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Paul Gauguin, Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? 1897

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Paul Gauguin, Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? 1897

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Medium: Oil on sackcloth (chosen for its coarse, rustic texture).

Style: Post-Impressionism / Symbolism. It uses "Synthetism," characterized by flat areas of bold color and heavy outlines.

Subject: A continuous narrative of Tahitian figures and animals, read from right to left, representing the stages of life from infancy to old age.

Theme: The cycle of human existence. It is a philosophical meditation on birth, life, and the inevitability of death, created during a period of deep personal crisis for the artist.

Composition: Panoramic and frieze-like. Figures are arranged across a landscape with a blue-gold color palette, centered around a tall figure reaching for fruit, symbolizing the "Tree of Knowledge."

Impact: Considered Gauguin’s magnum opus and a masterpiece of Symbolist art. It moved painting away from mere description toward a deep, suggestive expression of the human psyche and spiritual mystery.

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Georges Seurat, Bathers at Asnieres, 1884

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Georges Seurat, Bathers at Asnieres, 1884

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Post-Impressionism (specifically early Neo-Impressionism). It bridges Impressionist light with a more structured, analytical approach.

Subject: Working-class men and boys relaxing on the banks of the River Seine in a suburban Parisian industrial district.

Theme: Modern leisure and industrialization. The contrast between the still, human figures and the smoking factory chimneys in the background highlights the intersection of private rest and public industry.

Composition: Monumental and sculptural. Figures are often shown in profile and appear frozen or "immobile," arranged in a formal layout that gives the scene a sense of timelessness.

Impact: A foundational work for Neo-Impressionism. Though rejected by the official Salon in 1884, its scale and scientific color theory influenced the development of Pointillism and established Georges Seurat as a leader of the avant-garde

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Paul Cezanne, The Basket of Apples, c. 1893

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Paul Cezanne, The Basket of Apples, c. 1893

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Post-Impressionism. It uses structured, "constructive" brushstrokes rather than the fleeting light of Impressionism.

Subject: A classic still life featuring a tilted basket of apples, a bottle of wine, and a plate of biscuits on a draped tablecloth.

Theme: The permanence of form and the subjective nature of human vision (seeing objects from multiple angles over time).

Composition: Intentionally unbalanced and disjointed. The tabletop edges don't align, and the bottle is tilted, creating a dynamic tension held together by the heavy, sculptural folds of the white cloth.

Impact: Revolutionized modern art by breaking the "rules" of perspective. It is considered a direct precursor to Cubism, as it proved that a painting could represent multiple viewpoints simultaneously.

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interest in capturing:

everyday subjects

on-the-spot outdoor scenes (en plein air)

fleeting moments

impermanence

atmosphere, light, colored shadow

modern urban life,

leisure activities upper middle class/nouveau

riche times of day/year

Interest in color theories:

optical blending and juxtaposition of complementary colors

Independent art shows (8)

Interest in Japanese woodblock prints (ukiyo-e)

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Tomb of the Bulls, Archaic period 540 BC

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Tomb of the Bulls, Archaic period 540 BC

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filled more with wall art then pottery.

we start to see more color now, poly-chromatic wall art

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Villanovan period: 900-700 BC

Orentalizing period: 700-575 BC

Archaic period: 575-480 BC

Classical Period: 480-300 BC

hellenistic Period: 300-50 BC

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Mary Cassatt, In the Omnibus, 1890-91, drypoint and aquatint

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Mary Cassatt, In the Omnibus, 1890-91, drypoint and aquatint

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Medium: Drypoint and aquatint (a printmaking process that allows for both sharp lines and soft, tonal washes of color).

Style: Japonisme. It features the flat color planes, bold outlines, and "bird’s-eye" perspectives typical of Japanese ukiyo-e art.

Subject: Two women and a baby sitting on a Parisian omnibus (a horse-drawn bus). It captures a mundane, modern moment of women traveling through the city.

Theme: Female Independence and Public Space. By showing women navigating the city alone, Cassatt highlights their growing mobility and presence in the modern urban landscape.

Composition: Cropped and compressed. The tight framing and the diagonal lines of the bus interior create a sense of intimacy and movement, cutting off the figures at the edges.

Impact: A masterpiece of modern printmaking. It demonstrated how Western artists could successfully adapt Eastern techniques to depict contemporary Western social life.

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Impressionism. It features exceptionally loose, sketchy brushwork that gives the scene a sense of vibrant, moving light.

