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Child development is fundamentally shaped by the context in which a child grows up, including their family, community, and cultural environment. The values and practices of different societies influence children's upbringing, highlighting the importance of collective care and shared responsibilities. Many research findings come from WEIRD (Western Educated Industrialized Rich Democratic) societies, which may not reflect the experiences of the majority. Understanding the diverse perspectives on what is considered desirable in a child is crucial, as well-being is tied to a child's ability to participate in valued societal activities. To improve children’s lives, we must consider their broader context and engage with varied cultural viewpoints.

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What is the most important influence on child development | Tom Weisner | TEDxUCLA

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In his TEDx talk, Dushaw Hockett emphasizes the inadequacy of current approaches to racial bias, advocating for a deeper understanding of implicit bias. He explains that implicit biases operate subconsciously, often contradicting our conscious beliefs and manifesting through automatic associations. By focusing on implicit bias, we gain a broader diagnosis of societal challenges, enabling predictive and preventive strategies to reduce discriminatory behavior. Importantly, this approach diminishes the shame associated with discussions of bias, encouraging individuals to align their actions with their egalitarian values. Ultimately, Hockett argues that internal change is essential for achieving meaningful external change in society.

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We all have implicit biases. So what can we do about it? | Dushaw Hockett | TEDxMidAtlanticSalon

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Child development is fundamentally shaped by the context in which a child grows up, including their family, community, and cultural environment. The values and practices of different societies influence children's upbringing, highlighting the importance of collective care and shared responsibilities. Many research findings come from WEIRD (Western Educated Industrialized Rich Democratic) societies, which may not reflect the experiences of the majority. Understanding the diverse perspectives on what is considered desirable in a child is crucial, as well-being is tied to a child's ability to participate in valued societal activities. To improve children’s lives, we must consider their broader context and engage with varied cultural viewpoints.

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One of the fascinating things about human psychology is our ability to reflect on ourselves as objects of our own thinking. We have seen how this ability makes it possible, starting in early childhood, to have thoughts about the self and to develop a self-concept that includes the "I" self and the "Me" self.

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The issue explores how cultural factors—shaped by family, schools, neighborhoods, peers, and media—affect children's economic and social outcomes in the U.S. It highlights the importance of social mobility, noting that widening inequality and reduced upward mobility are closely tied to elements such as family structure and social capital. Articles discuss the roles of religious institutions, parenting practices, and social influences, emphasizing that positive role models and mentoring can enhance outcomes for disadvantaged children. Additionally, the impact of social networks and beliefs about opportunity is examined, alongside the effects of discrimination. The findings suggest that policies should address these cultural contexts to better support children and promote equitable outcomes.

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Children's economic and social outcomes, both during their childhood and in their adult years, largely depend on the circumstances into which they are born and raised. Such circumstances are the product of children's families, schools, and neighborhoods; the peers and adults with whom they spend time; the media images that shape their perceptions of themselves and their place in the world; and other factors-both internal and external to the individual child. Many would say that culture plays a large role in shaping a child's life experiences and outcomes. But culture is hard to define and quantify, and controversial to talk about, especially as an ill-defined concept. Furthermore, the question of what-if anything-policy makers and practitioners can do about culture is hard to grapple with, unlike more readily measured and studied concepts like income or educational attainment.

This issue of the Future of Children aims to identify and measure elements of culture that predict children's economic and social outcomes, and to present the best evidence to date about how these factors shape children's economic outcomes. When we use the word culture here, we don't purport to work either within or outside a precise definition of culture that comes from any particular academic body of thought. Rather, we consider particular elements of the social institutions, customs, and attitudes in US society that a layperson might reasonably consider to be culture.

The eight articles we've assembled here were written by highly regarded economists and psychologists. Each article considers a specific societal factor that research has shown to be important to economic and social outcomes: religious institutions; parenting practices; family structure; role models, mentors and media influences; peer and family effects; social capital and networks; beliefs about opportunity and mobility; and discrimination. All the authors have written through the lens of objectivity, with a deep and expansive knowledge of the relevant research.

Most people would probably place some of the topics covered here at the top of their list of what they consider cultural elements- for example, the role of religion or family structure. But other topics may seem less obviously "cultural." For instance, economists often talk about labor market networks without explicitly referring to networks as part of a society's culture. Nor do most economic considerations of discrimination explicitly consider that practice as a cultural construct. As co-editors, we view each article in this issue as exploring a critical element of the US cultural context shaping children's lives, though the individual authors don't necessarily define or discuss the factors they're writing about explicitly in terms of culture.

Cultural Factors and Social Mobility

Our nation is in the grip of widening inequality and social fragmentation. The past four decades have seen massive increases in income for those at the top of the income distribution but only small to modest increases for those near the bottom. People who lack high levels of skills and education have seen their wages stagnate or fall and their economic insecurity rise. It's harder today for children to achieve higher levels of income than their parents had, which suggests that the fabled American Dream is under threat. Many of us worry that the promise of opportunity and upward mobility is eroding. The issue of social mobility is front and center in academic research and domestic policy discussions.

Rates of social mobility vary widely from place to place, and many key correlates of upward mobility have to do with the elements of a place's culture. Groundbreaking research from the Opportunity Insights project-a social science research lab at Harvard University, led by economists Raj Chetty, John Friedman, and Nathaniel Hendren, which makes use of confidential access to millions of US tax records-has provided a rich description of social mobility across localities in the United States. This data driven work reveals vast differences across the country in rates of upward mobility for children from low-income homes. Strikingly, the research shows that many of the factors that predict upward mobility rates from place to place have more to do with cultural elements than with policy per se. Family structure, social capital, and religiosity, for example, are more highly correlated with social mobility than are such factors as college tuition and tax progressivity. Furthermore, the presence of black fathers in a neighborhood and a measure of racial animus are the two strongest predictors of mobility rates for black boys. This doesn't discount the importance of policy but rather makes the point that cultural factors are also critically important.
Read the Full Journal Here. Read the Policy Brief Here.

Articles 1-3

Religious Institutions, Parenting, and Family Structure

In the first article in this issue, Daniel Hungerman, an economist at the University Notre Dame, reviews the roles that religious institutions play in people's lives and considers how engagement with religious institutions shapes people's economic wellbeing. Estimates suggest that the United States is home to over 380,000 religious congregations. Many of these provide help to people in their communities, not just to their own members, the most common types of social services being assistance with food, housing, and clothing. Religious congregations play a large role in education as well, and in community organizing.

Hungerman also discusses the consequences of religious participation, focusing on what rigorous evidence suggests about the causal role that engagement with religion has on people's outcomes. For instance, a large number of studies report that religious people appear to be healthier, happier, and more civic-minded. But does that tell us something about the type of people who are likely to be religious, or about the effect of religion itself? Hungerman's review of the evidence leads him to conclude that religiosity has a positive causal effect on wellbeing. Religious participation discourages unhealthy behaviors, such as heavy drinking and gambling, and generally promotes educational attainment. He also concludes that religious participation can increase a person's tolerance of others and, in some contexts, advance the societal status of girls and women.

In the second article, Ariel Kalil of the University of Chicago and Rebecca Ryan of Georgetown University, both developmental psychologists, examine parenting practices and socioeconomic gaps in child outcomes. They document substantial differences between wealthier and poorer families, including growing gaps in parental engagement and time use. These gaps matter: the fact that children born to lower-income, less-educated parents are less likely to spend quality time with their parents compounds their relative economic disadvantage.

Evidence suggests that disadvantaged parents want to do many of the same things that higher-income parents do-such as reading to their children and engaging them in educational experiences like trips to parks and museums-but they're less likely to do them. The authors consider a number of explanations for this discrepancy. One important contributing factor appears to be financial strain and family stress, both of which can impede parents' emotional and cognitive functioning in ways that make it harder for them to interact with young children in intellectually stimulating and emotionally nurturing ways. The authors conclude with a discussion of the types of policies and programs that evidence suggests would most effectively narrow income-based parenting gaps.

Next, Melanie Wasserman, an economist at the University of California, Los Angeles, writes about the role of family structure, reviewing the latest evidence on the causal link between family structure and children's economic and social outcomes. Wasserman moves beyond a consideration of whether family structure affects child outcomes-a topic that's already been covered at length, including in previous Future of Children volumes-to present evidence about how family structure differentially affects children. Several recent studies indicate that growing up outside a family with two biological, married parents yields especially negative consequences for boys as compared to girls, including worse educational outcomes and higher rates of criminal involvement.

Wasserman describes mechanisms that may link family structure to children's outcomes, in terms of both the main effect and gender differences. These include same-gender role models (in the household and in the neighborhood), parental resources (income and other), parenting quantity/quality (including parental time allocation by child gender), and the differential responsiveness of boys to parental inputs, among other hypotheses. In discussing lessons for policy, Wasserman encourages efforts to supplement the educational, parental, and emotional resources available to those children who are most at risk of experiencing the negative effects of nontraditional family structures.

Compared to the children of wealthier parents, children in low-income families are less likely to have economically successful role models and mentors, and are likely to spend more time with media. In our fourth article, economists Melissa Kearney of the University of Maryland and Phillip Levine of Wellesley College review the theoretical and empirical evidence about how and why role models, mentors, and media influences affect children's outcomes.

Kearney and Levine describe evidence showing that role models and media matter for children's outcomes. Many studies demonstrate positive same-gender and same-race role model effects in schools. Formal mentoring programs, such as Big Brothers Big Sisters, can also have positive impacts on participants, in the form of better school performance and lower rates of involvement with the criminal justice system. Media content also matters: encouragingly, media can be a force for good in advancing children's and teens' educational and social outcomes. The authors conclude that interventions designed to improve the social influences children face could help increase rates of upward mobility for children from low-income homes.

In article 5, Gordon Dahl, an economist at the University of California, San Diego, takes on the related topic of how peers and families shape social group norms. He describes how researchers have overcome the challenge of separating peer and family effects from shared peer and family preferences, so that they can now generate credible estimates of how the behaviors of peers and family members affect a person's choices in work and program participation. The evidence suggests that when a policy changes a person's employment or program participation, it also has large spillover effects on that person's family members and peers. Dahl points out the policy relevance of large social multiplier effects. For instance, to the extent that increased take-up of a government assistance program implies greater participation among the children and relatives of current beneficiaries, we should expect higher program caseloads and costs in the long term.

Scholars and policy makers alike are increasingly interested in understanding how social capital shapes people's economic lives. But the idea of social capital is an amorphous one. In article 6, economists Judy Hellerstein of the University of Maryland and David Neumark of the University of California, Irvine, define social capital as networks of relationships among people who are connected by where they live or work. The authors draw on survey evidence, case studies, and administrative data to document that such networks play an important role in improving wellbeing, especially in terms of better labor market outcomes. The evidence suggests that when it comes to getting a job, personal networks are especially important to immigrants. Hellerstein and Neumark also discuss some limited evidence on how neighborhood networks may shape children's health and educational outcomes.

Social context extends beyond personal networks and relationships to our beliefs about the society we live in and the discrimination and biases we encounter as we move through life. In article 7, Mesmin Destin, a psychologist at Northwestern University, examines how beliefs about opportunity and economic mobility in society affect one's behaviors. He points out that several disciplinary perspectives have conceptualized and empirically documented important links between societal-level economic inequality, individual level beliefs about the attainability of socioeconomic mobility, and behaviors related to socioeconomic success among youth and young adults from low-income backgrounds. The dominant framework Destin describes comes from robust research in social psychology that directly links people's expectations of future success to their level of motivation to persist on tasks and in areas of life that could contribute to success. For example, students who see a connection between academics and the kinds of jobs they hope to have are more motivated to work hard in school, and they ultimately have better academic outcomes than students who don't see these connections. Drawing on lessons from psychology, as well as cultural sociology, contemporary anthropology, and economics, Destin notes that the more information young people's contexts provide about the opportunities available to them, the more likely they are to pursue their aspirations.

The final article takes up the expansive issue of discrimination. Economists Kevin Lang of Boston University and Ariella Kahn-Lang Spitzer of Mathematica (a policy research firm) write about how discrimination and bias shape outcomes. Lang and Kahn-Lang Spitzer focus primarily on discrimination by race, while acknowledging that discrimination exists along many other dimensions as well, including gender, sexual orientation, religion, and ethnicity. They describe evidence of substantial racial disparities in the labor market, education, criminal justice, health, and housing, and show that in each of these domains, those disparities at least partially reflect discrimination. The authors note that the disparities are both the cause and the result of discrimination, and reinforce each other. For instance, harsher treatment from the criminal justice system makes it more difficult for black people to get good jobs, which makes it more likely they'll live in poor neighborhoods and that their children will attend inferior schools. Lang and Kahn-Lang Spitzer argue that simply prohibiting discrimination is less effective at addressing disparities than policies that decrease residential and social distance between people of different races.

Moving policy and programs forward

It wasn't our goal as editors of this issue to make pronouncements about what is or is not culture. Nor did we aim to explore the cultural determination of social institutions and norms. Rather, we invited a set of experts to objectively describe the evidence about how various aspects of social institutions, norms, and behaviors shape children's outcomes. The articles in this issue take a quantitative, empirically rigorous approach to defining and studying specific cultural constructs, and they advance the policy conversation about how culture shapes children's outcomes. We anticipate (and hope) that these articles, both individually and collectively, will be useful to policy makers, practitioners, and advocates for children.

The authors that contributed to this issue of Future of Children are as follows: Daniel Hungerman (University of Notre Dame), Ariel Kalil (University of Chicago), Rebecca Ryan (Georgetown University), Melanie Wasserman (UCLA), Melissa Kearney (University of Maryland), Phil Levine (Wellesley College), Gordon Dahl (UC San Diego), Judy Hellerstein (University of Maryland), David Neumark (University of California, Irvine), Mesmin Destin (Northwestern), Kevin Lang (Boston University), and Ariella Kahn-Lang Spitzer (Mathematica). Kevin Lang is the current Vice President of the Society of Labor Economists and will begin his term as President-elect on July 1, 2020. The authors that contributed to this issue did not receive financial support from any firm or person for this article or from any firm or person with a financial or political interest in this article. None of the authors is currently an officer, director, or board member of any organization with a financial or political interest in this article.

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How Cultural Factors Shape Economic Outcomes | Brookings

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Children's economic and social outcomes, both during their childhood and in their adult years, largely depend on the circumstances into which they are born and raised. Such circumstances are the product of children's families, schools, and neighborhoods; the peers and adults with whom they spend time; the media images that shape their perceptions of themselves [...]

