rates in the course as well as higher pass rates on the mathematics portion of the ACT. In addition, there is some evidence that program students transferred this learning into subsequent college-level mathematics courses.

Descriptors: Metacognition, Formative Evaluation, Learning Strategies, Models, Associate Degrees, College Entrance Examinations, Mathematics Instruction, Teaching Methods, Transfer of Training, Outcomes of Education, College Students, Scoring, Mathematics Tests, Feedback (Response), Statistical Analysis, Mastery Learning

National Center for Developmental Education. Appalachian State University, P.O. Box 32098, Boone, NC 28608-2098. Tel: 828-262-3057; Fax: 828-262-7183; Web site: http://www.ncde.appstate.edu/publications.htm

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ERIC - EJ1067283 - Using Formative Assessment and Metacognition to Improve Student Achievement, Journal of Developmental Education, 2013

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This paper describes a multistep Enhanced Formative Assessment Program (EFAP) that features a Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) component. The program, which teaches students to become more effective learners, has been applied in a wide range of academic disciplines. In this paper we report on how the EFAP-SRL model can be applied to the area of developmental mathematics.

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Writing Good Multiple Choice Test Questions

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Writing Good Multiple Choice Test Questions

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Feedback, tests, item writing, assessment

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Writing Good Multiple Choice Test Questions

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by Cynthia J. Brame Print Version Cite this guide: Brame, C. (2013) Writing good multiple choice test questions. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/writing-good-multiple-choice-test-questions/. Constructing an Effective Stem Constructing Effective Alternatives Additional Guidelines for Multiple Choice Questions Considerations for Writing Multiple Choice Items that Test Higher-order Thinking Additional Resources Multiple choice test questions, also known as items,...

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Feedback, questioning

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Feedback, assessment, course design

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Classroom assessments fall into three categories--summative, diagnostic, and formative. Summative assessment occurs at the end of a unit or course of study and is therefore an insufficient tool to maximize student learning. Diagnostic and formative assessments, on the other hand, offer descriptive feedback along the way. In light of these categories, authors McTighe and O'Connor consider several assessment and grading practices that can enhance teaching and learning. Teachers should use summative assessments to frame meaningful performance goals, show criteria and models in advance, assess before teaching, offer appropriate choices, provide feedback early and often, encourage self-assessment and goal setting, and allow new evidence of achievement to replace old evidence. (Contains 2 figures.)

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. 1703 North Beauregard Street, Alexandria, VA 22311-1714. Tel: 800-933-2723; Tel: 703-578-9600; Fax: 703-575-5400; Web site: http://www.ascd.org

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ERIC - EJ745451 - Seven Practices for Effective Learning, Educational Leadership, 2005-Nov

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Classroom assessments fall into three categories--summative, diagnostic, and formative. Summative assessment occurs at the end of a unit or course of study and is therefore an insufficient tool to maximize student learning. Diagnostic and formative assessments, on the other hand, offer descriptive feedback along the way.

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Why the hottest trend in online education already has a cheating problem

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Why the hottest trend in online education already has a cheating problem

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Feedback, grades, academic integrity, online

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[email protected]

Internet Culture

By JAMES LANG

In August of 2012, the Chronicle of Higher Education published a story about a baffling phenomenon in the world of online higher education: students in a non-credit bearing MOOC (massive open online course) were cheating on the written assignments. The honest students complained about the plagiarized work they were seeing from their peers; in response the professor teaching the course gave a stern written lecture on academic dishonesty.

But the incident raised a question that educational theorists and cheating scholars have been puzzling over since: Why would a student cheat in a course in which they voluntarily enrolled, and for which they earn no tangible rewards? Jonathan Haber, a blogger documenting his efforts to earn the equivalent of a four-year college degree with a year's worth of MOOCs, wrote that "during a period when MOOCs still carry uncertain external value, behaving dishonestly makes no practical sense (especially since students who can't keep up with the work have other alternatives-such as simply dropping the course-an option that carries little to no social stigma)."

We should not jump too hastily to the conclusion that MOOCs carry no real stakes.

Composition theorist and plagiarism researcher Rebecca Moore Howard points out that stakes do in fact exist for some MOOCs, even if they do not come in the form of college credit: "There actually are stakes for students in non-credit-bearing MOOCs, in that Coursera and other proprietors actually connect successful students with prospective employers."

But for the most part, and right now at least, Haber is right that the reward of succeeding in a MOOC has an "uncertain external value." A student who cheats his way to a Harvard degree has earned a Harvard degree, one which will improve his career prospects immensely. A student who cheats his way to a MOOC certificate earns nothing of the sort (for the time being). So why are they doing it?

