# data[].attributes.body
Homo naledi likely had social emotions and advanced communication, but researchers are unusure if H. naledi possessed language. Anthropologists examined the endocast of the H. naledi skull and reached different conclusions about the implications of the grooves and ridges found on the interior of the skull. Read more here: https://www.sciencenews.org/article/homo-naledis-brain-shows-humanlike-features

# data[].attributes.body
Homo neanderthalensis, also known as Neanderthals, were more intelligent than people once believed. Archaeologists found red and yellow ochre “crayons” that Neanderthals shaped and used over 100,000 years ago. These pigments were not needed just for survival, which suggests they were used for symbolic reasons, such as communication or showing group identity. The fact that Neanderthals reused and shaped the ochre shows they could plan ahead and think creatively. These findings show that Neanderthals had complex thinking skills similar to modern humans.

https://www.livescience.com/archaeology/human-evolution/crimean-stone-age-crayons-were-used-by-neanderthals-for-symbolic-drawings-study-claims

# data[].attributes.body
The Homo Floresiensis nicknamed the hobbit was one of the most recent discovered early human species rumored to live about 100,000 to 60,000 years ago in Ancient Asia/Indonesia and the Island of Flores. The Homo Floresiensis was to be around 3 foot 6 inches in height and around 66 pounds on average and was aid to have a tiny brain, large teeth, shrugged/forward shoulders, had no chin, a receding forehead, and very large feet. Even with their tiny brain they were said to have made and used stone tools which dated back to 190,000 to 50,000 years old and they used these tool to hunt things such as small elephants, large rodents, and possibly even Komodo Dragons. It is also said they have used fire to also cook their meals. The website I researched the Homo Floresiensis says their tiny brain may have been because a case of island dwarfism which is an evolutionary process that results from a species being in long term isolation on a small island with a limited source of food and predators. This kind of dwarfism also was shown on the small elephants on the Island of Flores proving that the Homo Floresiensis may have been the same way. Sadly it is unknown if the Homo Floresiensis had any kind of language but even with their tiny brains it seems they were pretty cognitive and kind of smart for their time being able to hunt, make stone tools and cook their food.

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-floresiensis

# data[].attributes.body
The Homo Heidelbergensis had gathered a massive horse carcass nearly 500,000 years ago and methodically slaughtered it. Harvesting their meat, internal organs and splitting the bone for bone marrow. Since these times, archaeologists have discovered tools made from horse parts, making them part of the oldest non-stone tools in Europe. The bone hammers were most likely used to build, carve, and knives that were also discovered throughout the site. The intricate tools and butchery used by this culture strongly indicate that they had cooperative and culturally complex behaviour and a high sense of awareness of the qualities of different materials.

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/europes-earliest-bone-tools-hint-early-hominin-sophistication-180975564/?utm_source=chatgpt.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_caption
Homo neanderthalensis (slide 1) and Neanderthal skull (slide 2) 

# data[].attributes.headline
Homo neanderthalensis:  cognitive ability. (The Neanderthal Brain-Cognition)

# data[].attributes.subject
Homo neanderthalensis:  cognitive ability. (The Neanderthal Brain-Cognition)

# data[].attributes.body
Neanderthals had brains that were bigger and differently shaped than modern humans (Homo sapiens). Their cranium had an elongated occipital (rear) region known as the "occipital bun", which raised questions about how regional brain differences affected cognition. Archaeological record that we know suggests that most Neanderthal behavior such as hunting, foraging, and toolmaking was similar to modern humans in the same time period, 50,000 years ago. However recent evidence suggests that Neanderthals also had the potential for symbolic and abstract thinking, which was previously only been attributed to Homo sapiens. This suggests that they had been broadly capable of the same mental tasks as anatomically modern humans. CT/MRI based endocast reconstructions suggest that early Homo sapiens had a larger cerebellum than Neanderthals. In modern humans this region supports motor skills, language processing, learning, reasoning, and social abilities. Endocast data from fossils such as the El Sidrón child indicate Neanderthal brains grew more slowly after birth, and reached about 87% of adult volume by age 8 compared to 95% in human children, which implied a prolonged maturation process.

https://www.sapiens.org/biology/neanderthal-brain/

# data[].attributes.body
Denisovans were a group of ancient humans who were closely related to Neanderthals and modern humans. This article looks at what may have made their brains develop differently. The researchers studied genetic changes that affected microRNAs, which are like small controls that help decide how active certain brain genes are during development. What they found was that Denisovan related microRNA changes were connected to stronger activity in genes that are most active after birth, during the postnatal brain development. Neanderthal related changes were more tied to genes active before birth during prenatal development. The authors explained that changes like this could've affected how the brain grew and functioned over time which could relate back to learning and problem solving ability. They also say that this matches what has been found at Denisovan sites, where there is evidence of advanced tools and decorative objects, which suggest that Denisovans may have had strong thinking and cognitive skills.