Subject: A maid working in a bright, sunlit dining room. A small dog is visible in the lower corner, adding to the casual, domestic feel.

Theme: Domestic Modernity. Morisot elevates everyday household labor and private interior life to the status of high art, seen through a distinctly female lens.

Composition: Centripetal and fluid. The central figure is surrounded by a whirlwind of quick strokes, with the vertical lines of the window and furniture providing a loose structure.

Impact: Challenged the era's focus on public city life. It proved that domestic subjects could be just as experimental and "modern" as the street scenes painted by her male peers.

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Impressionism. Focuses on "pure" landscape and the diffusion of light through dense mist, using a muted, pastel palette.

Subject: A woman gardening behind a fence in Voisins, partially obscured by a thick morning fog that blurs the surrounding trees and buildings.

Theme: Atmospheric Evanescence. It explores how weather can dissolve solid forms into soft shapes, capturing a quiet, private moment in nature.

Composition: Layered and veiled. The fence in the foreground provides a horizontal anchor, while the receding trees disappear into the gray-white "shroud" of the background.

Impact: Highlights Sisley as the "purest" Impressionist. It is celebrated for its subtle tonality and its ability to make the air itself the primary subject of the painting

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Impressionism. Focuses on the "envelope" of light and atmosphere using thick, impasto brushstrokes to represent frozen dew.

Subject: A peasant carrying a bundle of sticks across a plowed field in Pontoise on a cold, frosty morning.

Theme: Rural Labor and Seasons. It highlights the quiet, repetitive toil of country life while emphasizing the sensory experience of a specific weather condition.

Composition: Diagonal and rhythmic. The deep furrows of the field and the shadows of the trees create strong diagonal lines that draw the eye across the canvas.

Impact: A defining example of the Impressionist landscape. It rejected traditional "picturesque" views in favor of a raw, honest look at the texture and color of the earth.

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Gustave Caillebotte, Paris: A Rainy Day, 1877

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Gustave Caillebotte, Paris: A Rainy Day, 1877

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Urban Realism. It blends Impressionist light with a highly disciplined, almost photographic clarity and sharp focus.

Subject: Pedestrians with umbrellas navigating the Place de Dublin intersection. It depicts the anonymity and scale of modern city life.

Theme: Modern Alienation. Despite the crowded street, the figures appear isolated and detached from one another, reflecting the social shifts of the industrial era.

Composition: Complex and geometric. A lamppost bisects the canvas vertically, while the wide, receding cobblestones and sharp building angles create a deep, panoramic perspective.

Impact: A masterpiece of compositional balance. It redefined how painters depicted the modern city, using a large scale usually reserved for "important" historical scenes

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Gustave Caillebotte, The Floor Scrapers, 1875

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Gustave Caillebotte, The Floor Scrapers, 1875

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Urban Realism with Impressionist light. It combines academic precision in the figures with a modern interest in light reflecting off a polished surface.

Subject: Three working-class laborers on their knees, scraping the wooden floor of an upscale Parisian apartment.

Theme: Modern Labor and Social Class. It highlights the physical toil required to maintain the elegant lifestyle of the bourgeoisie, a rare subject for the period.

Composition: Dramatic plunging perspective. The high viewpoint and long, diagonal floorboards create a deep sense of space, drawing the eye toward the window.

Impact: Initially rejected by the Salon for being "vulgar," it is now considered one of the first masterpieces to depict the urban working class with dignity and anatomical accuracy.

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Impressionism. Renoir uses soft, feathered brushstrokes and a vibrant palette to capture the glittering, artificial light of the theater and the "flicker" of high-society life.

Subject: A fashionable couple in a private theater box (loge). The woman, Nini Lopez, gazes forward with a theatrical expression, while the man (Renoir's brother) looks through binoculars—not at the stage, but at other people in the audience.

Theme: Spectacle and Social Performance. The painting explores the idea of the theater as a place "to see and be seen," focusing on the modern urban experience and the complex social gazes of the Parisian elite.

Composition: A tight, cropped arrangement that places the viewer inside the box. The strong diagonal lines of the railing and the bold black-and-white stripes of the dress create a sense of immediacy and intimate proximity.

Impact: This piece helped define the Impressionist interest in modern life. It is celebrated for Renoir’s ability to blend formal elegance with a candid, photographic-like "snapshot" of a fleeting social moment.

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Claude Monet. Wheatstack, Sun in the Mist. 1891

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Claude Monet. Wheatstack, Sun in the Mist. 1891

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Impressionism. This work is a premier example of Monet's practice of painting in series, focusing on how a single subject is transformed by specific atmospheric conditions.

