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 Milestone 1: The ability to hold a book correctly and identify the front and back covers. This is specific and measurable because the teacher can observe whether the student consistently orients the book upright and opens it from the correct side. 

What it looks like when achieved: A student demonstrates this milestone when they independently pick up a book, turn it right side up if necessary, and begin at the front cover rather than starting in the middle or back. For example, when handed an upside-down book, the student rotates it and opens it to the title page. This behavior shows understanding of the conventions of print and how books are structured (Clay, 2013). 

Milestone 2: The ability to track text from left to right and from the top to the bottom of the page. This is distinct from book orientation and can be measured by observing whether the child follows the correct sequence of words during shared reading. 

What it looks like when achieved: During a read-aloud, the child points to the first word in a sentence and moves their finger smoothly across the line as the teacher reads. At the end of the line, the child returns their finger to the beginning of the next line, continuing this pattern throughout the page. This action demonstrates awareness that print has an organized direction and sequence (Justice & Sofka, 2010). 

 

References: Clay, M. M. (2013). Concepts about print: What have children learned about the way we print language? Heinemann. 

 

Justice, L. M., & Sofka, A. E. (2010). Engaging children with print: Building early literacy skills through quality read-alouds. Guilford Press. 

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 Assessment tool: Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening (PALS-PreK) (Invernizzi, Sullivan, Meier, & Swank, 2004). 

How it measures progress: PALS-PreK includes a Print and Word Awareness task, where children are asked to identify the front of a book, show where reading begins, recognize that text (not pictures) carries meaning, and track print directionally. The assessment also checks if children can differentiate between letters and words. Progress is measured through a series of structured prompts and recorded responses, with scoring rubrics that indicate whether a child has demonstrated mastery of each concept. By revisiting the assessment periodically, teachers can monitor individual growth and provide targeted support in areas where print awareness is still developing (Invernizzi et al., 2004). 

References: Clay, M. M. (2013). Concepts about print: What have children learned about the way we print language? Heinemann. 

 

Invernizzi, M., Sullivan, A., Meier, J., & Swank, L. (2004). Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening: Pre-K (PALS-PreK). University of Virginia. 

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Print Concept: “Print awareness (also called concepts of print) is the understanding that print carries meaning, that books contain letters and words. Print awareness also involves an understanding of what books are used for and how a book ‘works’ — how to turn pages, how to find the top and bottom of a page, and how to identify the title and the front and back covers.” (Print Concept. n.d.). 

Importance of Skill: This skill is important for early literacy development because it is foundational in acknowledging what they will be reading. 

Example of the skill in action: During a shared reading activity, the teacher can invite a student to demonstrate where the story begins in a picture book. The student correctly orients the book upright, opens it to the title page, and points to the top left of the text block. As the teacher began reading aloud, the child used their finger to follow the words from left to right across the page, then moved their finger down to the next line. This shows mastery of print concept in that the child can demonstrate how to start reading a book before it is read. They understand how a book works and the proper order to reading it.  

References: Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Print awareness. Reading Rockets.

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Skill being taught: The focus is reading directionality — helping children understand that text is read from left to right and from the top to the bottom of the page.  

Step-by-step description of implementation:  

Modeling the Skill – The teacher holds a big book and demonstrates by pointing to the first word on the page, then sliding their finger under the words from left to right as they read aloud. 

Think-Aloud – The teacher verbalizes the process: “I start reading here, on the left, and I move my finger across to the right. When I get to the end of the line, I go down to the next line.” 

Guided Practice – Students are given copies of a simple, predictable text. As the teacher reads a line aloud, students track the words with their fingers, practicing the left-to-right movement. 

Independent Practice – Students take turns pointing to where reading begins on a page and moving their fingers under the text as they read aloud with support. 

Feedback and Reinforcement – The teacher provides immediate feedback, praising correct tracking and gently redirecting if a child starts in the wrong spot or moves in the wrong direction. 

 

How it supports learning/mastery: It provides explicit modeling and guided practice in a key concept of print. By physically tracking print and linking oral language to written words, students internalize directionality, which is a necessary foundation for decoding and fluent reading. Research shows that engaging children with print concepts during shared reading directly supports later reading achievement by strengthening their understanding of how written language works (Justice & Sofka, 2010). 

 

References: Justice, L. M., & Sofka, A. E. (2010). Engaging children with print: Building early literacy skills through quality read-alouds. Guilford Press. 