# data[].attributes.body
Although there is very little research done about the Homo Denisovans, researchers obtained one of the greatest studies of interbreeding when they found a fingertip from a young girl. They were able to accomplish a DNA analysis, which showed that the fingertip came from a young girl who had a Denisovan father and a Neanderthal mother. Researchers have also determined that there is a strong chance that Homo Denisovans had a relatively advanced intelligence in comparison to others.

https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/the-denisovans/

# data[].attributes.body
Homo naledi is an extinct hominin species discovered in the Rising Star Cave system in South Africa and first described in 2015. This species is notable for its unusual combination of traits, including a small brain similar in size to much earlier hominins and a body well adapted for upright walking, with hands capable of precise gripping. Fossil evidence suggests Homo naledi lived between approximately 236,000 and 335,000 years ago, meaning it overlapped in time with early Homo sapiens. One of the most significant and debated aspects of this species is the evidence suggesting intentional placement or burial of the dead deep within the cave system, which would imply complex social behavior and possibly symbolic thinking despite its small brain size. This challenges long-standing assumptions that advanced cognitive abilities and social practices required large brains. Although no tools or art have been directly associated with the fossils, the anatomy of Homo naledi suggests it may have been capable of tool use and cooperative social behavior, offering important insight into the diversity and non-linear nature of human evolution.

https://elifesciences.org/articles/89106?utm_source=chatgpt.com

# data[].attributes.headline
Homo neanderthalensis – The Neanderthals

# data[].attributes.subject
Homo neanderthalensis – The Neanderthals

# data[].attributes.body
This species existed approximately 130,000 years ago. Key specimens include Le Moustier, Shanidar 1, La Ferrassie 1, Amud 1, Maba, La Chapelle-aux-Saints, Neanderthal 1, Kebara 2, and Lagar Velho. The name itself for the species means 'Human from the Neander Valley.' Their remains have been found across Europe.

They are not our direct ancestor and there is evidence that at some point they did interbreed with humans. Their brain size was actually larger than the average human brain. They had a complex cutie and reasonably advanced tool kit. There are many theories for why this species no longer exists, one being that they were replaced by humans as we know it.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Neanderthals co-existed with modern humans for long periods of time before eventually becoming extinct about 28,000 years ago. The unfortunate stereotype of these people as dim-witted and brutish cavemen still lingers in popular ideology but research has revealed a more nuanced picture.

Age

This species lived between 28,000 and 300,000 years ago

early Homo neanderthalensis from about 300,000 years ago

classic Homo neanderthalensis from about 130,000 years ago

late Homo neanderthalensis from about 45,000 years ago.

Important fossil discoveries

The first Neanderthal fossil was found in 1829, but it was not recognised as a possible human ancestor until more fossils were discovered during the second half of the 19th century. Since then, thousands of fossils representing the remains of many hundreds of Neanderthal individuals have been recovered from sites across Europe and the Middle East. These include babies, children and adults up to about 40 years of age. As a result, more is known about this human ancestor than about any other.

Key specimens:

Le Moustier - a 45,000-year-old skull discovered in Le Moustier, France. The distinctive features of Neanderthals are already apparent in this adolescent individual. This shows that these characteristics were genetic and not developed during an individual's lifetime.

Shanidar 1 - upper jaw with teeth. The front teeth of Neanderthals often show heavy wear, a characteristic that is even found in young Neanderthals. It is probable that they used their teeth as a kind of vice to help them hold animal skins or other objects as they worked.

La Ferrassie 1 - a 50,000-year-old skull discovered in 1909 in La Ferrassie, France. This skull of an elderly male has the features associated with 'classic' European Neanderthals.