Subject: A single, large conical stack of harvested wheat (often called a grainstack) in a field near Monet's home in Giverny. The scene is captured at autumn dawn as the sun begins to burn through the morning mist.

Theme: The Fleeting Nature of Light and Time. The wheatstack itself acts as a stable anchor, allowing the viewer to experience the ephemeral shifts in color and light—the "true" subject of the painting.

Composition: A centralized and stable layout divided into three horizontal bands: the field, the mist-covered background, and the sky. The stack is backlit by the sun, creating a glowing "halo" effect around its edges.

Impact: A major breakthrough in the history of Modern Art. By exhibiting these paintings together as a series, Monet proved that the "impression" was a serious, deeply researched endeavor, paving the way for future abstract movements.

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Claude Monet. On the Bank of the Seine, Bennecourt. 1868

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Claude Monet. On the Bank of the Seine, Bennecourt. 1868

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Medium: Oil on canvas

Style: Impressionism, focus on light, color, and movement.

Subject: Monet's future wife, Camille-Léonie Doncieux sitting on the bank of the Seine river.

Theme: Captures a fleeting moment in Monet's life.

Composition: Laired horizontal comp. simple blocked out shapes of color.

Impact:This painting is a crucial "bridge" work that marks the transition from Realism to Impressionism. By treating the human figure (Camille Doncieux) and the landscape with the same level of sketchy, unblended detail, Monet broke the traditional hierarchy of art. It proved that a painting could be a successful "finished" work while maintaining the raw energy of an outdoor study.

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Medium:

Style:

Subject:

Theme:

Composition:

Impact:

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John Singer Sargent, Mr. and Mrs. I.N. Phelps Stokes, 1897

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John Singer Sargent, Mr. and Mrs. I.N. Phelps Stokes, 1897

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Realism with a touch of Grand Manner portraiture. It features Sargent's signature fluid, confident brushwork and a sophisticated use of light that highlights the figures against a dark, recessed background.

Subject: Isaac Newton Phelps Stokes and his wife, Edith Minturn Stokes. Edith was originally meant to be the sole subject, but when a painting of a Great Dane fell through, her husband stepped into the frame to provide a "vertical accent."

Theme: Modern Marriage and the "New Woman." Edith’s athletic pose and crisp, informal walking attire (the "Gibson Girl" look) reflect the shift toward more independent and active roles for women at the turn of the century.

Composition: A dynamic, vertical composition. Edith is placed front and center in a lively, asymmetrical pose, while Isaac is positioned slightly behind and in the shadows, emphasizing her presence while anchoring the work's balance.

Impact: This piece is celebrated as one of Sargent's most spontaneous and modernportraits. It moved away from stiff, traditional Victorian poses to capture the energy and social confidence of the American Gilded Age.

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James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Harmony in Blue and Gold: The Peacock Room, 1876-77

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James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Harmony in Blue and Gold: The Peacock Room, 1876-77

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Medium: Architectural interior including oil paint and gold leaf on canvas, leather, wood, and mosaic tile.

Style: Aestheticism and the Anglo-Japanese style. It features a unified palette of Prussian blue and metallic gold leaf, with motifs heavily inspired by Japanese textiles and Chinese ceramics.

Subject: A lavish dining room originally designed to showcase a collection of Chinese blue-and-white porcelain. It features stylized peacocks, including a mural of two "fighting peacocks" representing a dispute between the artist and his patron.

Theme: Art versus Money. Whistler used the peacocks to symbolize his bitter quarrel with patron Frederick Leyland over payment, portraying himself as a "poor but proud" bird and Leyland as a "rich and angry" one.

Composition: A three-dimensional painting. The room is structured with an intricate lattice of spindle shelving and a ceiling covered in a lush pattern of peacock feathers, creating a totally immersive decorative environment.

Impact: Considered the greatest surviving example of an Aesthetic interior. It represents a turning point in interior design where a room was treated as a single, cohesive work of art, eventually finding a permanent home in the Smithsonian's Freer Gallery of Art

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James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Arrangement in Black and Gray No. 1, 1871

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James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Arrangement in Black and Gray No. 1, 1871

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Aestheticism with a focus on Tonalism. It uses a restricted palette of neutral colors to create a somber, harmonious mood rather than a realistic portrait.

Subject: The artist’s mother, Anna McNeill Whistler, seated in profile. She is depicted as a symbol of stoicism and piety, though Whistler viewed her primarily as a formal shape.