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Milestone 1 expected age/grade: Between ages 3 and 4, often during the preschool years. By this age, many children can identify the front and back covers and understand how to hold a book upright. Book-handling and orientation are often established in the preschool years through shared book reading and modeled behaviors (Justice & Ezell, 2001). 

Milestone 2 expected age/grade: Between ages 4 and 6, most often in pre-kindergarten through kindergarten. By this time, children can track print with their finger during read-alouds and begin to follow along independently. 

Support from research: Studies show that preschool and early kindergarten students exposed to frequent print-rich experiences demonstrate increased mastery of directional tracking, which is a key predictor of later reading success (National Early Literacy Panel [NELP], 2008). 

 

References: Justice, L. M., & Ezell, H. K. (2001). Word and print awareness in 4-year-old children. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 17(3), 207–225. https://doi.org/10.1177/026565900101700303 

 

National Early Literacy Panel. (2008). Developing early literacy: Report of the National Early Literacy Panel. National Institute for Literacy. 

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Strategy 1: To support students with visual processing difficulties, teachers can use enlarged print and high-contrast text during shared reading. For example, projecting a big book or digital text onto a smartboard allows students to clearly see directionality while following along. This adaptation reduces visual strain and supports accurate tracking of text. Research shows that clear, accessible text presentation increases engagement and comprehension for students with visual challenges (Corn & Koenig, 2002). 

 

Strategy 2: For English Learners, teachers can pair visual cues with oral language by pointing to pictures that match the print while reading and reinforcing key vocabulary. Incorporating gestures and using bilingual labels where appropriate helps ELs connect spoken and written words, which strengthens print concept development. Research highlights that integrating visual supports with oral language promotes literacy development in ELs by building connections between their first language and English (August & Shanahan, 2006). 

 

How it supports students with dyslexia or other learning differences: For students with dyslexia or other reading-related learning differences, teachers can provide multisensory instruction such as tracing words with a finger in sand or using textured letters while tracking print. This engages multiple pathways (visual, auditory, kinesthetic), which strengthens neural connections and supports print awareness. Multisensory approaches are shown to be especially effective for students with dyslexia because they reinforce print concepts and phonological processing (Birsh & Carreker, 2018). 

 

Explanation of why strategies are effective: These differentiation strategies work because they remove barriers to access while maintaining a focus on the same foundational skill — understanding directionality and print concepts. By offering enlarged text, visual supports, or multisensory reinforcement, teachers ensure that every learner — whether they face challenges with vision, language acquisition, or dyslexia — can engage meaningfully with print. Differentiated strategies provide multiple entry points into the learning process, helping all students practice and master foundational literacy skills in developmentally appropriate ways. 

 

References:  

August, D., & Shanahan, T. (2006). Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Lawrence Erlbaum. 

 

Birsh, J. R., & Carreker, S. (2018). Multisensory teaching of basic language skills (4th ed.). Paul H. Brookes. 

 

Corn, A. L., & Koenig, A. J. (2002). Literacy for students with low vision: A framework for delivering instruction. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 96(5), 305–321. 

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Milestone 1: The ability to correctly name different lowercase letters in the alphabet. 

What it looks like when achieved: The teacher shows a student one lowercase letter at a time and asks "Can you tell me what letter this is?". The student can accurately answer for all 26 letters (Assessing Alphabet Knowledge, Reading Rockets, n.d.)

Milestone 2: The ability to correctly name different lowercase and uppercase letters in the alphabet.

What it looks like when achieved: The teacher shows a student one letter at a time and asks "Can you tell me what letter this is?". The student can accurately answer for all 26 letters, uppercase and lowercase. 

References: Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Alphabet knowledge. Assessing Alphabet Knowledge. Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/alphabet-knowledge

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Assessment Tool: Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) — Letter Naming Fluency (LNF)(Good & Kaminski, 2002).

How it measures progress: The DIBELS Letter Naming Fluency (LNF) is a standardized, evidence-based assessment that measures how quickly and accurately a child can name printed uppercase and lowercase letters in a timed setting. It is designed for students in pre-kindergarten through the beginning of first grade (Good & Kaminski, 2002). It begins by showing a student a page with randomly ordered upper- and lowercase letters. The assessor asks the student to name as many letters as possible within one minute. The number of correctly named letters is recorded as the score. Progress is measured by comparing scores over multiple assessment periods (spring, fall, winter etc.) Increasing speed and accuracy in naming letters indicates growth in letter-naming knowledge and automaticity, foundational for reading fluency (Good & Kaminski, 2002).