Amud 1 - a 45,000-year-old skull discovered in1961 by Hisashi Suzuki in Amud, Israel. This individual was more than 180 centimetres tall and had the largest brain of any fossil human (1740 cubic centimetres). Neanderthals probably migrated to the Middle East during times of harsh European winters. These individuals had less robust features than their European counterparts.

Maba - a partial skull classifed as Homo sp. (species uncertain) and discovered in Maba, China. This partial skull, dated to about 120,000 - 140,000 years old, shows remarkable similarities to European Neanderthals and its discovery in southern China suggests the possibility that Neanderthals travelled further east than once thought. More fossil evidence from Asia is needed to understand the significance of this specimen.

La Chapelle-aux-Saints - a 50,000-year-old skull discovered in 1908 in La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France. This male individual had lost most of his teeth and his skeleton showed evidence of major injuries and disease including a healed broken hip, and arthritis of the lower neck, back, hip and shoulders. He survived for quite some time with these complaints, which indicates that these people cared for the sick and elderly.

Neanderthal 1 - a 45,000-year-old skullcap discovered in 1856 in Feldhofer Grotto, Neander Valley, Germany. This is the 'type specimen' or official representative of this species.

Kebara 2 - 60,000-year-old partial skeleton discovered in 1983 in Kebara cave, Israel. This relatively complete skeleton belonged to an adult male. It was deliberately buried but as no grave goods were found it is difficult to infer any ritualistic behaviour.

Lagar Velho - a 24,000-year-old skeleton of a Homo sapiens boy discovered in 1998 in Abrigo do Lagar Velho, central western Portugal. This specimen has been described by its discoverers (and particularly Eric Trinkhaus) as a Neanderthal-Homo sapiens hybrid. This interpretation was based on knee and leg proportions but as the head, pelvis and forearms are decidedly human it is more likely that the robustness is a climatic adaptation (see Tattersal and Schwartz). Comparisons to other humans of this period are difficult due to lack of knowledge on variations within child populations.

What the Neanderthal name means

Homo, is a Latin word meaning 'human' or 'man'. The word neanderthalensis is based on the location where the first major specimen was discovered in 1856 - the Neander Valley in Germany. The German word for valley is 'Tal' although in the 1800s it was spelt 'Thal'. Homo neanderthalensis therefore means 'Human from the Neander Valley'.

Some people refer to this species as the Neandertals (with no 'h') to reflect the modern German spelling rather than the original spelling, Neanderthal, used to define the species.

Distribution

Remains of this species have been found scattered across Europe and the Middle East. The eastern-most occurrence of a Neanderthal may be represented by a fossil skull from China known as 'Maba'.

A study published in 2009 confirms the presence of three separate sub-groups of Neanderthals, between which slight differences could be observed, and suggests the existence of a fourth group in western Asia. The study analysed the genetic variability, and modelled different scenarios, based on the genetic structure of the maternally transmitted mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The study was possible thanks to the publication, since 1997, of 15 mtDNA sequences from 12 Neanderthals. According to the study, the size of the Neanderthal population was not constant over time and a certain amount of migration occurred among the sub-groups.

Relationships with other species

While we are closely related to the Neanderthals, they are not our direct ancestors. Evidence from the fossil record and genetic data shows they are a distinct species that developed as a side branch in our family tree. Some European Homo heidelbergensis fossils were showing early Neanderthal-like features by about 300,000 years ago and it is likely that Neanderthals evolved in Europe from this species.

The name Homo sapiens neanderthalensis was once common when Neanderthals were considered to be members of our own species, Homo sapiens. This view and name are no-longer favoured.

Interbreeding with modern humans?

Groundbreaking analysis of the Neanderthal genome (nuclear DNA and genes) published in 2010 shows that modern humans and Neanderthals did interbreed, although on a very limited scale. Researchers compared the genomes of five modern humans with the Neanderthal, discovering that Europeans and Asians share about 1-4% of their DNA with Neanderthals and Africans none. This suggests that modern humans bred with Neanderthals after moderns left Africa but before they spread to Asia and Europe. The most likely location is the Levant, where both species co-existed for thousands of years at various times between 50-90,000 years ago. Interestingly, the data doesn't support wide-scale interbreeding between the species in Europe, where it would have been most likely given their close proximity. Researchers are now questioning why interbreeding occurred on such a low scale, given that it was biologically possible. The answer may lie in cultural differences.

Sharing Europe with the Denisovians?