Theme: The autonomy of art. By calling it an "Arrangement," Whistler insisted the painting was about color and form (the arrangement of grey and black) rather than the sentimental identity of the sitter.

Composition: Highly linear and balanced. The composition is dominated by right angles—the wall, the floor, and the framed prints—which create a stable, rhythmic structure around the seated figure.

Impact: One of the most famous American works outside the US. It became an icon of motherhood, ironically contradicting Whistler’s intent that it be viewed as a purely abstract exercise in color.

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James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Symphony in White No. II: The Little White Girl. 1864

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James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Symphony in White No. II: The Little White Girl. 1864

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Aestheticism. It features elements of Japonisme (the influence of Japanese art) and is often described as an early precursor to Impressionism due to its focus on light and tonal harmony.

Subject: Whistler’s mistress and frequent model, Joanna Hiffernan. She is depicted leaning against a mantelpiece, holding a Japanese fan, with her reflection visible in the mirror above the fireplace.

Theme: "Art for art's sake" (l'art pour l'art). Whistler used musical titles like "Symphony" to emphasize that the painting’s value lay in its aesthetic qualities—color, form, and tonal harmony—rather than a narrative or moral message.

Composition: A vertical arrangement characterized by flattened space and geometric framing. The vertical lines of the fireplace and mirror frame the subject, while Japanese-inspired objects (the fan and porcelain vase) and delicate pink blossoms provide decorative accents that balance the predominantly white color palette.

Impact: This piece was a pivotal work in establishing Whistler's reputation as a leader of the Aesthetic Movement. It challenged Victorian artistic conventions by prioritizing mood and visual "music" over storytelling, directly influencing the development of modern abstract art

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John Ruskin writer, artist championed PRB and urged creation of beautifully designed, hand crafted objects that workers could take pride in producing over mass-produced products.

Morris started company that manufactured beautifully crafted fabrics, wallpaper, tapestries, carpets, tiles, furniture, and stained glass; he designed most of the wallpaper and fabrics

Emphasized truth and quality: no disguising materials, no pre-fabricated materials, no cheap materials

Launched Arts and Crafts movement, which soon spread to the US

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Secret society formed in 1848 by 3 students at the London Royal Academy: William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais, and Dante Gabriel Rossetti

Wanted to reform ills of the Industrial Revolution through spirituality and art

Looked to Early Renaissance and Gothic art (art before Raphael) as pure, genuine art

Wanted to depict “truth” by close observation of nature and details

Work is characterized by rich, pure color on a white ground; also included symbolism

Looked to literature for subject matter, especially Shakespeare, the Bible, and Arthurian legends

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Sir Edward Coley Burne-Jones, The Golden Stairs, 1880

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Sir Edward Coley Burne-Jones, The Golden Stairs, 1880

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Aestheticism; emphasizes "art for art’s sake" over a specific narrative or moral.

Subject: A procession of eighteen women in classical robes descending a spiral staircase with musical instruments.

Theme: Rhythm and harmony; focuses on the beauty of movement, line, and a muted, monochromatic palette.

Composition: Vertical and serpentine; the "S-curve" of the figures creates a rhythmic, musical flow that guides the eye downward.

Impact: A masterpiece of the Aesthetic Movement; shifted focus from "storytelling" to pure visual and atmospheric quality.

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John William Waterhouse, The Lady of Shalott (1888)

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John William Waterhouse, The Lady of Shalott (1888)

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Late Pre-Raphaelite/Romanticism; blends precise naturalism with loose, "painterly" brushwork.

Subject: Tennyson’s heroine drifting toward Camelot in a boat, moments before her death.

Theme: Fate and isolation; the artist’s tragic transition from a world of shadows to a harsh, fatal reality.

Composition: Strongly horizontal; the boat slices through the water, with the Lady’s white dress creating a stark, mournful focal point.

Impact: One of the most popular and reproduced images in British art; the definitive visual for Arthurian legend.

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Emily Mary Osborn, Nameless and Friendless (1857)

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Emily Mary Osborn, Nameless and Friendless (1857)

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Victorian Social Realism; uses narrative details to critique contemporary gender roles.

Subject: A widowed artist attempting to sell her work to a skeptical, condescending dealer.

Theme: Female struggle and economic vulnerability; the isolation of women in a male-dominated art world.

Composition: Centripetal; the vulnerable woman is surrounded and "sized up" by men, emphasizing her lack of protection.