References: Good, R. H., & Kaminski, R. A. (2002). Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (6th ed.). Institute for the Development of Educational Achievement. https://dibels.uoregon.edu

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Alphabet knowledge is the ability to recognize and name uppercase and lowercase letters, recognize letter symbols in print, and know that there are sounds associated with each letter. Alphabet knowledge is a key pre-literacy skill and lays the groundwork for future reading success (Basics: Alphabet Knowledge, Reading Rockets, n.d.).

Importance of Skill: This skill is crucial in being able to differentiate letters in order that eventually they would learn the letter's sound and be able to blend them with other sounds. 

Example of the Skill in Action: 
A teacher shows a student a flashcard with the letter “M.” The child says, “That’s the letter M,” and may also point out that it’s the first letter in their name, “Mia.” This demonstrates that the student recognizes the printed symbol M and can correctly name it, displaying an understanding of letter-naming knowledge.

References: Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Alphabet knowledge. Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/alphabet-knowledge

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Skill being taught: The focus is being able to correctly identify and differentiate letters. 

Step by Step description of implementation: 

1) Use a quick assessment (e.g., 1-minute mixed upper/lowercase Kahoot) to find 2–3 unknown letters; keep a running known/unknown list.

2) Explicitly teach (I do): Show each target in print. Say: “This letter’s name is m.” Point to its shape; briefly link to its sound (“/m/ like in moon”). Keep name vs. sound language crisp.

3) Guided practice (We do): Have students point to and name the target in a 6–9-letter array containing distractors; rotate upper/lowercase.

4) Independent work (You do): Mix 1 new letter with 7–9 knowns in flashcards (keep recycling until the new letter is named correctly 3x). Replace the letter with the next unknown once it’s firm.

5) Cumulative review: Shuffle 10–15 letters (mostly known, a few recent targets). Rapid name practice for 30–45 seconds.

6) Brief generalization: Find the target letters in a book title, label, or classroom print; students name the letters as they spot them.

7) Quick check: 30–60s timed naming of a mixed list; record correct per minute and errors.

When a letter is named 90%+ accurate across two sessions (or appears in two consecutive 1-min probes without error), move it to “known” and introduce a new target letter.

How it supports learning/mastery: Research supports several effective strategies for developing letter-naming knowledge in young learners. Explicitly pairing letter names with their corresponding sounds has been shown to improve alphabet learning compared to teaching either in isolation, though the transfer of these skills beyond alphabet knowledge remains modest; therefore, instruction should remain focused and cumulative (Piasta, Purpura, & Wagner, 2010; Piasta & Wagner, 2010). Another evidence-based practice is incremental rehearsal, in which one unknown letter is practiced among several known letters to strengthen retention and automaticity. This method efficiently builds long-term mastery of letter names, sounds, and other discrete academic facts (Rahn, Codding, Ferron, & Biltz, 2015). Effective instruction is also teacher-led, quick, and cumulative, emphasizing clear distinctions between letter names and sounds to enhance accuracy and reduce confusion (Demchak, 2025). Additionally, progress monitoring through brief, timed probes, such as letter-naming fluency assessments, allows educators to make data-driven instructional decisions. These assessments are reliable indicators of early literacy growth and are strongly correlated with later reading outcomes (Leader, 2015).

References:
Demchak, A. N. (2025). Insights on alphabet instruction from research. The Reading League.
Leader, R. (2015). Letter naming fluency and later reading fluency (Master’s thesis). Northwest Missouri State University.
Piasta, S. B., Purpura, D. J., & Wagner, R. K. (2010). Fostering alphabet knowledge development: A comparison of two instructional approaches. Reading and Writing, 23(6), 607–626. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9174-x

Piasta, S. B., & Wagner, R. K. (2010). Developing early literacy skills: A meta-analysis of alphabet learning and instruction. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(1), 8–38. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.45.1.2

Rahn, N. L., Codding, R. S., Ferron, J., & Biltz, A. (2015). Using incremental rehearsal to teach letter sounds to English learners. Education & Treatment of Children, 38(1), 33–53.

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Milestone 1 expected age/grade: Middle or end of preschool (4 years old) or the beginning of kindergarten (Assessing Alphabet Knowledge, Reading Rockets, n.d.). By this age, many kids come into kindergarten with the ability to name letters at a basic level. They work through both uppercase and lowercase throughout kindergarten. 