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LGBT youth face higher risks of poor mental and physical health compared to their heterosexual and cisgender peers, with transgender youth experiencing unique stressors. Parental attitudes significantly influence these outcomes, as positive support correlates with better mental health and identity affirmation, while negative reactions can lead to abuse and internalized stigma. Secure attachment to caregivers fosters healthy emotional regulation, whereas insecure attachment can increase vulnerability to stress. Many LGBT youth experience parental rejection, which has lasting detrimental effects, although acceptance may grow over time. Children displaying gender nonconformity are particularly at risk for abuse, especially boys. Cultural attitudes and family values further shape parental responses, leading to variations in acceptance across different racial and ethnic groups. Ultimately, parental acceptance is crucial for the healthy identity development of LGBT youth, underscoring the need for supportive family environments to mitigate the challenges of rejection.

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Summary

In this article, we address theories of attachment and parental acceptance and rejection, and their implications for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youths' identity and health. We also provide two clinical cases to illustrate the process of family acceptance of a transgender youth and a gender nonconforming youth who was neither a sexual minority nor transgender. Clinical implications of family acceptance and rejection of LGBT youth are discussed.

Keywords: LGBT, youth, family, support, acceptance

Introduction

In this article, we discuss sexual minority, i.e., lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) and transgender (LGBT) youth. Sexual orientation refers to the individual's object of sexual or romantic attraction or desire, whether of the same or other sex relative to the individual's sex, with sexual minority individuals having a sexual orientation that is partly or exclusively focused on the same sex. Transgender refers to individuals for whom current gender identity and sex assigned at birth are not concordant, whereas cisgender refers to individuals for whom current gender identity is congruent with sex assigned at birth. Sexual orientation and gender identity are distinct aspects of the self. Transgender individuals may or may not be sexual minorities, and vice versa. Little is known about transgender youth, although some of the psychosocial experiences of cisgender sexual minority youth may generalize to this population.

The Institute of Medicine recently concluded that LGBT youth are at elevated risk for poor mental and physical health compared with heterosexual and cisgender peers. Indeed, representative samples of youth have found disparities by sexual orientation in health-related risk behaviors, symptomatology, and diagnoses, with disparities persisting over time. Furthermore, sexual orientation disparities exist regardless how sexual orientation is defined, whether by sexual or romantic attractions; sexual behaviors; self-identification as heterosexual, bisexual, lesbian/gay or other identities; or, any combination thereof. Disparities by gender identity have also been found, with transgender youth experiencing poorer mental health than cisgender youth.

Attempts have been made to understand sexual orientation and gender identity-related health disparities among youth. It has been argued that sexual minority youth experience stress associated with society's stigmatization of homosexuality and of anyone perceived to be homosexual [see Ch. 5]. This "gay-related" or "minority" stress is experienced at the hands of others as victimization. It is also internalized, such that sexual minorities victimize the self by means, for example, of possessing negative attitudes toward homosexuality, known as internalized homonegativity or homophobia. In addition to interpersonal stigma and internalized stigma, the main focus of this article, structural stigma reflected in societal level norms, policies and laws also plays a significant role in sexual minority stress, and is discussed in Mark Hatzenbeuhler's article, "Clinical Implications of Stigma, Minority Stress, and Resilience as Predictors of Health and Mental Health Outcomes," in this issue. Meta-analytic reviews find that sexual minorities experience more stress relative to heterosexuals, as well as unique stressors. Research also indicates that transgender individuals experience substantial amounts of prejudice, discrimination, and victimization and are thought to experience a similar process of minority stress as experienced by sexual minorities, although minority stress for transgender individuals is based on stigma related to gender identity rather than stigma related to having a minority sexual orientation. Stigma related to gender expression affects those with gender non-conforming behavior, a group that includes both transgender and cisgender individuals. This includes many cisgender youth growing up with LGB orientations.

Actual or anticipated family acceptance or rejection of LGBT youth is important in understanding the youth's experience of minority stress, how the youth is likely to cope with the stress, and consequently, the impact of minority stress on the youth's health. This article addresses the role of family, in particular parental acceptance and rejection in LGBT youths' identity and health. Literature reviewed in this article focuses on the experiences of sexual minority cisgender youth due to a lack of research on transgender youth. However, we include findings and implications for transgender youth whenever possible.

Theories of Parental Acceptance and Rejection

The continued importance of parents in the lives of youth is indisputable: beginning at birth, extending through adolescence and even into emerging adulthood, affecting all relationships beyond those with the parents, and determining the individual's own sense of self-worth. Attachment accounts for this vast reach and influence of parents.

According to Bowlby, attachment to the primary caretaker guarantees survival because the attachment system is activated during stress and concerns the accessibility and responsiveness of the attachment figure to the child's distress and potential danger. The pattern or style of attachment that develops is based on repeated interactions or transactions with the primary caregiver during infancy and childhood. Those experiences, in interaction with constitutional factors like temperament, influence the internal working model (i.e., mental representations of emotion, behavior, and thought) of beliefs about and expectations concerning the accessibility and responsiveness of the attachment figure. In time, this internal working model influences perception of others, significantly influencing patterns in relationships over time and across settings. The beliefs and expectations concerning the attachment figure also affect the internal working model of the self, meaning the individual's sense of self-worth.

The three consistent patterns of attachment that arise in infancy and childhood are related to the internal working models of the self and other. The "secure" child has positive models of the self and other because the primary attachment figure has been accessible when needed and responsive in an attuned and sensitive manner to the child's needs and capabilities. Consequently, the securely attached child is able to regulate emotion, explore the environment, and become self-reliant in an age-appropriate manner. The "insecure" child has an inaccessible and unresponsive primary caregiver, who is intrusive, erratic or abusive. One of two insecure attachment patterns emerges. In the first pattern, the child dismisses or avoids the parent, becoming "compulsively" self-reliant and regulating emotion even when contraindicated. This child with "avoidant/dismissive" attachment depends on the self, possessing a positive internal working model of the self but a negative one of the other. In the second insecure attachment pattern, the child is anxiously preoccupied with the caregiver but in a resistant (i.e., distressed or aroused) manner. The individual with "anxious/preoccupied/resistant/ambivalent" attachment has a negative working model of the self, but a positive model of the other.

Attachment patterns in childhood are partly related to character traits in adulthood, and have implications for emotion regulation from the perspective of coping with stress, as detailed elsewhere. Based on positive working models of the self and other, the securely attached individual approaches a stressful situation in an adaptive manner that allows for a realistic appraisal of the situation and a selection of coping strategies most likely to reduce or eliminate the stressor or, at minimum, render the stressor tolerable. By comparison, insecurely attached individuals may distort reality because they may be more likely to appraise a situation as stressful even when it is not. They may also be maladaptive in their management of stress and use emotion-focused coping strategies, such as substance use, to improve mood and tolerate stress. These patterns of coping influenced by attachment are present by and common in adolescence. Coping is critical because sexual orientation and gender development are potentially stressful experiences for all youth, but especially for sexual and gender minorities, given the frequent stigmatization of homosexuality, gender non-conforming behavior, and gender-variant identities.

Implications for Parent-Child Attachment

The vast majority of sexual minority youth are born to heterosexual parents. Those parents may not uncommonly possess implicit or explicit negative attitudes toward homosexuality and expect their children to be heterosexual. Parents may not only be surprised that their child may be or is a sexual minority, but they may also respond negatively to the child. Similarly, the vast majority of transgender and/or gender nonconforming youth are born to cisgender and/or gender conforming parents, who often possess negative attitudes toward those who violate societal expectations for gender identity, expression, and roles, and expect their children to be cisgender and gender conforming. Negative responses from parents to LGBT youth may range from anxious concerns about the child's well-being and future to abuse and even banishment of the child from the home.

The range of possible parental responses to the child's sexual orientation, gender-related behavior or identity when these deviate from parental expectation is linked to the child's attachment. The securely attached youth has parents who have encouraged age-appropriate exploration and value the child as a unique individual. Such parents may be surprised and concerned by the child's sexual minority orientation, gender non-conformity, or transgender identity, but they are likely to work through their negative attitudes over time and continue to be accessible and responsive to their child. Thus, the attachment of the securely attached youth may be shaken when parents learn of these, but it is unlikely to be undone. This does not apply to insecurely attached youth, given their a priori inaccessible, unresponsive, and potentially abusive parents. Knowledge of these deviations from expectation, coupled with negative attitudes, may lead such parents to be less supportive of their child, or reject them. The latter may manifest in parental abuse of the youth, running away by the youth to escape maltreatment, or eviction of the youth from the home.

Representative samples of youth find that relative to heterosexual peers, sexual minorities report lower levels of parental closeness and elevated rates of parental abuse and homelessness. Transgender youth also report elevated rates of child abuse compared to cisgender peers. More specifically, sexual minority youth relative to heterosexual peers and siblings report less secure attachment to their mothers and their mothers report less affection for them. It has also been found that maternal attachment mediates sexual orientation disparities in depressive symptomatology and substance use. These disparities in sexual and gender minority youth from their and gender normative peers and siblings involving the degree of attachment underscore the importance of parental attitudes toward non-heterosexual orientations, gender non-conforming behavior, and gender identity variance for secure attachment in youth. Pediatric clinicians should assess these and the quality of the parent-child attachment.

These attachment implications and findings take on added meaning when considered along with youth's neurocognitive development and coping capabilities. It is known that development of the prefrontal cortex lags behind that of limbic regions during adolescence, ensuring less impulse control and greater risk taking. The findings extend to emotion regulation. Human imaging studies demonstrate that youth have a difficult time down-regulating amygdala activation. Therefore, coping in youth is circumscribed by limited ability to rationally or logically plan, execute, evaluate, and readjust a problem-focused strategy to eliminate or reduce stress, while simultaneously controlling emotional reactivity.

Consequently, youth greatly depend on adults, especially parents, both to assist them with meeting developmental demands and to guide their personal experiences in various domains (e.g., interpersonal, romantic) and settings (e.g., school, work). LGBT youth with insecure attachment may have a difficult time navigating and coping with such challenges if their parents are inaccessible and unresponsive.

Nevertheless, attachment may change over time. This may happen if the attachment figure becomes more or less accessible and responsive, or if one attachment figure (e.g., the mother) buffers the negative impact of another attachment figure (e.g., the father). A non-parental individual may provide support, but whether she or he could provide the deep sense of security and the safe haven of an attachment figure is uncertain, particularly if social structures and cultural traditions do not foster these.

Parental Reactions to Gender Nonconformity

Gender nonconformity, defined as having a gender expression that is perceived to be inconsistent with gender norms expected for an individual's sex, is not uncommon in children. A study of gender atypical behavior (one aspect of gender nonconformity) among elementary school children found that approximately 23% of boys and 39% of girls displayed multiple gender atypical behaviors. Gender nonconformity exists on a spectrum, with some children displaying less and some children displaying more gender nonconformity. This spectrum has implications for victimization, such that youth who are more gender nonconforming are at increased risk for abuse by caregivers, as well as peer victimization and bullying (see Mark Hatzenbeuhler's article, "Clinical Implications of Stigma, Minority Stress, and Resilience as Predictors of Health and Mental Health Outcomes," in this issue) and an increased risk of depressive symptoms. Although a link exists between childhood gender nonconformity and later sexual minority orientation and/or transgender identity, not all children who are gender nonconforming are LGB or transgender in later adolescence or adulthood.

As with stigma attached to sexual minorities and transgender individuals, gender nonconformity is also stigmatized in and of itself, particularly among boys. Connell's theory of hegemonic masculinity sheds light on this stigma, as it suggests that one form of masculinity, with features such as aggression, limited emotionality, and heterosexuality, is culturally exalted above others. For this reason, variation from this level of masculinity among boys can be stigmatized. Similar to stigma related to sexual minorities and transgender individuals, stigma related to gender nonconformity is often enacted through prejudice, discrimination, and victimization. A study of early adolescents found that gender nonconformity was associated with increased victimization by peers. Youth who are sexual minorities may be bullied for gender nonconformity before they are aware of their sexual orientation. A recent study found that sexual minority youth were bullied as early as fifth grade, which is before the majority of sexual minority youth are aware of their sexual orientation or disclose it to others. Although the study did not assess the reason for bullying, it is possible that these youth were bullied based on gender nonconformity.

Negative societal views may include adverse parental reactions to a child's gender nonconformity. A qualitative study found that parents welcomed gender nonconformity among their daughters, but had mixed reactions to their sons' gender nonconformity; they accepted some level of nonconformity in their sons (e.g., interest in cooking), but had negative reactions to higher levels of nonconformity (e.g., wearing dresses). In addition to increased risk for bullying victimization from peers, previous research has found that gender nonconforming children have a high prevalence of childhood sexual abuse, physical abuse, and psychological abuse by caregivers, which may be indicative of negative parental reactions to their child's gender nonconformity. Parents' initial reactions to gender nonconformity in their children may extend to reactions to youth's sexual orientation disclosure.

Parental Reactions to Youths' LGBT Disclosure

Disclosure of sexual orientation to family members is common among sexual minority youth. One study found that 79% of sexual minority youth had disclosed their sexual orientation to at least one parent, and two-thirds of youth had disclosed their orientation to at least one sibling and one extended family member. Another study of sexual minority emerging adults found that 46% of men and 44% of women had disclosed their sexual orientation to their parents. In this study, participants were more likely to disclose their sexual orientation to their mothers than to their fathers, and disclosures typically occurred around age 19 years in a face-to-face encounter.

A number of theories have been proposed to conceptualize the reactions of parents to their children's disclosure of sexual minority orientation, including mourning/loss paradigms based on Kubler-Ross's stage model of grief and family stress theory. Willoughby et al. applied family stress theory to parental reactions to their children's sexual orientation disclosure, proposing that reactions may depend on the availability of family-level resources (e.g., relational competencies) to manage stress, meanings that parents attributed to the stressful event (e.g., believing that sexual orientation is a choice), and co-occurring stressors (e.g., divorce, major illness). Although these theories are useful for understanding parents' reactions to their child's sexual orientation disclosure, some researchers have proposed that these models are limited in that they may not describe the reaction of all parents, account for developmental change in reactions over time, or consider the experiences of the child.