Impact: A rare, powerful feminist statement in Victorian art; exposed the harsh reality for "surplus" women of the era.

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Pre-Raphaelite; features intense "jewel" colors, dramatic lighting, and microscopic botanical and interior detail.

Subject: The suicide of 17-year-old poet Thomas Chatterton in a London garret, modeled by a young George Meredith.

Theme: The martyrdom of the neglected genius; romanticizes the tragic struggle of the artist against a cold, indifferent society.

Composition: Diagonal and cramped; the pale, elongated body of the poet creates a sharp contrast against the vibrant purple breeches and the gloomy attic space.

Impact: One of the most famous Victorian paintings; praised by John Ruskin as "faultless and wonderful," it became the definitive image of the "doomed poet."

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John Roddam Spencer Stanhope, Thoughts of the Past, c. 1859

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John Roddam Spencer Stanhope, Thoughts of the Past, c. 1859

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Pre-Raphaelite; uses high-key color, precise detail, and a symbolic, cluttered interior.

Subject: A "fallen woman" in a room overlooking the Thames, pausing her dressing to stare into a mirror in a moment of regret.

Theme: Moral redemption and social isolation; explores the psychological internal state of a woman living in sin.

Composition: Vertical and shallow; the figure is framed by the river window and the dressing table, creating a sense of being "trapped" by her past and her surroundings.

Impact: A significant contribution to the Victorian genre of modern moral subjects; notable for its sympathetic, rather than purely judgmental, portrayal of its subject.

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Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Ecce Ancilla Domini, 1850

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Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Ecce Ancilla Domini, 1850

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Medium: Oil on canvas (mounted on panel).

Style: Early Pre-Raphaelite; radical "white-on-white" palette with flat, archaic spatial depth inspired by Early Netherlandish art.

Subject: The Annunciation; a wingless Angel Gabriel appearing to a startled, cowering Virgin Mary in a simple bedroom.

Theme: Sacred realism; rejects idealized divinity to portray Mary as a frightened, vulnerable girl facing a "catastrophic" divine intervention.

Composition: Vertical and compressed; use of tight diagonals (the lily stem) and a stark, claustrophobic setting to emphasize Mary's physical and emotional retreat.

Impact: Highly controversial for its lack of traditional beauty and "blasphemous" realism; led Rossetti to stop exhibiting in public for years.

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Ford Madox Brown, The Last Sight of England, 1852-55

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Ford Madox Brown, The Last Sight of England, 1852-55

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Medium: Oil on panel.

Style: Pre-Raphaelite Naturalism; extreme detail and rich, luminous color applied with a "truth to nature" approach.

Subject: A middle-class couple (modeled on Brown and his wife, Emma) huddled on a ship, leaving England permanently for Australia with their baby.

Theme: The emotional hardship of emigration and social critique of an England that failed its citizens during the "Hungry Forties".

Composition: A tight, nearly circular (tondo) format that creates an intimate, almost voyeuristic perspective, emphasizing confinement and unity amidst a turbulent sea.

Impact: A poignant social document that brought everyday, contemporary struggles to the forefront of art, becoming an iconic image of the mass migration era

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Pre-Raphaelite-influenced Realism; characterized by brilliant, non-traditional lighting (sunlight) and "microscopic" detail.

Subject: Navvies (laborers) digging a sewer trench in Hampstead, London, surrounded by figures from every social class.

Theme: The social stratification of Victorian England; contrasts physical labor, "brain work," and the idleness of the upper class.

Composition: Complex arc-like arrangement; the heroic laborers occupy the center, while intellectuals (like Thomas Carlyle) and aristocrats are pushed to the periphery.

Impact: A landmark social document that treated modern, everyday manual labor with the same scale and seriousness as traditional history painting

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Pre-Raphaelite; known for "truth to nature," microscopic detail, and high-intensity color.

Subject: Ophelia from Shakespeare's Hamlet singing as she drowns in a stream. Modeled by Elizabeth Siddal.

Theme: Tragedy and nature's cycle; uses a Victorian "language of flowers" (e.g., poppies for death, violets for faithfulness).

Composition: Horizontal and claustrophobic; the figure is wedged between lush, overhanging riverbanks, creating an immersive, "snapshot" effect.

Impact: A defining masterpiece of the PRB movement; famous for its botanical accuracy, which was so precise it was used by scientists for study

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Medium: Oil on mahogany panel.

Style: Pre-Raphaelite; features "jewel-like" colors, extreme attention to detail, and a medievalist aesthetic.