Did the Neanderthals also live alongside another human species in Europe? An interesting case making headlines in 2010 was the discovery of a finger bone and tooth from Denisova cave in Russia. The bones were found in 2008 and date to about 30,000-50,000 years old. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was extracted from the remains, and then sequenced. The result was that the mtDNA did not match either modern human or Neanderthal mtDNA.

Little else could be gleaned from these studies so scientists started work on extracting nuclear DNA. This produced far more information. The 'Denisovians', as they have been nicknamed, were more closely related to Neanderthals than modern humans. This suggests the Neanderthals and 'Denisovans' shared a common ancestor after modern humans and Neanderthals split. Perhaps this ancestor left Africa half a million years ago with the Neanderthals spreading west to the Near East and Europe while the Denisovans headed east. However, this does not necessarily mean they are a 'new' species as they may be already known from fossils that have no DNA record to compare, such as Homo heidelbergensis or H. antecessor. (See Nature, December 2010)s

Neanderthals are recognisably human but have distinctive facial features and a stocky build that were evolutionary adaptations to cold, dry environments.

Body size and shape

Neanderthals were generally shorter and had more robust skeletons and muscular bodies than modern humans

males averaged about 168 centimetres in height while females were slightly shorter at 156 centimetres.

Brain

brain size was larger than the average modern human brain and averaged 1500 cubic centimetres. This is expected, as Neanderthals were generally heavier and more muscular than modern humans. People that live in cold climates also tend to have larger brains than those living in warm climates.

Skull

distinctive skull shape that was long and low, with a rounded brain case

back of the skull had a bulge called the occipital bun and a depression (the suprainiac fossa) for the attachment of strong neck muscles

thick but rounded brow ridge lay under a relatively flat and receding forehead

mid-face region showed a characteristic forward projection (this resulted in a face that looked like it had been 'pulled' forward by the nose)

orbits (eye sockets) were large and rounded

nose was broad and very large

Jaws and teeth

jaws were larger and more robust than those of modern humans and had a gap called the retromolar space, behind the third molars (wisdom teeth) at the back of the jaw.

jaw lacked the projecting bony chin that is found in Homo sapiens.

teeth were larger than those of modern humans.

Limbs and pelvis

limb bones were thick and had large joints which indicates they had strongly muscled arms and legs

shin bones and forearms tended to be shorter than those of modern humans. These proportions are typical for people living in cold climates.

pelvis was wider from side to side than in modern humans and this may have slightly affected their posture

DNA and biomolecular studies

Neanderthals are our only ancestors to have had studies performed on their DNA and other biomolecules. Although numerous studies have been undertaken since the first was published in 1997 (on mitochondrial DNA), the most significant is the publication in 2009 of the rough draft of the Neanderthal genome.

Other key findings on from a variety of studies include the discovery of: a gene for red hair and fair skin (2007): the FOXP2 gene, related to language ability, that was the same as modern humans; type O blood in two males from Spain (2008)

Neanderthals Culture

Evidence shows that Neanderthals had a complex culture although they did not behave in the same ways as the early modern humans who lived at the same time. Scholars debate the degree of symbolic behaviour shown by Neanderthals as finds of art and adornment are rare, particularly when compared to their modern human contemporaries who were creating significant amounts of cave paintings, portable art and jewellery. Some researchers believe they lacked the cognitive skills to create art and symbols and, in fact, copied from or traded with modern humans rather than create their own artefacts. However, others suggest the scarcity may have been due to social and demographic factors.

Tools

The Neanderthals had a reasonably advanced tool kit classified as Mode 3 technology that was also used by early members of our own species, Homo sapiens. This was also known as the Mousterian, named after the site of Le Moustier. At the end of their long history in Europe, they began manufacturing a more refined toolkit (known as the Chatelperronian), similar to the blade tools of Homo sapiens. This occurred at about the same time as modern humans entered Europe. Many archaeologists think that the Neanderthals were attempting to copy the types of tools that they observed modern humans making. Alternatively, they may have obtained these tools by trading with the modern humans.

Fire, shelter and clothing

The Neanderthals built hearths and were able to control fire for warmth, cooking and protection. They were known to wear animal hides, especially in cooler areas. However, there is no physical evidence that Neanderthal clothing was sewed together, and it may have simply been wrapped around the body and tied.

Caves were often used as shelters but open air shelters were also constructed.