Parents may experience a number of different responses when faced with a disclosure of sexual minority orientation from their child, ranging from accepting to rejecting. Research in this area has yielded mixed results regarding the positivity and negativity of parental reactions. One study found that sexual minority youth who had disclosed their sexual orientation to family members reported more verbal and physical abuse by family members and more suicidality compared to youth who had not disclosed their orientation. However, this study was published in 1998 and much has changed since then regarding societal acceptance of sexual minorities. Another study found that among sexual minority youth who had disclosed their sexual orientation to their mother or father, the majority (89-97%) received a positive reaction. However, these findings may be misleading, given they do not consider how many youth have not disclosed to parents due to fear of negative reactions or rejection.

A review of the sexual minority literature finds that one-third of youth experience parental acceptance, another third experience parental rejection, and the remaining third do not disclose their sexual orientation even by their late teenage years and early twenties. The review also finds that regardless of initial reactions, parents generally become more accepting of their child over time. For instance, one study found that compared to sexual minority youth who had not disclosed their sexual orientation to parents, sexual minority youth who had disclosed their orientation reported more past sexual orientation-based verbal victimization from parents, but more current family support and less fear of future parental victimization, indicating greater acceptance over time. Whether such findings generalize to transgender youth is unknown. Our first case vignette at the end of this article illustrates areas needing more empirical research regarding transgender youth's disclosure of gender identity to parents.

The process of sexual orientation disclosure in families may be shaped by the values of the family system. In one study investigating traditional values and family acceptance of sexual minorities, families with a strong emphasis on traditional values (e.g., importance of religion, emphasis on marriage, emphasis on having children) were perceived as less accepting of sexual minority orientation than less traditional families. Parental responses to youth's disclosure of sexual minority orientation may also differ based on race/ethnicity or cultural levels of acceptance of sexual minority individuals (see Ch. 11, "Sociocultural Factors and LGBT Youth's Health-related behavior: The role of race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, religion and culture"). However, only one study, as far as we know, has examined parental responses to youths' sexual orientation disclosure by race/ethnicity among young adult gay males of African-American, European-American, Mexican-American, and Vietnamese-American backgrounds. It found family responses to be similar across the four groups.

Additional research on levels of family support and rejection of sexual minority youth has found group differences by sexual orientation, race/ethnicity, and gender identity. A study of sexual orientation group differences in parental support of young adults found that lesbian and bisexual women reported lower levels of parental support than heterosexual women, and that gay men reported lower levels of parental support than bisexual or heterosexual men. These group differences may be related to general attitudes toward different sexual orientation groups, indicating that attitudes toward sexual minority individuals are more negative than attitudes toward heterosexual individuals. Some race/ethnicity differences in level of family support have also been found. In a study of White and Latino sexual minority young adults, Latino men reported the highest number of negative family reactions to their sexual orientation in adolescence. However, another study found similar levels of parental support among White and racial/ethnic minority LGBT youth. More research is needed to obtain a clearer picture of how race/ethnicity may be related to parental responses to sexual orientation disclosure among youth, as well as parental support and rejection of LGBT youth (see Ch. 11 for more information). Although there is little research on family support and rejection of transgender youth, some research has indicated that these youth report more rejection than cisgender youth. Further empirical research is needed on family support and rejection among transgender youth, particularly compared to cisgender sexual minority youth.

Implications for LGBT Youth Identity and Health

Levels of family acceptance and rejection may have implications for sexual minority youth's identity development. A study of sexual minority adolescents and young adults examined associations between parental acceptance and identity profiles that were affirmed as opposed to being characterized by struggle. Results indicated that less parental rejection was associated with a greater likelihood of having an affirmed identity than struggling with one's identity, suggesting that the level of parental rejection may affect youths' ability to accept their own sexual minority identity. Similarly, youth whose parents knew about their sexual orientation reported less "internalized homophobia" (or self-stigma - see Ch. 5, "Clinical Implications of Stigma, Minority Stress, and Resilience as Predictors of Health and Mental Health Outcomes") compared both to youth whose parents did not know about their sexual orientation and youth who newly disclosed their orientation to their parents over the course of the study.

Pediatric care providers should be aware that family rejection may have serious consequences for LGBT youth's physical and mental health. Studies have found that parental rejection is associated with health risk behaviors and poor mental and physical health outcomes among LGBT individuals. Sexual minority emerging adults with higher levels of family rejection were more likely to report attempted suicide, high levels of depression, and illegal drug use, and engagement in unprotected sexual intercourse. Parental rejection negatively affects health among both transgender and cisgender adolescents. In the Thai study referenced earlier, family rejection predicted adolescents' level of depression, suicidal thinking, and sexual risk behaviors among both transgender and cisgender youth.

Conversely, family acceptance may be protective for LGBT youth's health. Among sexual minority youth, adolescents whose mothers responded positively to their sexual orientation disclosure were less likely to use substances compared to those who had not disclosed their orientation to their parents or whose mothers and fathers did not react positively. In addition, family support and acceptance is associated with greater self-esteem, social support, general health status, less depression, less substance abuse, and less suicidal ideation and behaviors among LGBT youth. Family support is also associated with less substance use among LGBT youth. Among transgender youth specifically, parental support is protective against depression and associated with having a higher quality of life.

Clinical Implications

The preceding information underscores why it is important for providers of pediatric care to know the effects of family non-acceptance and rejection on youth; to understand specific threats to family acceptance affecting LGBT youth like parental stigma against LGB orientation, gender non-conforming behavior and/or gender variant identities; to assess these in youth and families; and to intervene appropriately in case of family non-acceptance or risk for it. The following case vignettes illustrate these principles in clinical practice.

Case 1 ( Box 1) illustrates several complexities of coming out as transgender during the later adolescent period. The burden of unshared personal information and associated shame and fears of rejection, especially by one's closest supports, combined with the mental effort required to maintain an external identity at odds with the internal sense of true self all contributed significantly to this patient's depression. Improvement in depression was observed with disclosure to the mother, but depression recurred following subsequent negative or ambivalent parental responses. Acceptance was achieved within a broader social network, but peer and other community support could not replace the desired parental reaction. Without the support of the parents, the patient regressed and acquiesced to the sex assigned at birth, followed by depression that required pharmacological treatment. Although the pediatrician and psychotherapist were not able to effect parental acceptance, treatment was used to clarify its importance as a way to set the stage for further family work or adaptive separation, individuation, and coping with ongoing family non-acceptance.

Box 1

A 16 year-old natal male presented to the physician with his mother and father with a chief complaint of depression. He reported feelings of worthlessness, failure, unhappiness, becoming easily overwhelmed and emotionally numb when stressed. During that first meeting he made a point of reporting that he had grown to feel more distant from his mother and father.

A referral was made for individual psychotherapy. During subsequent follow-up appointments the depression symptoms remained unchanged. There was ongoing resistance to therapy but during the course of care a positive alliance was developed with the physician. It was noted later in the treatment that the physician's neutral, inquisitive style, appearance of non-judgment and of agency for the patient, signaling of a primary alliance with the patient rather than the parents (while maintaining respect for the parents' interests) all helped to establish a good clinical alliance with the patient.

Seven months into the treatment relationship, an appointment was scheduled with the physician at the patient's request. The stated goal for the meeting was to inform the physician, "I'm a girl. I don't feel like I'm a girl, I am a girl." The patient reported constant preoccupation with thoughts related to their current gender identity, efforts to cope with already developed secondary sex characteristics and how to achieve gender affirmation. The patient indicated a preference for the use of feminine gender pronouns. The patient also chose to come out to her mother in the office with the physician present. Her mother was able to express an interest in understanding what was being explained to her but anticipated a slow process. The patient left the office indicating that the mother's response was consistent with her expectations.

The next scheduled appointment occurred two weeks later. By that time the patient had told her father who did not attend the visit. Her father's response was experienced as reserved and without clear acceptance or rejection. The drive to come out seemed to have been amplified since the initial experience with her mother. Beginning with a trusted faculty counselor at school and then with teachers and finally peers, she had informed members of her school and social community about her gender identity. The patient experienced their responses as supportive. There were no reports of explicit or implicit mistreatment. Her parents remained avoidant, however.

The patient felt an urgent drive to take action in the period after gender identity disclosure. After informing her broader social community, the patient sought to formally change her name and remained focused on gender affirmation. The family rejected the psychotherapist's suggestion to consult with a gender management service, saying they would not agree to this "until [he's] 18."

The patient's symptoms of depression continued, despite apparent relief and transient mood improvement immediately following the initial gender identity disclosure. As depression returned following her mother's and then father's avoidant responses, the patient appeared driven to repeat the disclosure to an expanding set of her social community. Each supportive encounter resulted in another transient improvement in mood, but these were always followed by recurrence of depression. Observing and discussing that process with the patient led to a calming of the fervent drive to act, but the depression remained. The patient eventually abandoned efforts to obtain a supportive and accepting response from the parents, and elected to defer pursuing further gender affirmation until able to do so independently, including suspending social transition such as requesting to be addressed by feminine name and pronoun. The depression was ultimately treated with antidepressant medication.

In Case 2 ( Box 2), the child benefited from the protective effects of supportive parents to whom she appeared to have a secure attachment. Her masculine gender expression provoked mistreatment from peers. The stress of her exclusion began to affect her psychological health, but was modified by her ability to share her feelings and experiences at school with her parents and to rely on their ability to provide support and take appropriate protective action. A good relationship with the pediatrician extended the foundation of support. Together they were able to care for the child through an environmental action that may have prevented the need for mental health care. This case also underscores that gender nonconforming behavior may, but does not necessarily, mean that the youth will have a LGB orientation or be transgender later in adolescence or adulthood.

Box 2

The pediatrician had provided primary care for a girl since her birth. She experienced an unremarkable early development and had remained medically healthy. She was clearly "a tomboy" as her mom would note, but this garnered no concern as it might if instead of a masculine girl she were a feminine boy. There was no interest in dolls or princesses, no comfort in wearing a dress, and no affinity for pink or purple. She wore jeans and T-shirts, played football with the boys at recess, and was comfortable getting dirty.

During her fourth grade year, a Monday office visit was scheduled after an episode of emesis at school. Her mother explained that the previous week, her daughter had been complaining of stomachaches and headaches in the morning. She had stayed home from school on Friday, but seemed better by that afternoon and over the weekend. On Monday morning she had again complained of feeling sick. Her examination was unremarkable. Physically she was well. Reassurance was given along with written authorization to return to school the next day.

School avoidance continued. Given the doctor's findings, she was not kept home. She began to pick at her skin and appeared unhappy. Her parents had always been caring and attentive though not intrusive. They asked what had been happening at school. Their daughter explained that a bully had called her "gay" and said she was "a lesbian". In the absence of effective intervention for bullying by her school, her persistent masculine gender expression elicited name-calling by a bully, which led to a group dynamic of teasing by other children at school. This led to widespread peer rejection and shunning. Her parents listened and supported her. A meeting was arranged at the school where the teacher acknowledged awareness of recent shifts in friendships. Although he and school administration acknowledged the problem, they did not implement standard anti-bullying interventions (see Ch. 6, "LGBT Youth and Bullying"), expressing confidence that the peer ostracism would pass quickly without school intervention.

However, peer perceptions of her sexual orientation and associated social ostracism did not change. With her parents' support and encouragement, she was able to attend school. Her skin picking resolved, but she remained unhappy. After speaking with their daughter, the parents requested a school district transfer, but were opposed by school administration.

Parents sought help from the pediatrician, asking for a letter of medical necessity. The pediatrician readily provided one that included information about negative health effects of bullying, social isolation and alienation resulting from gender nonconformity and perceived sexual minority status. She included information about increased risk of depression and suicide. After receiving the letter, the school district approved a transfer.

Adjustment to the new school, which had an antibullying policy and curriculum that included non-tolerance of bullying on the basis of sexual orientation and gender, was positive. The patient's mood improved quickly after the transfer. She found friends who introduced her to a new hobby of freestyle skateboarding. Now a teenager, she has become quite accomplished. Both she and her current boyfriend participate in the same competitive skateboard circuit.

Summary

In this article, we have discussed theories of attachment, parental acceptance and rejection, and implications of each for LGBT youths' identity and health. We have provided two clinical cases to illustrate the impact of family acceptance and rejection of a transgender youth and a gender nonconforming youth who was neither a sexual minority nor transgender. It is clear from existing research that family acceptance and rejection is crucial to the health and well-being of LGBT youth. However, the majority of research conducted in this area has focused on sexual minority cisgender youth. More research is needed to understand how family acceptance and rejection affects the health of transgender youth. Health care providers working with LGBT youth should address issues of family acceptance and rejection during clinical visits to ensure that youth develop a healthy sense of self in terms of their sexual orientation and gender identity.

​

Footnotes

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

References

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In this article, we address theories of attachment and parental acceptance and rejection, and their implications for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youths' identity and health. We also provide two clinical cases to illustrate the process of family acceptance of a transgender youth and a gender nonconforming youth who was neither a sexual minority nor transgender.

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Cultural diversity in the classroom is increasingly vital as U.S. public schools became majority-minority in 2014, with projections indicating that by 2044, over half of the U.S. population will be people of color. Embracing inclusive education fosters acceptance and prepares students for a diverse world, encompassing race, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, and gender identity. Culturally responsive teaching benefits all students by enhancing their success and promoting social and emotional learning. Key strategies to promote diversity include getting to know students individually, maintaining consistent communication, acknowledging and respecting diverse backgrounds, practicing cultural sensitivity in lesson design, incorporating diverse perspectives in the curriculum, and giving students the freedom to explore topics from their own viewpoints. Multicultural education nurtures empathy, comprehensive understanding, open-mindedness, confidence, and safety, ultimately equipping students to thrive in an increasingly diverse society and workplace.

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The Importance of Diversity & Multicultural Awareness in Education

Drexel University School of Education

Cultural diversity in the classroom is on the rise. In 2014, U.S. public schools hit a minority majority milestone with Latino, African-American, and Asian students having surpassed the number of white students. In 2044, the U.S. Census predicts that over half of the nation's population will be people of color, so this trend will likely continue.

In our increasingly diverse and multicultural society, it's more important than ever for teachers to incorporate culturally responsive instruction in the classroom -- whether teaching elementary school, middle school or high school students. And the increase of diversity doesn't only relate to race and ethnicity; it can include students of different religion, economic status, sexual orientation, gender identity, and language background.

Interested in becoming a teacher? Learn more about Drexel's Teacher Certification program.

Why is it Important to Encourage Diversity in Schools and Workplaces?