Subject: Mariana, a character from Shakespeare's Measure for Measure and Tennyson's poem, stretching her back while waiting for her fiancé.

Theme: Solitude and sexual frustration; explores the stagnant life of a woman abandoned after her dowry was lost at sea.

Composition: A cramped Gothic interior; the arched back of the central figure creates a sense of physical and emotional strain against the verticality of the stained-glass windows.

Impact: Challenged Victorian art standards with its psychological realism and vivid colorism; defended by critic John Ruskin as a masterpiece of "perfect truth"

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Realism Vs. Naturalism (Con.):

Sought truth through ordinary, everyday, modern experience; neither idealized nor dramatized

Championed laborers and common people (Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels)

New tin tubes of oil paint

Started having individual art exhibits (independent of art academies)

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: American Naturalism; uses a bright, balanced palette and realistic textures.

Subject: Nine barefoot boys playing a vigorous game outside a one-room red schoolhouse.

Theme: Nostalgia for rural simplicity and the promise of a post-Civil War America.

Composition: A dynamic horizontal line of boys; contrast between the still schoolhouse and the explosive movement of the children.

Impact: Became an iconic symbol of national unity; cemented Homer’s status as a leading American artist

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Heroic Realism; dramatic chiaroscuro focusing on the surgical site.

Subject: Dr. Samuel Gross performing a bone operation in a medical amphitheater.

Theme: Scientific progress and the triumph of modern medicine/intellect.

Composition: Pyramidal; the vertical doctor dominates the scene, highlighted by intense, direct light.

Impact: Initially censored for being "too graphic"; now a masterpiece of American Realism.

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Edgar Degas, At the Races in the Countryside, 1869

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Edgar Degas, At the Races in the Countryside, 1869

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Impressionism / Naturalism; features a "snapshot" aesthetic influenced by early photography.

Subject: Degas's friend Paul Valpinçon and his family (wife, infant son, and wet nurse) in a horse-drawn carriage at a racecourse in Normandy.

Theme: Modern leisure and social class; merges landscape, genre scene, and family portraiture while highlighting the domestic labor of the wet nurse.

Composition: Highly unconventional with asymmetric weighting; the carriage is "pushed" to the right and abruptly cropped, leaving a wide, flat expanse of green that disrupts traditional depth.

Impact: Challenged academic standards by prioritizing a candid, peripheral moment (a family in a carriage) over the main event (the horse race), establishing Degas as a pioneer of the modern "glimpse"

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Edgar Degas. The Orchestra of the Paris Opéra. 1868–69

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Edgar Degas. The Orchestra of the Paris Opéra. 1868–69

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Medium: Oil on canvas

Style: flattened compressed view, realism

Subject: Degas's bassoonist friend playing in the orchestra

Theme: Mixes classical portature with contemporary realism

Composition: Radical tripartite layout with a "snapshot" feel; uses asymmetric cropping (headless dancers) and jagged diagonals from instruments to create depth.

Impact: Shifted portraiture from the studio to candid modern life; bridged the gap between traditional painting and photographic framing.

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Édouard Manet. A Bar at the Folies-Bergère. 1881–82

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Édouard Manet. A Bar at the Folies-Bergère. 1881–82

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Medium: Oil on canvas

Style: Realism

Subject: Bar worker, lots of mixed messages. Cold marble yet open dress showing sexually open

Theme: Challenges 19th century life. shows how the upper class has taken advantage of the lower classes

Composition: Bar worker and upper class man at the Folies-Bergère bar. mirror reflecting the different terraced levels of the club

Impact: One of his last major works

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Jean-François Millet, The Angelus, 1857-59

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Jean-François Millet, The Angelus, 1857-59

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Realism (Barbizon School); features a somber, backlit "silhouette" effect with a high, glowing horizon.

Subject: A peasant man and woman pausing their potato harvest to pray as the evening church bells toll in the distance.

Theme: Ritualized devotion and the rhythms of rural life; captures a moment of quiet, universal meditation rather than a purely religious or political message.

Composition: Vertical and monumental; the two figures occupy the central foreground of a vast, empty plain, their heads bowed in prayer under a twilight sky.

Impact: Became a world-famous icon of national sentiment and religious piety; notably obsessed Salvador Dalí, who famously used X-ray analysis to argue the painting originally depicted a child's burial

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Jean-François Millet, The Gleaners, 1857

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Jean-François Millet, The Gleaners, 1857

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Realism (Barbizon School); uses muted, earthy tones and a soft, hazy "golden hour" light.