Milestone 2 expected age/grade: End of Kindergarten. By this time, students can accurately name all uppercase and lowercase letters. 

Support from research: A recent study “Learning to Name Uppercase and Lowercase Letters in Preschoolers and Kindergarteners” (2023) Examined children aged 3 to 5-6 years on their naming of uppercase and lowercase letters. They found children at the older end (just before or in kindergarten) were more likely to correctly name more of the lowercase letters (Pollo et al., 2023). One finding: for lowercase printed letters, effects like similarity to uppercase counterparts become more predictive by age 5-6. Younger children (3-4) know fewer lowercase letter names on average.

References: Pollo, T. C., Treiman, R., & Cardoso-Martins, C. (2023). Learning to name uppercase and lowercase letters in preschoolers and kindergarteners: An investigation of the effects of child- and letter-related factors. Early Education and Development, 35(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2023.2252706

Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Alphabet knowledge. Assessing Alphabet Knowledge. Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-and-writing-basics/alphabet-knowledge

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1. Multi-sensory Instruction

Description: Multi-sensory instruction engages visual, auditory, and kinesthetic-tactile pathways simultaneously during learning. For example, when teaching a letter, the student sees the letter, says its name and sound aloud, and traces it in sand or on textured paper.(Birsh & Carreker , 2018).

How it supports students with dyslexia or other learning differences: Students with dyslexia often struggle with phonological processing and memory for symbols. By involving multiple senses, this approach strengthens neural connections and reinforces memory for letter forms and sounds (Birsh & Carreker, 2018). The tactile and movement components help students store and retrieve information through alternative sensory channels, increasing engagement and retention.

2. Scaffolded and Repetitive Practice

Description: This strategy provides structured, step-by-step instruction with repeated exposure and gradual release of responsibility. Teachers begin with modeling (I do), then guided practice (We do), and finally independent practice (You do). Repetition occurs across multiple sessions, with letters reviewed frequently in short, focused intervals (Torgesen et al., 2001).

How it supports students with dyslexia or other learning differences: Students with dyslexia and other learning differences benefit from explicit structure and repetition because they often require more exposures to achieve automaticity. Scaffolded practice reduces cognitive load, while repetition helps solidify long-term memory and fluency in letter recognition and naming (Torgesen et al., 2001).

Explanation of why strategies are effective: Multisensory instruction is effective because it activates multiple regions of the brain simultaneously, strengthening neural pathways for reading. Students with dyslexia often have difficulties with phonological awareness and linking symbols (letters) to sounds. When instruction combines visual (seeing), auditory (hearing), and kinesthetic-tactile (touching and moving) elements, it builds stronger connections between the visual representation of a letter and its sound (Birsh & Carreker, 2018). Scaffolded and repetitive practice is effective because it provides explicit structure, consistent modeling, and ample opportunities for practice—all critical for students who struggle with memory and automaticity. The gradual release of responsibility (“I do, we do, you do”) helps students first observe correct modeling, then practice with support, and finally apply skills independently (Torgesen et al., 2001). 

References: 
Birsh, J. R., & Carreker, S. (2018). Multisensory teaching of basic language skills (4th ed.). Paul H. Brookes Publishing.
Torgesen, J. K., Alexander, A. W., Wagner, R. K., Rashotte, C. A., Voeller, K. K. S., Conway, T., & Rose, E. (2001). Intensive remedial instruction for children with severe reading disabilities: Immediate and long-term outcomes from two instructional approaches. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34(1), 33–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221940103400104

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-Rhyme Recognition & Production: Identify and produce words that rhyme.
-Syllable Awareness: Segment words into syllables and count them (ex. “ba-na-na” = 3 syllables).
-Onset-Rime Awareness: Recognize the first consonant sound or sounds, the remaining word part, and blend/segment them.
-Alliteration: Identify words that begin with the same sound.

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-Phonological Awareness Screening Test (PAST):
Students are asked to identify rhymes, segment syllables, or blend syllables.
This highlights the student's strengths and areas that require extra support.

-Observational Checklists During Spoken Language Activities:
Teachers record whether students can clap syllables, identify rhyming words, or produce words with the same initial sound. This tracks children's progress over time.

-Dynamic Assessment Approach:
The teacher provides scaffolding and cues to see if students can learn and apply phonological skills with support, which helps identify possible delays and learning strategies.

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Phonological awareness is the ability to recognize and manipulate the sound structures of spoken language, from larger units like sentences and words to smaller units like syllables and rhymes. This skill is spoken and does not involve print.