Fostering inclusion and awareness around multicultural education and taking a culturally responsive approach to teaching benefits all students. Not only does creating greater multicultural awareness and inclusion help students with different backgrounds and needs succeed, but it encourages acceptance and helps prepare students to thrive in an exponentially diverse world. Our Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Wellness Certificate Program is a great opportunity for teachers to learn how to create positive classroom environments and can serve as a foundation for understanding how to promote diversity in your classroom.

Diversity in and out of the classroom will continue to grow, so it's essential we prepare students to adapt to an evolving world and embrace those different from themselves. Learn more how the programs at the Drexel School of Education are helping to prepare more culturally-responsive educators today.

Types of Cultural Diversity in the Classroom

Every student is unique. In order to properly understand and promote cultural awareness, teachers need to understand all the different types of diversity they may encounter in their classrooms including:

Race

A person's skin color can have a great impact on their experience in society. It can also impact how they view themselves and others when engaging in classroom activities.

Ethnicity

Ethnicity relates to a person's culture and nationality. Ethnicity is sometimes confused with race, but it is important to recognize that while some people may have the same skin color, they may come from different places and have vastly different cultural beliefs and views of the world.

Religion

It is important to understand that people have different religious belief or no religious beliefs, and it may impact their participation in the classroom. Students may react differently to lessons based on their religion or may not be able to be present on certain religious holidays.

Language

While English is commonly used in American classrooms, for some students, it is not the language they speak at home. Accommodations should be made to help students for whom English is a second language.

Socioeconomic Status

A student's socioeconomic status can affect their ability to participate in the classroom without some type of accommodation. For instance, access to a computer at home or reliable internet access is not a given for some children. Teachers should be aware of this and the stress it may cause students who may struggle due to a lack of resources.

Sexual Orientation

A student's sexual orientation can have a great impact on how they are experiencing the world. Teachers should understand the struggles that exist and ensure that the lessons taught in their classroom are inclusive.

Gender Identity

Similar to sexual orientation, it is important to understand each student's gender identity and how they would prefer to be recognized. Teachers should respect their student's identity and use preferred pronouns when interacting with their students.

How can you Promote Diversity and Multiculturalism in the Classroom?

There are several ways teachers and administrators, such as principals and coaches, can ensure that both the classroom environment and curriculum are responsive to the increasing cultural diversity of our society. These strategies will encourage all students' cultural awareness, enhancing each student's sense of identity, and foster inclusion in the classroom community.

1. Get to Know Your Students Ensuring that cultural awareness is promoted in the classroom starts with the teacher understanding each individual student. Take the time to learn about each student's cultural background, hobbies, learning styles, and what makes them unique. Demonstrating a genuine interest in learning about each student and their culture will help establish trust and allow you to form a bond with them so they feel valued. If students feel appreciated by and comfortable with the teacher, there's a better chance they'll feel comfortable talking with and respect their peers in the class - and communication is the core to a culturally aware and inclusive classroom.

2. Maintain Consistent Communication Aside from getting to know your students, teachers should also continue to maintain ongoing communication throughout the semester or school year. Scheduling 1-on-1 meetings with students to "check in" every so often will allow you to consistently improve how accessible the classroom is to everyone. Students can talk about whether they felt included in the classroom culture. This can help identify issues or ways to improve the overall experience. It's also an opportunity to discuss their progress in the class and offer guidance on how they can improve, based on their individual needs as a student.

3. Acknowledge and Respect Every Student It's also important for students to celebrate and respect their own diverse backgrounds, as well as each other's. When appropriate, teachers should encourage students to research and learn about their own ethnic and cultural backgrounds. This allows them to better understand their own culture as well as the differences and nuances with their peers. As a bonus, this can be a great ice breaker assignment, allowing students to give presentations about their family traditions and culture to help expose the class to concepts outside of their own familiar comfort zone. Acknowledging these differences and creating a safe space for discussion helps promote understanding in the classroom and beyond. Also, as you encourage students to learn about their diverse backgrounds, remember to take the time to highlight what's offensive and the distinction between cultural celebration and appropriation. Learning how to talk about other cultures in a respectful, mature way is essential for success in life outside the classroom.

4. Practice Cultural Sensitivity While it's important to keep an open dialogue amongst students, it's equally as important to make sure you're being sensitive to everyone's culture, beliefs, and language concerns. Take the time to understand each student's cultural nuances - from learning styles to the language they use - and use these insights to design your lesson plans. For example, provide English language learners with appropriate and relevant resources that help them improve their English comprehension skills. Rather than teach with a traditional lecture style, create learning experiences that are more interactive and require collaboration. These considerations will help ensure that every student feels included, is given the space to learn in their own way and is given a chance to succeed.

5. Incorporate Diversity in the Lesson Plan The classroom environment is important for fostering cultural awareness, but you also should ensure diversity is represented in your actual lesson plan. For example, broaden history lessons so that they encompass the world beyond United States history and culture. Or, use references and analogies to other cultures in your lessons and assignments to help students with diverse backgrounds personally connect. Another great strategy is bringing in diverse speakers to add varying points of view and real-life context to different subjects.There are several ways you can ingrain cultural awareness and diversity into your lesson plan, and it will vary depending on the cultures represented in your classroom and the course you're teaching. Regardless of the subject, always try to present and connect lessons to real-world issues. It's easier to promote cultural awareness within your lessons when there's a real example for students to relate to.

6. Give Students Freedom and Flexibility Teachers often feel like they need to take on a strict, authoritative approach when it comes to managing their classroom. The most valuable lessons are often learned through a student's own experiences, so giving them some freedom in the course encourages more connection to the curriculum. Allow students to read and present their own materials that relate to the fundamental lesson so they can approach the topic from their own perspective. As a teacher, you can act as a facilitator and encourage conversation and healthy debate between diverse opinions. Group assignments are also a great way to expose students to diverse perspectives, allowing them to work together to explore and solve a problem. This will also help prepare them for a diverse workforce where they'll have to partner with a range of people to accomplish their professional goals.

Why is it Multicultural Education Important to Students?

It is important to remind ourselves why diversity and cultural awareness is so crucial in the classroom and the benefits it can have on students now and in the long-term. Teaching diversity exposes students to various cultural and social groups, preparing students to become better citizens in their communities. These culturally responsive teaching strategies will help you to promote diversity in the classroom.

With these culturally responsive teaching strategies in mind, it's important to remind ourselves why diversity and cultural awareness is so crucial in the classroom and the benefits it can have on students now and in the long-term.

Students Become More Empathetic

Promoting awareness and creating a personal connection with diverse cultures in the classroom can prevent students from developing prejudices later in life. It allows them to empathize with people different from themselves since they're more aware of the experiences someone of a different race or cultural group may face.

Students Gain a Better Understanding of Lessons and People

When working and learning with people from a variety of backgrounds and cultures present in the classroom, students gain a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter. It also teaches students how to use their own strengths and points of view to contribute in a diverse working environment.

Students Become More Open-Minded

Naturally, by exposing students to a diverse range of opinions, thoughts, and cultural backgrounds, you're encouraging them to be more open-minded later in life. This will make them open to new ideas and be able to attain a greater comprehension on a topic by taking in different points of view.

Students Feel More Confident and Safe

Students who learn about different cultures during their education feel more comfortable and safe with these differences later in life. This allows them to interact in a wider range of social groups and feel more confident in themselves as well as in their interactions with others.

Students Are Better Prepared for a Diverse Workplace

With the rise of globalization, it's more important to be able to work with people from different cultures and social groups. If students are exposed to diversity and learn cultural awareness in the classroom, it sets them up to flourish in the workforce.

Learn More About Cultural Diversity in Education

There are additional resources available to help educators grow their knowledge of cultural diversity and apply it to their classrooms. Here are a few sites where you can find more information:

Additionally, Drexel offers programs that can help broaden a teacher's expertise in multicultural education including our online Teaching English as a Second Language and Social Emotional and Behavioral Wellness certification programs. You can also contact us to request more information.

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The Importance of Multicultural Education - School of Education

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As classrooms become more diverse, it's crucial for students to learn about other cultures. Discover how students benefit from classroom diversity with Drexel.

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Cultural competence in healthcare involves recognizing and respecting the diverse backgrounds of patients while also understanding one’s own cultural biases. Practitioners should engage in self-assessment, acquire knowledge about various cultural practices, and consider the influence of social determinants on patient behavior. By doing so, they can reduce implicit biases, improve communication, and provide more equitable care.

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Training staff on cultural awareness and implicit biases is essential to address the disproportionality in early childhood discipline. Discussions should focus on recognizing and reflecting on biases, particularly regarding race, gender, and ability. Establishing clear policies for discipline can reduce subjectivity, while professional development resources can enhance cultural competency. Creating a safe space for dialogue is crucial, as is recognizing staff progress to foster a supportive environment. By addressing implicit biases, we can create a more equitable and positive educational experience for all children.

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Disproportionality exists in early childhood suspensions and expulsions by age, gender, race, and ability. Studies have found that providers/teachers are more likely to suspend or expel children who are Black, boys, and older (e.g., 4-year-olds). Studies of school-age children have also found that schools are more likely to suspend or expel lower income children and children with a disability. fact, children of color, boys, and children with disabilities are likely to be more harshly disciplined than other children for the same behaviors. They are also more likely to be disciplined for behaviors that are not well defined, such as "having a bad attitude."

Implicit bias contributes to the discipline gap, especially for Black boys. If teachers expect bad behavior, they watch children more closely and punish them more often.
Everyone has some implicit biases; it is part of being human. Our implicit biases often come out when we must make quick decisions under stress, and we may end up relying on unconscious stereotypes. Implicit biases become harmful when they affect decisions made about how children are treated at school, which in turn affects their chances at succeeding in school and later in life. By working to consciously and intentionally recognize and overcome our biases, we can stop them from having a negative effect on the way we interact with children and families. This will help all children succeed and help reduce suspensions and expulsions, especially for boys, children of color, and children with disabilities.
"At the end of the day, the question is not whether or not we have bias. The question is how we can address it." - Linda K. Smith, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Childhood Development, Administration for Children and Families
Although implicit biases are difficult to recognize and overcome, studies show that discussion of and self-reflection on biases, cultural awareness training, and using resources such as Culturally Responsive Teaching can help overcome biases. Cultural awareness is important because people from different cultures may behave differently in the same situation or might perceive the same behavior in different ways. Cultural awareness, especially about behavior, can help teachers understand their children and their motivations and change the way they use discipline. However, implicit biases are not addressed by only understanding other cultures. Adult self-awareness is critical. Adults must also engage in self-reflection and work to understand what they bring to the table in their perceptions and experiences. By working to understand themselves and their students, providers can help shrink the discipline gap and promote equity and justice for young children throughout their lives.
"We have to be courageous enough to have conversations that make us uncomfortable." - Lisa Williams
For more information, watch this TED talk by Rosemarie Allen:

How do I do this?
Step 1. Discuss and reflect.

Have conversations with your staff. Conversations about bias should be approached sensitively and carefully. Start by talking about how bias is normal, the important thing is how we think about our biases and how they affect our behavior. Noticing differences between people is natural and normal. It is very possible to learn not to judge people based on those differences.

Work with your staff to set norms for your discussion. These might include the following:

Create formal (but safe and supportive) ways for staff to discuss and reflect on such issues as:

You don't have to make a plan for having a conversation about equity by yourself!

Stress the negative effects of disproportionality on education and social outcomes, particularly for Black children and children with disabilities.Emphasize that the goal is to create a positive school climate where all children can thrive.

Set a clear purpose and goals in all discussions. This may include a guide or checklist of topics to talk about and data that show what disproportionality looks like (see Recommendation 1.1). You and your staff can watch this video of Rosemarie Allen talking about how important it is for educators to reflect and understand themselves if we want to reduce the effects of implicit bias and stop suspensions and expulsions.

Here are a few more helpful resources to promote discussion and reflection:

Step 2. Identify training needs. Use professional development to make sure that discussion and reflection effects improvements in practice.

Teaching Tolerance has a free professional development webinar series about reducing prejudice, improving relationships between different groups, and promoting equity.

Talk to your staff and try to answer these questions about the kind of professional development you need:

Where does training need to be targeted?

Do staff have any requests or skills they want to build? Use this outline of the skills early childhood workers should have to guide your professional development needs. It includes skills for inclusiveness of all cultures, languages, needs, and abilities.

Step 3. Create formal policies and procedures to reduce discipline disproportionality.

Many programs do not have formal policies for managing discipline. Having formal policies can help reduce implicit bias in discipline by making discipline less subjective. You don't have to create these policies alone, you can adapt them from policies and guidelines that already exist.

Define challenging behaviors (no matter how small) and appropriate responses in clear, measurable terms (see Recommendation 3.1 about how to support staff to understand the function of behavior and 3.2 for how to support staff to develop behavior support plans to address challenging behaviors). Take vague language, such as "bad attitude," "difficult," and "disruptive" out of behavior reports and conversations.

Identify a "diversity point person" among staff who wants to improve program and school policy and practice and can bring attention to the challenges that children of color and children with disabilities face in school. Read this to learn more about what a diversity point person does and why it is important.

Work to create a positive school climate by reflecting equity and diversity in your books! Check out this list of children's books on bias, diversity, and justice.

Step 4. Express gratitude and acknowledge progress. After training and developing or revising policies, reflect again with staff on current strengths and needs, and plan a course of action. Recognize staff who have worked hard and made progress using new practices. Encourage teachers to acknowledge one another, as well. This creates a culture of support and recognition.

In regular staff emails or newsletters, add a "shout out" section where administrators and other staff can submit a brief comment about a colleague's hard work (e.g., "Thanks Ms. Johnson for reflecting and talking honestly and encouraging others during professional development. Your time and dedication to this process are greatly appreciated!").

Administrators can personally call or send handwritten notes to thank teachers who are working hard to put training into practice and reflect on their teaching practices. Let your staff know that you see their hard work!

What Barriers Might I Run Into and What Are Solutions?

Potential Barrier: My staff and/or I am uncomfortable talking about race, gender, ability, and our own biases and the way they affect discipline and our interactions with children.
Solution: That is OK! Many people feel uncomfortable talking about implicit bias and inequity. Everyone has implicit biases, and being willing to have a conversation is an important step to meeting the needs of all children. Before starting a conversation about implicit bias, inequity, and discipline, create a safe and welcoming space for staff to have an honest conversation. Work as a group to create ground rules for how everyone will contribute. Check out this blog post that walks you through steps for leading a conversation on equity and this resource for educators leading dialogue and reflection about diversity and equity. It includes steps to help you prepare, suggestions for ground rules, icebreakers, ways to reflect, and group activities.