Subject: Three peasant women bending to collect leftover grain stalks after the main harvest.

Theme: Hardship and dignity of the rural poor; contrasts the meager scraps of the gleaners with the abundant wealth of the landowner in the background.

Composition: Pyramidal and grounded; the three figures form a heavy, rhythmic curve below the horizon line, making them appear inseparable from the land.

Impact: Highly controversial at the 1857 Salon; elites feared it glorified the working class and promoted Socialist ideals following the 1848 Revolution.

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Gustave Courbet, The Meeting (Bonjour Monsieur Courbet), 1854

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Gustave Courbet, The Meeting (Bonjour Monsieur Courbet), 1854

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Medium: Oil on canvas.

Style: Realism; marked by a bright, "light-drenched" outdoor palette and unidealized, direct brushwork.

Subject: A meeting at a crossroads between the artist, his patron Alfred Bruyas, a servant, and a dog.

Theme: Artistic independence and the reversal of social hierarchies; the artist is portrayed as a "genius" equal (or superior) to the wealthy patron.

Composition: Horizontal and additive; figures are staged as silhouettes against a bright sky, based on a popular print of the "Wandering Jew".

Impact: Provoked critics to mock it as "Fortune bowing before Genius"; became a Realist manifesto for the artist as an independent, traveling worker.

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Jacques-Louis David, The Coronation of Napoleon, 1806

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Jacques-Louis David, The Coronation of Napoleon, 1806

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Jacques-Louis David, The Death of Socrates, 1784

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Jacques-Louis David, The Death of Socrates, 1784

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Gavin Hamilton. Andromache Bewailing the Death of Hector. 1764

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Gavin Hamilton. Andromache Bewailing the Death of Hector. 1764

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Ottonian Art:

Hieratic Scale: Larger size = greater importance (often used for Christ/emperors).

Typology: Connecting Old and New Testament scenes symbolically.

Bernward’s Doors: Bronze doors with narrative reliefs, Hildesheim.

Reliquary: Container for relics, often richly decorated.

Ottonian Manuscripts: Emphasized imperial power and divine right.

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Carolingian Art:

Carolingian Renaissance: Revival of classical Roman art and learning.

Renovatio: “Renewal” of Roman Empire ideals under Charlemagne.

Westwork: Monumental western entrance of a church.

Scriptorium: Place in monasteries where monks copied texts.

Miniature: Small detailed illustrations in manuscripts.

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Royal Portals, Cathedral, Chartres, France, 1145-70: Tympana sculptures (all three tympanum)

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Royal Portals, Cathedral, Chartres, France, 1145-70: Tympana sculptures (all three tympanum)

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Royal Portals, Cathedral, Chartres, France, 1145-70: Jamb figures

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Royal Portals, Cathedral, Chartres, France, 1145-70: Jamb figures

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 Abbot Suger, On the Abbey Church of St Denis

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 Abbot Suger, On the Abbey Church of St Denis

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Eadwine (?), Eadwine the Scribe, from the Canterbury Psalter, 1150 

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Eadwine (?), Eadwine the Scribe, from the Canterbury Psalter, 1150 

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Samson, The Morgan Picture Bible, Paris, France , 1244-54

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Samson, The Morgan Picture Bible, Paris, France , 1244-54

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Jonah, The Carrow Psalter, Walters Museum, mid 13th-century

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Jonah, The Carrow Psalter, Walters Museum, mid 13th-century

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Moses and the Brazen Serpent, from A Picture Bible, French, 1190-1200 

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Moses and the Brazen Serpent, from A Picture Bible, French, 1190-1200 

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Abraham and Isaac, Psalter, Oxford, England, 1212-1220 

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Abraham and Isaac, Psalter, Oxford, England, 1212-1220 

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Adam and Eve, Psalter, England, East Anglia or London, 1300-1310

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Adam and Eve, Psalter, England, East Anglia or London, 1300-1310

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Master Hugo, Moses expounding the Law, from the Bury Bible, early 12th century

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Master Hugo, Moses expounding the Law, from the Bury Bible, early 12th century

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Vision of St. Hildegard of Bingen, Liber Scivias, 1050-1079

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Vision of St. Hildegard of Bingen, Liber Scivias, 1050-1079

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St. George and the Dragon, from the Moralia in Job, Citeaux, early 12th century

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St. George and the Dragon, from the Moralia in Job, Citeaux, early 12th century

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Entombment of Christ, Sant’Angelo in Formix, 1085