Existing research on cheating in higher education doesn't take us very far in this regard. Analyzing the demographics of the cheating students and seeking to understand whether certain types of students are more likely to cheat than others (like in the work of Donald L. McCabe) doesn't help in understanding cheating in MOOCs, since both the "massive" and "open" nature of the courses makes it difficult, if not impossible, to gain a clear picture of a typical MOOC student.

Other plagiarism theorists, such as Susan Blum, consider how contemporary cultural practices of sampling and borrowing are challenging our traditional definitions of plagiarism-and how they are confusing to students who must abandon their normal habits of Facebook sharing or re-Tweeting in order to conform to the complex rules of scholarly citation. This may have some bearing on the case of cheating in MOOCs, especially when the students hail from different countries, where the rules of academic citation might differ from those in the home country of the faculty member.

But my own research on cheating in higher education suggests that the most critical factor we must consider in our understanding of the problem is the course itself. In other words, are there features of the learning environment-such as the design of the course or the nature of the assignments or the communications from the teacher-that induce or reduce the incentives and opportunities for students to cheat?

Examined through this lens, cheating in MOOCs becomes more understandable. The same course design principles that induce cheating in a traditional college course may well induce cheating in a MOOC, even when the reward for success is uncertain.

Consider, for example, the question of learning orientation. Educational theorists like to distinguish between two orientations that students have towards learning: mastery or performance. Mastery-oriented students, driven by their own curiosity and desire for knowledge, seek to master a body of material; performance-oriented students want to perform well on the assignments and exams.

Cheating researchers have argued that performance-oriented students are more likely to cheat than mastery-oriented ones. This makes a kind of intuitive sense. If the student cares about learning the material for its own sake, cheating does not serve this ambition well; if the student cares primarily about their performance on the assignments and exams, cheating becomes a much more attractive option.

But students do not carry around with them a simple, clear-cut learning orientation from one course to the next. In fact, the very design of a course's assessment system (i.e., its specific package of assignments and exams) can nudge students towards mastery or performance orientations. This means that certain types of assessment systems will also push students towards or away from cheating.

The key way in which a course's assessment system helps establish a mastery or performance-oriented classroom environment is through its use of-or lack of-choice and control. If a course's assessment system requires all students to complete the same rote set of instructor-designed exams and assignments, that course implicitly focuses on performance. If you want to do well in such a course, you must succeed on these specific, pre-determined performances. Such a course offers no choice or control in terms of how students can demonstrate their learning to the instructor.

A mastery-oriented course, by contrast, offers students a variety of ways to demonstrate their learning. Each student might, for example, be able to choose their own unique package of assignments from a menu of options offered by the instructor. Options like this will empower students to select those assessments that pique their interests and play to their strengths. These students are given choices and offered control over their path through the course material. Such individualized assessment systems also reduce the opportunity for students to cheat since the number of students completing any given assignment will be much smaller.

My guess is that that course design principles like this play a major role in the amount of cheating that takes place in a MOOC-just as they do in a traditional course. As Jonathan Haber points out, in describing the assignments he has completed in his year of MOOCing, "With a few exceptions, the assessments I've been asked to take within my many MOOCs have felt like afterthoughts, which made them easier to not take seriously." Poorly designed assignments, like poorly designed classes, will engender dishonest work in any environment, from traditional to online.

We'll always have some small degree of cheating; that's just human. But the best defense we have against cheating is excellence in course design and teaching. If a MOOC simply puts online a traditional teaching format-a teacher standing in front of a video camera and lecturing for forty-five minutes three times a week, and then demanding standard essays on well-worn topics-we should not be surprised to find students cheating, just as we would not be surprised to find them cheating in a face-to-face course of the same nature.

If we want to build MOOCs that foster honest work, we want to inspire students to learn for mastery, rather than focusing on the performance. We have to ensure that we are designing courses that offer students the opportunity to demonstrate their learning to us in creative and individualized ways.

James M. Lang is an Associate Professor of English and Director of the Center for Teaching Excellence at Assumption College. His new book, Cheating Lessons: Learning from Academic Dishonesty, was published this month by Harvard University Press. You can follow him on Twitter at @LangOnCourse or visit his website at http://www.jamesmlang.com.

This column is part of The Way We Think series. What happens when you get past the buzzwords and take a broader look at what the Internet is actually doing to transform our culture, our research, our tastes, and our ideas? In this series, the Daily Dot will publish major thinkers and fresh voices from diverse areas of our intellectual and cultural lives-science, literary criticism, photography, food blogging, biology, art history, wine, travel-on how our world is changing in concrete terms because of the Web.

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Why the hottest trend in online education already has a cheating problem

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email protected] Internet Culture By JAMES LANG In August of 2012, the Chronicle of Higher Education published a story about a baffling phenomenon in the world of online higher education: students in a non-credit bearing MOOC (massive open online course) were cheating on the written assignments.