Potential Barrier: I don't have access to professional development resources to train my staff in cultural awareness or to help us talk about our implicit biases.
Solution: There are many wonderful, free resources online for educators working to reduce implicit bias and promote equity in their schools. Many of them are listed throughout this guide. For example, check out the Anti-Defamation League's page specifically created for early childhood providers interested in anti-bias education.

Where do I go for more resources?

Check out Teaching Tolerance (SPLC) to learn more about why we need equity in schools and how to build a positive school climate and find lots of great resources for yourself, your staff, and your children.

For more information on positive school climates, check out the School Climate page from the National Center on Supportive Learning Environments.

For more information on anti-bias education, check out this toolkit from the NAEYC.

Edutopia has many resources to help learn about Culturally Responsive Teaching.

Looking for even more free resources to help carry out some of these steps in your school or program? Inclusive Schools Network provides tools, tips, and strategies to help you make a difference in your school and community.

The book Difficult Conversations: How to Discuss What Matters Most is a useful tool for any person or group who is learning how to talk about tough topics productively.

References

Adamu, M., & Hogan, L. (2015). Point of entry: The preschool-to-prison pipeline. Retrieved from https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/08000111/PointOfEntry-reportUPDATE.pdf

Capatosto, K. (2015). Implicit bias strategies. Kirwan Institute. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/3d03/9ac57b1cd4a5b15e19be747d8d85ba1355f7.pdf

Devine, P. G., Forscher, P. S., Austin, A. J., & Cox, W. T. (2012). Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(6), 1267-1278.

Great Schools Partnership (2016). Disproportionality. The glossary of education reform. Retrieved from http://www.emstac.org/registered/topics/disproportionality/faqs.htm

Great Schools Partnership (2016). Equity. The glossary of education reform. Retrieved from http://edglossary.org/equity/

Elementary & Middle Schools Technical Assistance Center. (n.d.). Disproportionality: The disproportionate representation of racial and ethnic minorities in special education: Frequently asked questions. EMSTAC.

Gillam, W. (2005). Pre-kindergarteners Left Behind: Expulsion Rates in State Prekindergarten Programs. FCD Policy Brief Series, 3, 1-8. Retrieved from http://challengingbehavior.fmhi.usf.edu/explore/policy_docs/prek_expulsion.pdf

Gilliam, W. S., Maupin, A. N., Reyes, C. R., Accavitti, M., & Shic, F. (2016). Do Early Educators' Implicit Biases Regarding Sex and Race Relate to Behavior Expectations and Recommendations of Preschool Expulsions and Suspensions? Yale Child Study Center. New Haven, CT.

Losen, D. (2011). Discipline policies, successful schools, and racial justice. National Education Policy Center. Retrieved from http://escholarship.org/uc/item/4q41361g

Maupin, A. N., Reyes, C. R., Accavitti, M., & Shic, F. (2016). Do Early Educators' Implicit Biases Regarding Sex and Race Relate to Behavior Expectations and Recommendations of Preschool Expulsions and Suspensions? Yale Child Study Center. New Haven, CT.

National Center on Safe Supportive Learning Environments. (2016). School Climate. American Institutes for Research: National Center on Safe Supportive Learning Environments. Retrieved from https://safesupportivelearning.ed.gov/school-climate

National Education Association (2008). Promoting Educators' Cultural Competence to better serve culturally diverse students. An NEA Policy Brief. NEA Human and Civil Rights Department. Washington DC. Retrieved online from: http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/PB13_CulturalCompetence08.pdf

Pearson, A. R., Dovidio, J. F. and Gaertner, S.L. (2009). The nature of contemporary prejudice: Insights from aversive racism. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3, 314-388. Journal compilation. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Russ, E. (2014). Zero tolerance, zero benefits: the discipline gap in American public k-12 education. New voices in public policy. George Mason University School of Public Policy. Retrieved from journals.gmu.edu/newvoices/article/download/485/389

Skiba, R. J., Poloni-Staudinger, L., Simmons, A. B., Feggins-Azziz, L. R., & Choong-Geun, C. (2005). Unproven Links: Can Poverty Explain Ethnic Disproportionality in Special Education? Journal of Special Education, 39(3), 130-144.

Smolkowski, K., Girvan, E. J., McIntosh, K., Nese, R. N., & Horner, R. (2016). Vulnerable Decision Points for Disproportionate Office Discipline Referrals: Comparisons of Discipline for African American and White Elementary School Students.

Sullivan, A. L., Klingbeil, D. A., & Norman, E. R. Van. (2013). Beyond behavior: Multilevel analysis of the influence of sociodemographics and school characteristics on students' risk of suspension. School Psychology Review, 42(1), 99-114.

Have questions? Want to provide feedback?

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1.7: Train staff on cultural awareness and implicit biases, focusing specifically on bias based on race, gender, and mental and physical ability

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Disproportionality exists in early childhood suspensions and expulsions by age, gender, race, and ability. Studies have found that providers/teachers are more likely to suspend or expel children who are Black, boys, and older (e.g., 4-year-olds). Studies of school-age children have also found that schools are more likely to suspend or expel lower income children and children with a disability.

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Cultural competence is the ability to effectively interact and build meaningful relationships with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. It goes beyond mere tolerance, emphasizing active listening, empathy, and effective engagement. As the U.S. becomes increasingly diverse, with demographic shifts projected to result in a "majority minority" population by 2043, the importance of cultural competence grows. This skill is essential not only for navigating the complexities of a globalized society but also for addressing persistent issues of discrimination and bias that affect both individuals and communities. By increasing cultural knowledge, reflecting on personal biases, and engaging in respectful dialogue, we can create welcoming environments that appreciate both the similarities and differences among cultures. Ultimately, developing cultural competence fosters deeper understanding and collaboration in an interconnected world.

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Jackie M. Guzman, Extension Educator

Why Is Cultural Competence Important?

Demographic shifts and an increasingly diverse population

The United States has always had an ethnically diverse population, including African Americans, Native Americans, and Japanese Americans, to name a few. In recent years, our country has undergone dramatic shifts in its population, particularly as rapid migration has changed its landscape. For example, the Hispanic population in the U.S. rose from approximately 12.5 percent in 1990 to over 16 percent by 2009, and is anticipated to comprise 25 percent of the population by 2050. The U.S. Census Bureau estimates that by 2043, the U.S. will become a "majority minority" country. This means that although the non-Hispanic white population will still be the biggest group, a single group will no longer make up the majority. More than 50 percent of the population will identify as belonging to an ethnic minority group or any group other than non-Hispanic white.

In other words, although we have always lived in an ethnically diverse society, we are all operating in an increasingly culturally diverse environment where we need to be able to interact, communicate, build relationships, and work effectively with people from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Moreover, those of us working with youth need to prepare them to operate in a society that will be even more diverse in terms of religion, ethnic background, and sexual orientation.

Societies are increasingly becoming globalized

Today's world is diverse and global. Technology has made interactions across cultures around the world a very common experience. Social networking sites, blogs, and chat rooms are letting people regularly interact across national borders. Many industries currently have a significant amount of international collaboration, and careers in many fields increasingly entail working with people from different countries, both directly and indirectly. Children and youth today need to be prepared to enter a workforce and adult society that spans across borders and involves interacting with people of diverse backgrounds in myriad settings.

Recognizing our increasingly globalized society, many industries and professional organizations (e.g., National Education Association, RAND Corporation) are emphasizing the importance of cultural competence and related skills (e.g., global awareness) as essential in today's workplace. Numerous universities are also incorporating cultural awareness and development as part of the higher education experience and career preparation by creating opportunities for students to participate in international experiences. Successfully navigating our globalized society entails being able to understand and appreciate diversity in its many forms, and to effectively engage and communicate with people from different cultures.

Persistence of issues around cross-cultural contact, discrimination, and related challenges

Despite the fact that societies are becoming more culturally diverse and globalized, issues surrounding inequality, bias, and breakdowns in intercultural communications persist. The FBI reports that in 2013, there were almost 6,000 reported incidences of hate crimes in the United States. Of these, almost 60 percent had racial or ethnic motivations; 20 percent were around sexual orientation; and 17 percent involved religion. There are also numerous bias incidents, persistent inequalities around racial and ethnic lines, and institutional policies that perpetuate inequalities at both the individual and institutional levels. One need not look beyond recent news reports to find that ethnic tensions persist.

Discrimination and bias in various forms are hurtful all around

Discrimination and bias have serious consequences. For example, stereotypes and bias have been claimed as the foundation for the surge in reported incidences of police brutality and the deaths of African Americans. A substantial body of work has also shown that victims of bias suffer in ways that may be less visible-in their academics, work performance, and other domains of life-even when those biases are subtle. Research on "microaggressions" (i.e., regular or daily subtle and minor acts of bias that may be consciously or unconsciously expressed) illustrate this point and show that even subtle incidences can have cumulative and serious consequences for socio-emotional well-being.

Negative effects are evident not just for the victims of biases. Recent research suggests that stereotyping, bias, and incidences of microaggressions not only affect the victim but also contribute to a hostile environment for everyone so that people in the broader setting (e.g., workplace) might feel invalidated or even intimidated and abused.

In addition, holding biases and prejudice also negatively affects the very persons holding those stereotyped beliefs. Experimental research shows that individuals with racial biases who interact with people of color show increased levels of cortisol and other stress hormones. Thus, biases and stereotypes have negative effects all around-for individuals and institutions, as well as for the targets of bias and for those holding such biases.

Tips for Building Skills in Cultural Competence

Developing cultural competence is a process rather than an end point. Just like any skill, the process of development and improvement continues, and it is hard to point to a particular time when one can say "That's it! I've reached it!" There are many ways by which we can increase our capacity to be effective in our interactions with others. Below are some suggestions to move forward in your development.

Increasing cultural and global knowledge

Learning more about other cultures and being aware of current events is often key in learning about various cultural groups' points of view. When working with people from different cultural backgrounds, it can be useful to learn about their culture's practices, values, and beliefs. For example, learning about the languages spoken in their communities, child-rearing practices, or religious traditions can help us understand and interact with individuals and groups of various backgrounds.

Conflicts that emerge between groups are often rooted in issues that may have deep historical origins. It is very helpful to understand these historical backgrounds that may help explain current events. For example, why do certain words or phrases that seem neutral evoke negative reactions with specific populations (e.g., "Where are you from?" or "You really should be appreciative of what I give you")? Some of these phrases reflect long histories and current experiences of oppression and thus evoke hurt and other negative feelings. Hurt feelings among youth may impact their ability to develop trusting and strong relationships with adults, which are necessary for youths' growth and development. Similarly, some traditional events may evoke controversy as to their meaning and whether they should celebrated at all (e.g., Columbus Day). Regardless of what side of the debate you might align with, the first and most important step is to understand the issue.

Finally, beyond history, numerous events and policies continue to impact the individuals, families, and cultural groups with which you are interacting. Examples of these include wars and territorial conflicts. For those of us working with refugees or migrants in our communities, it is essential we understand events that underlie their movement from their home countries.

Fig. 1.The Art of Active Listening

Self-assessment

Reflecting critically on our own biases and prejudices helps to develop the skills necessary to effectively interact and engage with individuals whose cultural background is different than our own. Realizing that everyone has biases is an important step for building cultural competence. Our biases may stem from our backgrounds, experiences, or personal demographics, and these biases exist whether or not we are aware of them.

The problem is when we deny or fail to acknowledge our biases. Our interactions and perceptions of others may be influenced by our biases. These biases may cause us to inadvertently act in ways that are discriminatory towards others.

However, if we are aware of our biases, we can work to diminish our own prejudices and the implications they may have in our interactions with others. In fact, holding on to the belief that one is "color-blind" and unbiased is linked to unfavorable behaviors, such as miscommunication and lack of trust across racial groups, reluctance to help others from a different cultural group, and less ability to detect biased behaviors. Acknowledging that we all have biases and that we all hold stereotypes is the first step in cultural competence.

Going beyond tolerance: Building skills and putting them in action

Tolerating different cultural backgrounds is a step in the right direction. However, tolerance is not always optimal. In fact, tolerance usually means that you are simply putting up with something that is undesirable. Cultural competence goes beyond "putting up with" differences and instead involves being appreciative, affirming, and inclusive of all cultural backgrounds. For example, to increase our cultural competence, we can ask members of a cultural group open-minded, open-ended questions, or ask for more information, such as, "I would like to learn more about . . ." Additionally, making an effort to detect verbal and nonverbal actions that certain cultures may not find appropriate (e.g., hand shaking) can establish an inclusive environment.

Overall, cultural competence has three important components: active listening, demonstrating empathy, and effective engagement. Each is detailed in the next section.

Active Listening

When was the last time you engaged in an active listening conversation with someone who has vastly different experiences and beliefs than you? Actively listening to an individual allows you to learn about that person's culture and experiences. You should listen for total meaning by focusing on the content that is being given and concentrating on what is being said.

Active listening entails thinking about the feeling behind the content or the emotion involved. The emotion gives evidence of the real intent of the conversation, which will help you identify if the person is upset, inquisitive, or acting on another emotion and allow you to respond appropriately.

In addition to listening for total meaning, you should also avoid mental distractions when building cultural competency through active listening. This means listening with focus and not becoming involved in mental chitchat about how you are going to respond to a person or question. For example, if you believe that homosexuality is immoral and a choice and you are in a debate with a friend on the legalization of same sex marriage, instead of engaging in mental chitchat about what scientific or biblical facts you can recite to prove your perspective, the key is focusing on what is being said and how it is being said.

Lastly, once you have listened for true meaning, the other person feels understood, and you both have limited mental distractions, you will want to make sure you ask more questions of the other person than offer solutions. Do not jump directly to giving people advice or offering solutions about what you perceive to be the problem or their problem. The response that is effective, especially if you are in a situation in which you are responsible for resolving a conflict between two people, requires seeking more information and multiple perspectives first.

Empathy

The second component of cultural competency is demonstrating empathy. It is the art of seeing and feeling the situation of another, walking in another person's shoes, or seeing the world as that person sees it. Empathy involves understanding that person's perceptions and the conclusions that person draws about his or her life experiences. It does not mean you have to agree with that person's perceptions and conclusions, but at the very least, you are able to see the other person's position.

Take the previous example related to sexual orientation. A privilege of being heterosexual in our society is having multiple media, print images, and entertainment that portray heterosexual love and relationships and indicate it is not taboo to hug or give a peck to your girlfriend or husband while in public. These images are not as prevalent for same-sex couples. Therefore, empathy involves being able to understand the other person's position. To be effective, you must engage in appropriate inquiry and dialog. It also involves building relationships with an individual or particular cultural group.