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Entombment of Christ, Sant’Angelo in Formix, 1085

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Portal, West Façade, St. Trophime, Arles, 1150

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Portal, West Façade, St. Trophime, Arles, 1150

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Tympanum, La Madeleine, Vézelay, France, 1120-32

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Tympanum, La Madeleine, Vézelay, France, 1120-32

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Giselbertus(?), Tympanum, St. Lazare, Autun, France, 1130

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Giselbertus(?), Tympanum, St. Lazare, Autun, France, 1130

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Tympanum and Trumeau, St. Pierre, Moissaic, France, 1115-1135

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Tympanum and Trumeau, St. Pierre, Moissaic, France, 1115-1135

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Wiligelmus, Façade Sculpture, Cathedral, Modena, Italy, 1110

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Wiligelmus, Façade Sculpture, Cathedral, Modena, Italy, 1110

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Bernardus Gelduinus, Christ in Majesty, St. Sernin, Toulouse, France, 1096

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Bernardus Gelduinus, Christ in Majesty, St. Sernin, Toulouse, France, 1096

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San Miniato al Monte, Florence, Italy 1062

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San Miniato al Monte, Florence, Italy 1062

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Cathedral Complex, Pisa, Italy, 1053-1272 

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Cathedral Complex, Pisa, Italy, 1053-1272 

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Otto III, Gospel Book of Otto III, 997-1000

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Otto III, Gospel Book of Otto III, 997-1000

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Annunciation to the Shepherds, Lectionary of Henry II, 1002-1014

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Annunciation to the Shepherds, Lectionary of Henry II, 1002-1014

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Bernward, St. Michael, Hildesheim, Germany, 1001-1031: Bronze Doors of St. Michael, Hildesheim, 1015

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Bernward, St. Michael, Hildesheim, Germany, 1001-1031: Bronze Doors of St. Michael, Hildesheim, 1015

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Odo of Metz, Palatine Chapel, Aachen, 792-805

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Odo of Metz, Palatine Chapel, Aachen, 792-805

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Chi-rho(-iota) Page, Book of Kells, 800 

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Chi-rho(-iota) Page, Book of Kells, 800 

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Scribe Ezra, Codex Amiatinus, early 8th century

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Scribe Ezra, Codex Amiatinus, early 8th century

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Carpet Page (fol. 26v) and St. Matthew, Lindisfarne Gospels, late 7th century

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Carpet Page (fol. 26v) and St. Matthew, Lindisfarne Gospels, late 7th century

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mage of a Man (Symbol of St. Matthew), Book of Durrow, 660-680

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mage of a Man (Symbol of St. Matthew), Book of Durrow, 660-680

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Interlace: Decorative woven ribbon design, common in medieval art.

Jamb: Vertical side of a doorway, often sculpted in Gothic churches.

Lancet Windows: Tall, narrow windows with pointed arches.

Liernes: Short ribs in vaults forming star patterns.

Lintel: Horizontal beam above a door.

Perpendicular Style: English Gothic with strong vertical lines.

Portal: Ornate main entrance of a church.

Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite: Writings influenced Gothic light symbolism.

Refectory: Dining hall in a monastery.

Tiercerons: Decorative ribs in Gothic vaults, not structural.

Triforium: Shallow gallery above nave arches in churches.

Trumeau: Central pillar supporting the tympanum in a portal.

Tympanum: Decorative semi-circle above church doors.

Vespers: Evening prayer service.

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Justinian and Theodora: Byzantine Emperor and Empress known for law, architecture, and Orthodox Christianity.

Mohammed: Founder of Islam, believed to receive revelations from Allah.

Nave: Central hall of a church.

Pendentive: Curved section to transition from a square to a dome.

Side Aisles: Aisles beside the nave in a church.

Transept: Cross-section of a church, perpendicular to the nave.

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Andrei Rublev, Old Testament Trinity (Three Angels at Mambre),  1410 (Russian)

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Andrei Rublev, Old Testament Trinity (Three Angels at Mambre),  1410 (Russian)

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Anastasis (Harrowing of Hell), Kariye Camii, Istanbul, 1310-20 

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Anastasis (Harrowing of Hell), Kariye Camii, Istanbul, 1310-20 

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Pantokrator, Cathedral, Monreale, Sicily, 1180

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Pantokrator, Cathedral, Monreale, Sicily, 1180

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Crucifixion, Church of the Dormition, Daphne, Greece, 11th century 

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Crucifixion, Church of the Dormition, Daphne, Greece, 11th century 