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Rhyming & Syllable Games: The teacher pauses during read-alouds for students to produce rhyming words or use clapping to segment syllables of the word.

Onset-Rime Manipulation: Use word families for blending and segmenting (ex. /b/ + at = bat, /c/ + at = cat).

Focus: Teaching specific components of phonological awareness (rhymes, syllables, onset-rime) to build spoken sound manipulation skills.

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Preschool to Kindergarten (ages 3–5)- Early skills (rhyming, syllables) appear first and then more advanced skills (onset-rime, alliteration) emerge later.

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For English Learners (ELs):
-Use familiar words from their home language for rhyming and syllable activities.
-Pair oral practice with gestures, visuals, or movement.

For Students with Dyslexia:
-Multi-sensory approach: auditory (say word), visual (picture), tactile (tap or use elkonin boxes).
-Keep activities short, repetitive, and gradually increase complexity over time.




References:

National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

Goswami, U., & Bryant, P. (1990). Phonological skills and learning to read. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Lonigan, C. J., Schatschneider, C., & Westberg, L. (2008). Impact of code-focused interventions on young children’s early literacy skills. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 1–21.

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Phonemic Awareness

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Milestone 1: Rhyme and Alliteration Awareness (Age 3-5)
	Being able to identify words that rhyme and begin with the same sounds
Milestone 2: Sound isolation and Phoneme Blending (Age 5-6)
	Students can identify the different sounds in a word and put individual sounds together to make one word
Milestone 3: Phoneme Segmentation and Manipulation (Age 7+) (Ages & Stages of Phonological Awareness | Reading Therapy for Children, n.d.)
	Breaking a word down into its individual sounds and being able to delete, add or substitute for a different sound. 

Ages & stages of phonological awareness | reading therapy for children. (n.d.). Blc-new. https://www.blcspeech.com.au/agesstages-of-phonological-awareness

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Assessment Tool: Phoneme Segmentation Fluncy (PSF) - DIBELS, this assessment tool will measure how fluent a student is at breaking spoken words into their individual phonemes. (Scoring Practice – Phoneme Segmentation Fluency (PSF) | DIBELS®, n.d.) This assessment helps to identify where students are in their phoneme and phonemic awareness.

Assessment Tool: Elkonin Boxes, this assessment tool helps students build a childs phonological awareness by having the children break down spoken words into their individual sounds. This assessment can be done is small groups to determine if students are understand segmentation. (Elkonin Boxes | Reading Rockets, n.d.)

Scoring Practice – Phoneme Segmentation Fluency (PSF) | DIBELS®. (n.d.). https://dibels.uoregon.edu/resources/scoring-practice-phoneme-segmentation-fluency-psf

Elkonin Boxes | Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/classroom/classroom-strategies/elkonin-boxes

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* “Phonemic awareness is the ability to notice, think about, and work with the individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words. This includes blending sounds into words, segmenting words into sounds, and deleting and playing with the sounds in spoken words.” (Phonological and Phonemic Awareness: Introduction | Reading Rockets, n.d.)

Importance of Skill: This is important because it is one of the crusial foundational skills needed to be able to read and spell. By using phonemic awareness it allows children to connect their spoken sound to written letters and helps build the basics needed for alphabetic principle. 

Example of Skill in Action: Blending the sounds of “cat” into /c/ /a/ /t/ back into the word cat. 

Phonological and Phonemic Awareness: Introduction | Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-101-learning-modules/course-modules/phonological-and-phonemic-awareness

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Research Bases Instructional Strategy: Explicit Phoneme Segmentation Using Elkonin Boxes, by breaking down spoken word into their individual sounds. “Elkonin boxes, also known as sound boxes, help emerging readers build phonological awareness skills by segmenting words into individual sounds (phonemes). “ (Elkonin Boxes | Reading Rockets, n.d.)

Elkonin Boxes | Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Reading Rockets. https://www.readingrockets.org/classroom/classroom-strategies/elkonin-boxes

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Differentiation: When applying elkonin boxes to English Learners guide your students to slowly break down the words into their individual sounds as they push their tokens into the boxes for individual sounds For students with dyslexia elkonin boxes help students focus on their segmenting and blending of sounds in words. (Greene, 2025)

Greene, K., MA. (2025, February 11). Elkonin sound boxes: An evidence-based literacy strategy. Understood. https://www.understood.org/en/articles/evidence-based-literacy-strategy-elkonin-sound-boxes