Engagement

The third component of cultural competency is effective engagement. Engagement should be mutually beneficial and a reciprocal learning experience in which you learn from one another. Focus on the behaviors and the situation, not the person. Value-laden statements making the individual the target should be avoided.

If the focus of the conversation or interaction is about a tradition or belief, keep the feedback within the context of that tradition or belief. Do not say, You are being silly because you believe that Muslims should be able to step out of class to pray six times a day. Focus on understanding the tradition or practice. Approach the topic by saying: I understand this is part of your religion, but I do not understand how it effects your belief in God and why you are required to pray six times a day. This opens up dialog in which the person can explain to you the tenants of that culture and the requirement of prayers.

Displaying the cultural competence behaviors of active listening, demonstrating empathy, and effective engagement is important when moving beyond tolerance. These three components will help us to create a welcoming environment and establish the appreciation of similarities and differences among cultures.

Resources

Baumeister, R. (2011). The need- to-belong theory. Handbook of theories of social psychology, 2, 121-140.

Colby, S. L. & Ortman, J. M. (2015). Current population reports: Projections of the size and composition of the U.S. Population: 2014 to 2060. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau.

Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. E., Kawakami, K., & Hodson, G. (2002). "Why can't we just get along? Interpersonal biases and interracial distrust". Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology 8 (2): 88-102.

Federal Bureau of Investigation (2014). Bias breakdown (note: News release from the Annual Hate Crime Statistics Report). Accessed from https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2014/december/latest-hate-crime-statistics-report-released

Mendes, W. B., Gray, H., Mendoza-Denton, R., Major, B., & Epel, E. (2007). Why egalitarianism might be good for your health: Physiological thriving during stressful intergroup encounters. Psychological Science, 18, 991-998.

Nuwer, R. (2015). When cops lose control. Scientific American Mind, 26(6), 44-51.

U.S. Census Bureau (2008). Hispanic population in the United States: 1970 to 2050. Accessed November 28, 2011 from http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hispanic/hispanic_pop_presentation.html

U.S. Census Bureau (2010). The Hispanic population: 2010. Accessed November 28, 2011 from http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf

Vescio, T. K., Gervais, S. J., Heiphetz, L., & Bloodhart, B. (2014). The stereotypic behaviors of the powerful and their effect on the relatively powerless (pp. 247-266), in T. D. Nelson (Ed), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination. New York: Psychology Press.

Wong, G., Derthick, A. O., David, E. J. R., Saw, A., & Okazaki, S. (2014). The what, the why, and the how: A review of racial microaggressions research in psychology. Race and Social Problems, 6, 181-200.

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An Important Skill Set for the 21st Century

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Jackie M. Guzman, Extension Educator The United States has always had an ethnically diverse population, including African Americans, Native Americans, and Japanese Americans, to name a few. In recent years, our country has undergone dramatic shifts in its population, particularly as rapid migration has changed its landscape.

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"Have you ever been to a cultural competency training and thought it was a complete waste of time? Dr. Raquel Martin has, and she has a message for all those who have felt this way: you're not a terrible person, most of these trainings completely miss the mark. Dr. Martin shares the history of cultural competence, how we have lost the original vision of the concept, and methods to remedy this issue. Because therapy can't be the only safe space, we must improve the human experience. Dr. Raquel Martin is a Licensed Clinical Psychologist, Assistant Professor, and Research Scientist that holds her PhD in Medical and Clinical Psychology. Dr. Martin specializes in racism related stress, racial identity development, and anti-racist and anti-oppressive care. Dr. Martin is passionate about mental health education, activism, and critical consciousness. As a practicing psychologist, Dr. Martin works directly with patients to help them identify and resolve emotions, beliefs, and thoughts that are impacting their mental health. As a research scientist and author, Dr. Martin contributes to the growing narrative regarding mental health disparities, racial identity, and trauma based interventions. Finally, as a professor, Dr. Martin mentors, educates, and advocates for the next generation of clinicians."

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You're Doing It Wrong: The evolution of cultural competence | Raquel Martin | TEDxRutgersCamden

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The International Federation of Social Workers emphasizes the importance of cultural competence for social workers in understanding diverse client contexts. Research shows that cultural immersion significantly enhances this competence, preparing students for effective practice with varied populations. International service-learning (ISL) trips, grounded in a human rights-based approach, offer hands-on experience in needs assessments and program design, fostering critical skills and confidence. By following a structured framework that includes self-awareness, cross-cultural knowledge, sensitivity, and humility, students can better navigate the complexities of globalization and become empowered agents of social change.

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The text highlights the overrepresentation of minority children, particularly African Americans, in special education and emphasizes the need for culturally responsive education. Historical patterns show that African American males are disproportionately placed in special education classes, alongside Latinos, Native Americans, and some Asian Americans. Contributing factors include racism, classism, family challenges, and economic disparities. Rising school failure rates among minority children underscore the urgency for curricula that embrace multiculturalism and cultural competency, as a lack of personal relevance can lead to higher dropout rates and unemployment.

Moreover, there is a significant demographic gap between students (68.5% Caucasian) and teachers (87.3% Caucasian), resulting in cultural disconnections. Teacher education programs often inadequately address cultural diversity, with only 56% effectively incorporating it. Staratt emphasizes three ethical principles: critique, justice, and care. Educators must critique systemic issues, correct structural inequalities, and approach education with compassion. Success in these areas depends on teachers' cultural competence and their ability to adapt methods to meet diverse learners' needs. As schools reflect a multicultural society, fostering cultural competency is essential for promoting equity and positive educational outcomes for all students.

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Diversity is a fundamental aspect of healthcare that must be recognized and celebrated daily, as emphasized in the 2002 Institute of Medicine report on racial and ethnic disparities. This report highlighted that minority groups often receive lower-quality care compared to white patients, despite having similar access to healthcare services. To address these inequities, the concepts of cultural competence and patient-centered care have emerged, focusing on understanding and respecting patients' cultural backgrounds and preferences. Additionally, the integration of cultural humility encourages healthcare providers to engage in self-reflection and recognize their implicit biases, fostering a more collaborative and inclusive approach to treatment. By combining cultural competence and humility—termed "competemility"—providers can build meaningful connections with patients, ensuring that care is not only effective but also sensitive to the diverse experiences and needs of individuals within their communities.

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Diversity is the one true thing we all have in common. Celebrate it every day.

- Author Unknown

The 2002 Institute of Medicine (IOM) report, Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Healthcare, brought into stark focus the issues of inequities based on minority status in health care services. The IOM report concluded that, "Bias, stereotyping, prejudice, and clinical uncertainty on the part of healthcare providers may contribute to racial and ethnic disparities in healthcare" ( 1). Persons in racial and ethnic minority groups were found to receive lower-quality health care than whites received, even when they were insured to the same degree and when other health care access-related factors, such as the ability to pay for care, were the same ( 1). Clients in minority groups were also not getting their needs met in mental health treatment ( 2, 3). The IOM report was a primary impetus for the cultural competence movement in health care.

Cultural competency emphasizes the need for health care systems and providers to be aware of, and responsive to, patients' cultural perspectives and backgrounds ( 4). Patient and family preferences, values, cultural traditions, language, and socioeconomic conditions are respected. The concepts of cultural competence and patient-centered care intersect in meaningful ways. The IOM's Crossing the Quality Chasm ( 5) document defines patient-centered care as "providing care that is respectful of, and responsive to, individual patient preferences, needs, and values, and ensuring that patient values guide all clinical decisions" (p. 3). Both patient centeredness and cultural competence are needed in striving to improve health care quality ( 6, 7). To deliver individualized, patient-centered care, a provider must consider patients' diversity of lifestyles, experience, and perspectives to collaborate in joint decision making. Patient-centered care has the potential to enhance equity in health care delivery; cultural sensitivity may likewise enhance patient-centered care ( 6). Indicators of culturally sensitive health care identified in focus groups of low-income African-American, Latino American, and European American primary care patients included interpersonal skills, individualized treatment, effective communication, and technical competence ( 8). The U.S. Office of Minority Health has set national standards for culturally and linguistically appropriate health care services ( 9). The Principal Standard is that health care must "provide effective, equitable, understandable and respectful quality care and services that are responsive to diverse cultural health beliefs and practices, preferred languages, health literacy and other communication needs" (p. 1).

Five key predictors of culture-related communication problems have been identified in the literature: cultural differences in explanatory models of health and illness, differences in cultural values, cultural differences in patients' preferences for doctor-patient relationships, racism and perceptual biases, and linguistic barriers ( 10). Physicians are often poorly cognizant of how their communication patterns may vary with respect to the characteristics of the individual they are treating ( 11). This unconscious preconceptualization is termed implicit bias, which refers to the attitudes or stereotypes that affect understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner ( 12). All people experience these-even those who strive to maintain a multicultural orientation and openness to diversity. Health care providers must openly reflect on and discuss issues of the patient's culture, including ethnicity and race, gender, age, class, education, religion, sexual orientation and identification, and physical ability, along with the unequal distribution of power and the existence of social inequities, to effectively coconstruct a treatment plan that is patient centered and culturally sensitive.

Merging Cultural Competence With Cultural Humility

Cultural humility ( 13) involves entering a relationship with another person with the intention of honoring their beliefs, customs, and values. It entails an ongoing process of self-exploration and self-critique combined with a willingness to learn from others. Authors have contrasted cultural humility with the concept of cultural competence. Cultural competence is characterized as a skill that can be taught, trained, and achieved and is often described as a necessary and sufficient condition for working effectively with diverse patients. The underlying assumption of this approach is that the greater the knowledge one has about another culture, the greater the competence in practice. The concept of cultural humility, by contrast, de-emphasizes cultural knowledge and competency and places greater emphasis on lifelong nurturing of self-evaluation and critique, promotion of interpersonal sensitivity and openness, addressing power imbalances, and advancement of an appreciation of intracultural variation and individuality to avoid stereotyping. Cultural humility encourages an interpersonal stance that is curious and other-oriented ( 14, 15).

The infusion of cultural humility into cultural knowledge has been coined competemility: the merging of competence and humility ( 16). Cultural competemility is defined as "the synergistic process between cultural humility and cultural competence in which cultural humility permeates each of the five components of cultural competence: cultural awareness, cultural knowledge, cultural skill, cultural desire, and cultural encounters" ( 16). The competemility position allows a meaningful connection with each patient as a unique individual, with diverse perspectives, culture, and lifestyles. Cultural competemility necessitates a consciousness of the limits of one's knowledge and the awareness of the ever-present potential for unconscious biases to limit one's viewpoint ( 15, 16).

Practicing Cultural Competence and Cultural Humility

Cultural competence, cultural humility, and patient-centered care are all concepts that endeavor to detail essential components of a health care system that is sensitive to patient diversity, individual choice, and doctor-patient connection. A culturally competent health care workforce highlights five components: cultural awareness, knowledge, skill, desire, and encounters. Cultural humility focuses on identifying one's own implicit biases, self-understanding, and interpersonal sensitivity and cultivating an appreciation for the multifaceted components of each individual (culture, gender, sexual identity, race and ethnicity, religion, lifestyle, etc.), which promotes patient-centered approaches to treatment. The new concept of competemility is the synergistic combination of cultural competence with cultural humility. Health care professionals need both process (cultural humility) and product (cultural competence) to interact effectively with culturally diverse patients ( 17).

Establishing a collaborative mutual partnership with diverse patients requires an open, self-reflective, other-centered approach to understanding and formulating the patients' strengths and difficulties and coconstructing the treatment plan. Below are tips for practicing cultural competence and cultural humility.

Get to know your community. Who lives there, and what are the resource disparities in the community? Is there a large immigrant or refugee population? What are the most common ethnicities and languages spoken? What is the climate in the community regarding cultural diversity?

1. Consider whether politics or laws, such as immigration laws or a recent federal government move to eliminate protections in health care for transgender Americans ( 18), are adding to the stress of diverse communities.

2. If you, as the physician, are a person of color, consider how that affects your practice and work with diverse patients. If you are European American, reflect on the implicit biases that may affect your practice with diverse patients and theirs with you.

3. Pay attention to office practices: do they enhance an atmosphere of welcoming everyone? Are interpreter services available, if needed?

4. Ask patients by which pronoun they would prefer to be addressed.

5. Use a journal to jot down potential implicit biases and observations about rapport building, for ongoing self-reflection.

6. Don't assume. Ask the patient about background, practices, religion, and culture to avoid stereotyping.

7. Reassure by words and actions that you are interested in understanding the patient and helping to coconstruct a plan to fit his or her needs. State upfront that this is a collaborative process and that you welcome input on the process (communicating openly with each other) and the product (treatment plan).

8. Ask directly what the patient wants to achieve with the psychiatric consultation/treatment. This can help identify patient goals and treatment methods.

9. A family genogram may help clarify family dynamics, cultural background, and possible generational trauma.

10. Ask directly about experiences of discrimination, bullying, traumas, or harassment. Are there fears associated with minority status?

11. Identify strengths, interests, and resilience factors.

12. Discuss patient-centered care to determine whether this is understood or if this is an unfamiliar practice. Get patient input about collaborating in health care decisions. For patients who are accustomed to the doctor being the one making all the decisions, consider initiating a request for decisions, even small ones, to reinforce with them that you want to know their preferences and help them become comfortable with making health care decisions and communicating wants and needs.

13. Inquire about what the patient feels would be helpful. Are there cultural practices or herbal remedies that they have already tried-and what was the result? Are there religious, cultural, or individual convictions that affect choice of treatment?

14. Ask during the session whether the patient has any clarification of information that he or she didn't feel the physician appropriately understood. If using an interpreter, make sure that he or she is interpreting the full discussion (and not summarizing, which loses the nuance and some meaning).

15. After the session, ask the patient if he or she felt understood, if he or she understands the process, and if there is anything else he or she would like to add to be better understood.

16. Model coconstruction of the treatment plan by asking about goals and helping the patient consider possible methods of meeting those goals.

17. Clarify the patient's preference for family involvement and, depending on the age and competence of the patient, what information will be communicated to the family.

Footnotes

Dr. Stubbe reports no financial relationships with commercial interests.

References

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Articles from Focus: Journal of Life Long Learning in Psychiatry are provided here courtesy of American Psychiatric Publishing

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Practicing Cultural Competence and Cultural Humility in the Care of Diverse Patients

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Diversity is the one true thing we all have in common. Celebrate it every day. - Author Unknown The 2002 Institute of Medicine (IOM) report, Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Healthcare, brought into stark focus the issues of inequities based on minority status in health care services.

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Socioeconomic status (SES) significantly impacts the well-being of children, youth, and families, influencing psychological health, physical health, education, and family stability. Lower SES is linked to negative psychological outcomes, such as higher rates of depression and behavioral issues, as well as increased risks of chronic diseases and higher infant mortality rates. Educational attainment suffers as low-income children often start school with fewer skills and score lower on achievement tests, leading to higher dropout rates. Family dynamics are also affected, with low SES correlating with higher risks of child abuse and neglect. Addressing SES disparities is essential for promoting healthier, more equitable communities.

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Children, Youth, Families and Socioeconomic Status

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Learn how socioeconomic status affects psychological and physical health, education and family well-being.

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Implicit bias refers to the unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that influence our decisions and actions, often leading to outcomes that conflict with our values. To combat implicit bias, it's crucial to acknowledge that everyone has these biases and to take responsibility for understanding them. Key strategies include stereotype replacement—challenging your own stereotypes; counter-stereotypic imaging—envisioning individuals who defy stereotypes; and individuating—seeing people as unique rather than as group members. Additionally, perspective-taking encourages empathy, while contact promotes engagement with diverse groups. Emotional regulation helps manage gut reactions, and mindfulness allows for the recognition of stereotypic thoughts before acting on them. Consistent practice of these strategies fosters nonbiased thinking and improves clinical interactions.

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The personal growth and development of children and adolescents are profoundly shaped by various interconnected factors, including religious background, sexual orientation, gender identity, culture, family unit, and economic status. For instance, supportive religious environments can foster a sense of community and moral guidance, while rigid beliefs may lead to feelings of shame for those with diverging identities. LGBTQ+ youth face unique challenges, where acceptance from family and peers enhances resilience, while rejection can harm mental health. Cultural values influence parenting styles and expectations, impacting children’s self-esteem and social integration. The family structure—whether nuclear, single-parent, or extended—affects emotional security, with supportive relationships promoting healthy development. Additionally, lower economic status often correlates with limited resources, academic challenges, and increased risks of abuse, further complicating these dynamics. By understanding how these factors interact, educators and caregivers can create inclusive environments that nurture all children and adolescents, helping them to thrive despite the challenges they may face.

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Implicit biases are unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that influence our understanding, actions, and decisions regarding individuals or groups, often leading to unintentional discrimination that conflicts with our conscious beliefs about fairness. For example, a recruiter might unconsciously favor candidates from certain demographics, affecting hiring outcomes, or a healthcare provider may underestimate a patient’s pain based on racial stereotypes. In contrast, cultural competence refers to the ability to understand, respect, and effectively interact with people from diverse backgrounds, which involves recognizing one’s own cultural biases while appreciating the practices of others. For instance, a teacher might incorporate diverse perspectives into the curriculum to make learning more inclusive, or a healthcare provider might tailor communication and treatment to align with a patient’s cultural beliefs. Together, understanding implicit biases and fostering cultural competence are crucial for promoting equity and improving relationships in various settings. Reflecting on my own implicit biases, I realize I may unintentionally favor more vocal students in discussions, potentially overlooking the contributions of quieter individuals from diverse backgrounds. Acknowledging this bias motivates me to create a more inclusive environment by actively encouraging participation from all students.

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A comprehensive framework for developing cultural competence is essential for fostering effective interactions and meaningful relationships across diverse cultural backgrounds. This framework includes several key components. First, valuing diversity involves recognizing and appreciating the unique perspectives and contributions of different cultural groups, creating an inclusive environment where everyone feels respected. Second, ongoing self-assessments enable individuals to reflect on their personal beliefs and biases, helping them identify areas for growth and mitigate the effects of these biases in their interactions. Third, managing differences requires developing skills in active listening, empathy, and open communication to navigate cultural misunderstandings constructively. Additionally, a willingness to develop cultural knowledge is crucial; engaging with diverse communities and seeking educational resources deepens understanding and appreciation of cultural nuances. Lastly, the ability to adapt to the cultural needs of the community involves being flexible in communication styles and practices to accommodate diverse contexts. By incorporating these elements, the framework enhances individual and organizational effectiveness while contributing to inclusive environments that celebrate diversity and promote equity in a multicultural society. In my future classroom, I can apply this framework by integrating diverse literature into the curriculum, regularly reflecting on my teaching practices, fostering a culture of empathy and active listening, engaging in professional development on cultural competence, and adapting my teaching methods to meet the cultural contexts of my students. This approach will help create an inclusive classroom that respects diversity and promotes equity among all learners.

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Implicit bias refers to the unconscious attitudes and stereotypes that shape our perceptions and behaviors toward others. These biases develop early, influenced by personal experiences and societal factors, such as media representations. For example, while someone may consciously believe that anyone can succeed in any career, they might still harbor automatic negative reactions based on stereotypes, like feeling surprised when a male nurse enters the room. This can significantly impact children, who absorb societal messages about race, gender, and roles, potentially undermining their self-esteem and aspirations. To combat implicit bias, individuals can take proactive steps: acknowledging their natural tendencies, engaging in self-reflection, visualizing positive interactions, creating action plans for challenging situations, and seeking diverse experiences. By fostering awareness and understanding, we can work toward a more inclusive environment for ourselves and future generations.

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Understanding implicit bias, and why it affects kids

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We all want the best for our kids. But when someone makes assumptions about your child before knowing them, it may negatively impact them. And the reality is we all make judgments and assumptions about people to some extent even when we don't want to.

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Teacher bias, whether implicit or explicit, significantly impacts classroom dynamics and student success. This bias manifests in various forms, such as misjudging students based on their cultural backgrounds, academic abilities, or physical attributes, leading to unfair treatment and assumptions. For instance, educators might unconsciously stereotype ELL students as having learning disabilities or set inappropriate expectations for those in special education. Such prejudices not only affect the individuals targeted but also shape the overall classroom culture, promoting a cycle of exclusion and misunderstanding. To combat these biases, it’s essential for educators to acknowledge their own preconceived notions and engage in intentional practices that foster empathy and understanding. By implementing anti-bias teaching strategies—such as celebrating diverse cultures, providing equitable learning opportunities, and utilizing culturally responsive materials—educators can create a more inclusive environment where every student feels valued and empowered to succeed.

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Acknowledging the Impact of Unconscious Bias

Upon clicking on this blog, you may be thinking "I am definitely not biased, so teacher bias does not affect my classroom or my instructional methods," but there's more than meets the eye. Many educators tend to follow the same school of thought, and hence, their students absorb the impact. But how? Within this article we will discuss different types of teacher bias, the impact of said bias, and some anti-bias teaching strategies to guide you to academic success.

What is Bias in Teaching?

In general, teacher bias, also known as educational bias, refers to prejudice against certain groups on the basis of age, gender, race, sexual orientation, or economic standing that causes educators to treat their students unfairly. Teacher bias falls in one of two categories, implicit bias (unconscious bias) or explicit bias. Explicit bias is educational bias that involves educators that are cognizant of the prejudices and attitudes they may possess toward certain groups of students on the basis of things such as race or gender. Implicit bias, though, refers to prejudices that a teacher may have that they are completely unaware of, which can cause damaging consequences in a classroom setting. Both of these types of teacher biases involve using these preconceived notions, opinions, or attitudes toward certain groups to make judgements that aren't quite rooted in facts, resulting in varying treatment of students.

Teacher Bias Examples

Examples of teacher bias, whether explicit or implicit, vary widely, but they are all rooted in the same thing- prejudice. "A common example often refers to academic ability," expressed Jennifer Pham, our National Curriculum Consultant. "Teachers are responsible for student achievement and growth. If they know that students walk in with an identification of ELL or Special Education or Gifted Education, they may make assumptions before getting to know that student, which can affect how they approach their instruction. For example, students identified as ELL may be mistaken for a student with a learning disability. Students with special education or gifted education needs may unnecessarily be given higher or lower level work expectations. Teachers may expect students who speak with certain accents to be poor writers. Students with substandard writing abilities may be stereotyped as lacking intellectual ability. Teachers might treat students with physical disabilities as if they may also have mental disabilities, and thus require more attention." Assumptions such as this can cause a serious amount of damage in the classroom, as every student has the ability to benefit from teachers when given equitable expectations, no matter where they start on their educational journey.

How does Teacher Bias Affect Students?

Teacher bias has the power to deeply affect students in the classroom in multiple ways that affect students' ability to succeed, grow, learn, and feel safe in the classroom. When students see their counterparts being treated differently, they also begin to pick up this learned behavior. "This is another high priority risk," says Jennifer. "When trying to create a culture of inclusion and creating a community of learners, imagine how it would feel to be a student who is experiencing this first-hand and other students are seeing it and inheriting this bias, oftentimes."

The mere act of witnessing the bias that teachers may have has the power to change the way students treat and see one another, and thus, promotes a culture that is anything but inclusive, culturally responsive, or productive when it comes to the development of Social-Emotional Learning skills. In turn, students will not feel as welcome in their classroom, making this environment less than conducive to producing academic success.

Outside of bias related to perceived mental or physical ability, common teacher biases can refer to:

Cultural misconceptions

Perceived capability due to gender

Sexual orientation

Economic standing

Anti Bias Teaching Strategies

Implicit teacher bias, also known as unconscious bias, can be a result of the experiences we have had over the course of our lifetime, but with a little effort, teachers can overcome it! Implementing a few anti-bias teaching strategies may be a little overwhelming, but Jennifer recommends you take the following steps:

1. Overcoming both implicit and explicit teacher bias requires educators to recognize that we are all human and that we all have biases. The problem often lies in the fact that there is a large pool of educators that think "I am not biased," and refuse to acknowledge otherwise. Becoming aware of the fact that we all are biased, even without intending to be, is what can truly set your classroom apart from others when paired with proper training.

2. Allow teachers to get to know their students and co-workers on a deeper level. Set aside time for intentional activities and facilitated questioning that allow for active listening, understanding, and empathy among one another. Though this may sound basic, it doesn't always happen. Oftentimes, teachers walk into the classroom with the thought "it's go time," but if you only look at the student on a surface level, you will accidentally look through the lens of your unconscious bias.

3. Refrain from ignoring a potential issue by saying "I do not see color or race." Though rooted in positive intentions, this mindset is one in which a teacher is essentially saying "this is the way things are and there is nothing that needs to change." Adoption of a more flexible mindset allows teachers to see where bias could be present and to proactively think about what to do when they see it. In doing so, teachers will be able to teach students about how to embrace differences among students and bring out the strength of others that are sometimes built on a cultural or racial background. A way to enhance this effort is to take time to celebrate holidays from the varying cultures present in your classroom outside of those celebrated in your district. This exposure will truly help students feel welcome and extend those welcoming feelings to other students of other cultures.

4. Providing equitable learning opportunities for students is imperative to academic growth. Set high expectations for all students rather than catering to those that teachers may feel are going to benefit the most from a particular challenging activity. Due to unconscious or implicit teacher bias, teachers may initially split up students by perceived ability level, but exposing the entire class to grade level resources and activities can help each student grow. Should a student or a group of students struggle, teachers can still provide extended time and help to those that need it.

5. Uncover biases you may have by taking an assessment such as the Implicit Association Test (IAT). During this assessment, participants will understand more about the attitudes and beliefs they may possess, making it easier to understand where anti bias teaching strategies may be necessary to incorporate.

6. Ensure that all teaching materials are culturally responsive and relevant to make it easier for students to see themselves in the material, making them more receptive to the material and more comfortable. If resources are culturally responsive, they will inherently be a perfect fit in an anti-bias teaching strategy.

Overcoming Teacher Bias

Becoming aware of any potential biases and investing in resources to combat them is essential to creating an environment in which all students feel welcome. Though becoming aware is more than half of the battle, there are tools that can allow educators to do so. From mandatory training for all teachers to digital assessments, there are many tools to keep teachers on the path of enlightenment. As you begin to consider the presence of teacher bias in your classroom, start by taking account of where bias may exist and determine how everything from teaching materials to classroom decor can be updated to align with anti-bias teaching strategies and culturally responsive teaching strategies. If you are currently trying to combat teacher bias in your school/district, we'd like to introduce you to Meaningful Conversations, an add-on to Raz-Plus that facilitates age-appropriate, respectful conversation within classrooms that covers ableism, racism, sexism, and more!

Stop Teacher Bias in its Tracks

Facilitate important conversation in your classroom
with a free trial of Meaningful Conversations.

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Understanding Teacher Bias - Impact of Unconscious Bias | Learning A-Z

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Acknowledging the Impact of Unconscious Bias Upon clicking on this blog, you may be thinking "I am definitely not biased, so teacher bias does not affect my classroom or my instructional methods," but there's more than meets the eye. Many educators tend to follow the same school of thought, and hence, their students absorb the impact.

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The study aimed to explore the impact of PreK-5 teacher perceptions of unconscious bias on student achievement in Title I schools. It investigated whether there were significant differences in teacher perceptions of unconscious bias between high-performing and under-performing Title I schools, and whether teacher demographic characteristics (gender, age, race, education, marital status) predicted these perceptions. Participants included PreK-5 teachers from both school designations who completed the Implicit Association Test (IAT) to measure implicit bias. The findings revealed that teachers in both types of schools exhibited a preference for White individuals over Black individuals, with those in under-performing schools demonstrating a stronger bias. Notably, younger teachers, males, divorced individuals, and Black or other racially diverse teachers did not show significant implicit bias. Based on these findings, five recommendations were made: provide self-awareness and self-regulation training to help teachers monitor and mitigate biases; offer restorative and empathy training to improve teacher-student relationships; encourage teachers to recognize students as unique individuals to combat stereotypes; implement inclusive hiring practices with implicit bias training for hiring teams; and establish a racial diversity task force to review and dismantle systemic racist policies. Future research should consider longitudinal studies on teacher biases, extend the investigation to middle and high school levels, and involve school and district administrators. Overall, addressing implicit bias could significantly improve educational disparities and enhance student achievement in Title I schools.

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The purpose of this study was to explore whether PreK-5 teacher perception of their unconscious bias impacted student achievement levels in Title I schools of varying performance levels. To achieve the overall outcome, this quantitative study was guided by the following research questions: (1) To what extent is there a statistically significant difference in teacher perceptions of the unconscious between Title I high-performing schools and Title I under-performing schools?; (2) To what extent is there a significant predictive relationship between teacher demographic characteristics (i.e., gender, age, race, education and marital status) and perceptions of unconscious biases? Participants (PreK-5 teachers in the high-performing and under-performing Illinois Title I schools) took the Implicit Association Test (IAT) to determine if there was a statistically significant difference in the level of implicit bias and how these biases were reflected in overall student achievement. The study concluded that PreK-5 teachers in both levels of Title I school designations showed a greater preference for White people over Black people, with those in under-performing schools showing an even greater preference based on the effect size as compared to high-performing schools. Because of the disproportionate number of Black and Brown students, and students from low socio-economic status attending Title I schools, mitigating the effects of implicit bias will positively impact educational disparities and increase opportunities for students to succeed. Additionally, PreK-5 Title I teachers in all demographic groups studied showed implicit bias preferences for White people over Black people with the exception of respondents that were younger (18-24 years of age), male, divorced, Black and other races who did not demonstrate a significant implicit bias. Based on the findings of the study, five recommendations to address implicit bias of PreK-5 teachers in Illinois Title I schools were made. First, provide self-awareness and self-regulation training for teachers using tools that monitor and mitigate implicit bias. The added training measures will help teachers be more intentional when making instructional and disciplinary decisions about students. Secondly, provide teachers with both restorative and empathy training. Together, they have been found to increase positive relationships between teachers and students and reduce disciplinary referrals. Thirdly, train teachers to see students as unique, diverse individuals. This has been shown to be effective in reducing the act of othering students and shatters negative stereotypical beliefs about student groups. Fourthly, implement inclusive hiring practices to increase recruitment of diverse teachers by providing hiring teams with implicit bias training that addresses both affinity bias and confirmation bias. Finally, dismantle and reverse systemic racist policies at the highest level of an institution by assembling a racial diversity task force to review policies, practices, and procedures and remove barriers and obstacles to hinder student success. Recommendations for future research included conducting a longitudinal study on teacher implicit biases, expand the research to the middle school/junior high and high school levels, and conduct the study with school and district-level administrators. Overall, the recommendations provided in this study may mitigate implicit bias in high-performing and under-performing Title I schools and serve as a guide for future practice and research to improve student achievement outcomes. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

Descriptors: Preschool Teachers, Elementary School Teachers, Bias, Teacher Attitudes, Academic Achievement, At Risk Students, Teacher Influence, High Achievement, Underachievement, Teacher Characteristics, Gender Differences, Age Differences, Racial Differences, Educational Attainment, Marital Status, Racism, Socioeconomic Status

ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway, P.O. Box 1346, Ann Arbor, MI 48106. Tel: 800-521-0600; Web site: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml

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ERIC - ED635722 - Teacher Perceptions of Implicit Bias on Student Achievement Outcomes, ProQuest LLC, 2023

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The purpose of this study was to explore whether PreK-5 teacher perception of their unconscious bias impacted student achievement levels in Title I schools of varying performance levels.

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Racialized inequalities in education stem not only from individual culture but are significantly influenced by social, institutional, and structural forms of racism. Understanding group identity and intra- and inter-group interactions is crucial in addressing these disparities. Implicit bias plays a central role in shaping attitudes and behaviors, often without our conscious awareness. It’s vital for educators to recognize that race is a social construct, devoid of biological basis, and that racism manifests systemically through the mistreatment of marginalized groups. Anti-racist education requires a lifelong commitment to actively challenge these ingrained biases and stereotypes. Strategies such as promoting diversity in decision-making, fostering empathy, and creating safe spaces for open dialogue are essential for meaningful change. Ultimately, engaging in active allyship and embracing the shared responsibility of combating systemic inequalities are key steps toward fostering a more inclusive and equitable educational environment.

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Becoming an Antiracist Educator Series: Deconstructing Implicit Bias with Dr. Dwayne Ray Cormier.

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The landmark Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ended school segregation but led to unintended negative consequences, particularly related to implicit bias. As Black teachers were displaced in integrated schools, a predominantly white teaching workforce emerged, which contributed to disparities in discipline, support for disabilities, and access to gifted programs for Black students. Research shows that Black children face harsher disciplinary actions and are less likely to be referred for gifted services, highlighting the significant impact of implicit bias in education. Advocacy efforts must focus on recognizing and addressing these biases to ensure equitable educational opportunities for all students.

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Implicit bias in higher education refers to the unconscious attitudes and stereotypes that instructors may hold about students based on their identities and backgrounds, impacting their perceptions of student capability and behavior. For instance, instructors might assume that students from certain socioeconomic backgrounds will lack ambition or that those with specific accents are poor writers. These biases can lead to inequitable treatment, such as overlooking at-risk students who might hesitate to seek help when struggling academically. Additionally, students with disabilities may be unfairly perceived as having cognitive limitations, while those from particular identity groups might be treated as experts on related issues, regardless of their actual experience. Addressing implicit bias is crucial, as it not only promotes equity and inclusion in the classroom but also enhances student engagement and academic success. By implementing strategies such as bias awareness training and diverse teaching methods, instructors can create a more supportive learning environment that recognizes and values the diverse backgrounds of all students.

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Awareness of Implicit Biases | Poorvu Center for Teaching and Learning

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Examples Instructors may assume that certain students know to seek help when they are struggling, although students at higher risk for struggling academically are often less likely to seek help and support. Instructors may assume that students from certain backgrounds or social groups have differi…

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Examining how biases affect teaching is essential for fostering an equitable classroom environment. Reflecting on your immediate reactions to certain students, such as labeling them based on preconceived notions of the "ideal" student, can reveal underlying biases. It's important to question the origins of these perceptions, particularly whether they stem from privilege or dominant narratives. Utilizing tools like the Implicit Association Test (IAT) can help uncover hidden biases about race, gender, and ability, prompting deeper reflection on your expectations for students. Engaging with resources such as the PBS series “Race: The Power of an Illusion” and activities like “Sorting People” can challenge your assumptions about race and identity. Additionally, consider the factors influencing your perception of student potential and how these perceptions shape expectations and performance. Regularly reflecting on your self-awareness, the inclusivity of your classroom environment, your teaching practices, and your relationships with families and communities can enhance your culturally responsive pedagogy. By actively engaging in this process, you can create a more inclusive and supportive classroom that affirms the diverse identities of all students.

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How do I know if my biases affect my teaching?

Have you ever mumbled, under your breath, "Oh, goodness, here comes Chris" as a response to an "active" student who frequently disrupts the flow of class?

Have you attached certain identifiers to this particular student based on your perception of the "ideal" student? Have you considered where your understanding of the ideal student was conceived? Is it founded in privilege, a dominant narrative and/or white supremacist thinking?

Have you reflected on having built expectations for certain students, whether they are White or of color, male or female, able-bodied or with disabilities?

How are you thinking about your students?

All of these questions consider the biases that ultimately affect your teaching. As teachers, we often believe that we can be "objective" with our students. In fact, many of our teacher education programs emphasize the importance of objectivity in assessment. Although we may try to be neutral, we all have values, beliefs, and predispositions that impact how we relate to others. These assumptions are not necessarily a "bad" thing since they often help us understand unknown situations or try to make sense of what is happening around us. But when our assumptions are manifested as implicit biases that can lead to imposed identities, we often reinforce negative stereotypes and negative school climates without even knowing it (Hanselman, Bruch, Gamoran, & Borman, 2014). In fact, teachers' hidden biases can often lead to a goal reduction or diminished expectations for students of color and from under resourced communities (McKown & Weinstein, 2007). Similarly, teacher bias can lead to differing gendered expectations for girls and boys in STEM (Robinson-Cimpian, Lubienski, Ganley, & Copur-Gencturk, 2014). Understanding hidden associations, assumptions, or biases allows us to better understand our "self" so we can work with "others" towards a mediated identity where positive academic and social identities can be affirmed and nurtured through an asset model for identity construction (Delpit, 1995; Nieto & Bode, 2011).

By analyzing institutional bias based on social difference in classrooms, Chen, Nimmo, & Fraser (2009) offer a framework for teachers to reflect and re-examine their practice. This framework is rooted in teacher self-study. The self-study is broken down into four sections: self-awareness, physical environment, pedagogical environment, and relationship with families and community. By critically analyzing each section, teachers can become more aware of how their preconceived notions and implicit bias can interact with institutional structures to perpetuate bias and inequity. Through self-study, teachers can re-examine practices, programs, and policies, so as to embrace culturally responsive pedagogy and provide more equitably opportunities for their children to learn.

Similarly, Carime Bersh (2011) explores White prospective teachers' understandings of their own cultural identities. This study posits that White teachers must understand their own cultural identity, privilege, and the ways they are inscribed and often perpetuate institutional bias if they are to "deconstruct, reconstruct, and recreate" their own multicultural practice.Below are tools you can use to examine your own biases and how they may affect your teaching.
Do you experience implicit bias?
Challenge yourself to reflect on your own cultural identity and implicit bias. The Implicit Association Test (IAT) is a research-based way of examining one's hidden biases or comfort level about interactions with people of races different from their own. The basic finding of research on this test is that almost everyone is vulnerable to the influences that result in bias or unease in dealing with people of different races and ethnicities.

Explore your hidden bias by taking the IAT. Click on the link above, read the test information, then select "I wish to proceed." You will see tests for a range of differences, including race, disability, religion, sexuality, and so forth. We recommend that you challenge yourself on implicit associations by taking the IAT on "Race" and at least a couple of additional identity categories. After completing the IAT, think about the following questions:

How did the IAT inform your understanding of hidden bias?

To what extent were you surprised or not by your results?

How does understanding your own implicit bias better equip you for respectful engagement with diverse populations?

How can our assumptions about race be wrong?
What happens when these incorrect assumptions influence how we see our students? This belief serves to perpetuate stereotypes and unintentional racism. Race: The Power of an Illusion is PBS series produced by California Newsreel. This series tackles the construct of race and what race means. In deconstructing race as a social construct and discursive modifier, California Newsreel offers a number of interactive activities to raise awareness and reflexivity in the same vein as the Implicit Association Test. Among these is the Sorting People activity where you are asked to sort people into racial categories based on your response to individual pictures.

Akin to the PBS series, Understanding Race, a project of the American Anthropological Association (AAA), deconstructs the power of race as socially constructed. Similar to the sorting activity above, the AAA offers an activity where you have to determine Who is White? (You can get there by taking the link for Lived Experience.)

Go ahead! See if you can tell who is White just based on a picture. Could you determine someone's race by simply looking at the person?

After completing "Sorting People" and "Who is White?" think about the following questions:

To what extent were my assumptions about individuals' racial categories "accurate"?

How can my assumptions influence how I see and interact with people in negative ways?

How can I be more aware of my implicit bias??

What about our teaching?
If these implicit associations influence how we see people in general, then how do they influence our interactions with students? How do they influence our expectations for students? Consider the following questions posed by Teaching Tolerance (2015):

What influences teachers' perceptions of student potential?

How do educators' perception of this potential influence their expectations and student performance?

What factors do you consider - consciously or not - when you first encounter a student?

References
Carime Bersh, L. (2009). Deconstructing Whiteness: Uncovering prospective teachers' understandings of their culture-A Latina professor's perspective. Multicultural Perspectives 11(2), 107-112.

Chen, D. W., Nimmo, J., & Fraser, H. (2009). Becoming a culturally responsive early childhood educator: A tool to support reflection by teachers embarking on the anti-bias journey. Multicultural Perspectives 11(2), 101-106.

Delpit, L. (2006). Other people's children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. New York: The New Press.

Hanselman, P., Bruch, S. K., Gamoran, A., & Borman, G. D. (2014). Threat in Context: School Moderation of the Impact of Social Identity Threat on Racial/Ethnic Achievement Gaps. Sociology Of Education 87(2), 106-124.

Nieto, S & Bode, P. (2013). Affirming diversity: The sociopoltical context of multicultural education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Robinson-Cimpian, J. P., Lubienski, S. T., Ganley, C. M., & Copur-Gencturk, Y. (2014). Teachers' perceptions of students' mathematics proficiency may exacerbate early gender gaps in achievement. Developmental Psychology 50(4), 1262-1281.

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How do I know if my biases affect my teaching? - NAME Learn

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Have you ever mumbled, under your breath, "Oh, goodness, here comes Chris" as a response to an "active" student who frequently disrupts the flow of class? Have you attached certain identifiers to this particular student based on your perception of the "ideal" student? Have you considered where your understanding of the ideal student was conceived?

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Implicit bias significantly impacts teachers' perceptions and evaluations of students, often leading to unfair treatment based on characteristics such as race and gender. Cognitive biases, like confirmation bias and the fundamental attribution error, can further distort teachers' judgments. To mitigate these biases, one effective strategy is individuating, where teachers focus on learning specific details about their students, such as their interests and backgrounds. This can be facilitated through tools like ClassDojo or simple parent questionnaires. Additionally, assigning competence—publicly recognizing low-status students for their contributions—can elevate their status and influence within the classroom. Other strategies include stereotype replacement, counter-stereotypic imagining, and perspective taking, all aimed at fostering awareness of biases and promoting empathy. Educating teachers about implicit bias through systematic training can enhance their decision-making processes, making them more mindful of their biases. Contextual supports such as accountability, transparency in criteria, sufficient time for decision-making, and exposure to diverse role models are also crucial in creating an environment that reduces bias. Ultimately, focusing on structured environments and effective strategies can help both teachers and students thrive.

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What Is Implicit Bias, And How Might It Affect Teachers And Students? (Part II - Solutions)

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This is the second in a series of three posts about implicit bias. Here are the first and third parts.

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Implicit bias in education significantly influences teachers' perceptions and behaviors towards students and their families, often leading to disparities in treatment and academic outcomes. Research utilizing the Implicit Association Test (IAT) has shown that educators may unconsciously favor White students over students of color, impacting how they provide support and encouragement. For instance, a study by the U.S. Department of Education revealed that Black students face harsher disciplinary actions due to these biases, while gifted programs often under-refer Black and Latino students. Hypothetical scenarios illustrate this impact: a teacher may doubt a Black student’s answer while readily affirming a White student’s response, undermining the former’s confidence. Additionally, assumptions about a Hispanic parent’s involvement can lead to missed collaborative opportunities. Reflecting on these dynamics is essential; educators must actively confront their biases, engage in professional development, and create a classroom culture that values diversity. By fostering awareness and understanding, teachers can promote a more inclusive environment, ultimately supporting the success of all students.