Art and decoration

Neanderthals left behind no known symbolic art and only limited evidence for body decoration. One of few decorative items found at a Neanderthal site is a pendant from Arcy-sur-Cure in France, found amongst bone tools and other artefacts that were attributed to a culture known as Chatelperronian (which most researchers consider Neanderthal). However, redating of the site's layers in 2010 suggest contamination occurred between layers and that the artefact may have been made by modern humans, as they also occupied this site in later times. There is only one other undisputed Chatelperronian site that has yielded personal ornaments, and even these may have been obtained by trade with modern humans ( Homo sapiens), or been made in imitation of artefacts made by modern humans.

In 2010 researchers uncovered artefacts at two sites in Spain - Anton rock shelter and Aviones cave - that provide indirect evidence of symbolic art. The former held naturally-perforated scallop shells painted with orange pigments and the latter a cockleshell that may have been used as a paint container as it had residue of red and black pigments. The Avione finds date to between 45-50,000 years ago, which is before modern humans arrived in Europe so could not have been copied from them.

Burials

The dead were often buried, although there is no conclusive evidence for any ritualistic behaviour. However, at some sites, objects have been uncovered that may represent grave goods.

Environment and diet

This species occupied a range of environments across Europe and the Middle East and lived through a period of changing climatic conditions. Ice Ages in Europe were interspersed with warmer periods but by 110,000 years ago average temperatures were on the decline and full glacial conditions had appeared by 40,000 years ago.

There is evidence that the Neanderthals hunted big game and chemical analysis of their fossils shows that they ate significant amounts of meat supplemented with vegetation. Despite this mixed diet, nearly half of the Neanderthal skeletons studied show the effects of a diet deficient in nutrients.

Researchers have long debated whether Neanderthals also included human meat in their diets. It is not always easy to determine if cut marks on human bones are due to cannabilism, some other practice or even animal teeth, but in recent years new evidence has emerged that suggests some Neanderthals may indeed have been cannibals on occasions.

At the site of Krapina Cave in Croatia, over 800 Neanderthal bones show evidence of cut marks and hammerstone fragments. The marrow-rich bones are missing and the marrow-poor bones are all in tact. Some argue that the evidence is inconclusive as the fragmentation of bones may have been caused by cave-ins and the bone cuts are different to the marks seen on reindeer bones. They claim the cut marks could be from secondary burial practises.

Bones from Abri Moula in France show cut marks typical of butchery rather than simple ritual defleshing. The marks were also like those on the bones of roe deer, assumed to be food, found in the same shelter.

The cave of El Sidron in Spain yielded hundreds of Neanderthal bones with cut marks, deliberate breaks for marrow extraction, and other signs that the bodies had been butchered for flesh in the same way as animals.

Neanderthals persisted for hundreds of thousands of years in extremely harsh conditions. They shared Europe for 10,000 years with Homo sapiens. Today they no longer exist. Beyond these facts the fate of Neanderthals has generated much debate.

Two main theories

Theory 1: They interbred with Homo sapiens sapiens on a relatively large scale. Followers of this theory believe that although Neanderthals as organisms no longer exist their genes were present in early modern Europeans and may still exist today. Interbreeding diluted Neanderthal DNA because there were significantly more Homo sapiens sapiens. Neanderthals were a sub-species of Homo sapiens rather than a separate species and hence their scientific name is Homo sapiens neanderthalensis.

Proponents of this theory cite the following as evidence:

there are features of Neanderthals in some Cro-Magnon (Homo sapiens) populations. For instance the discoverers of the 24,000-year-old skeleton of a modern human boy from Lagar Velho in Portugal, argue that although the pelvis and facial morphology are sapien-like, the robusticity and limb proportions are more Neanderthal-like. As the age of the skeleton is later than the time of the last known Neanderthal, these features must represent significant interbreeding and transmission of DNA between modern humans and Neanderthals. Cro-magnon remains from Vogelherd in Germany and Mladec in the Czech Republic also exhibit a Neanderthal-like projection of the occipital bun at the back of the skull, more so than in later Homo sapiens.

there are modern features in later Neanderthal populations. The Vindija Neanderthals look more modern than do other Neanderthals, which suggests that they may have interbred with incoming Homo sapiens.

there are features of Neanderthals in modern Europeans. Some Europeans living today have a similar shaped mandibular foramen (nerve canal in lower jaw) to the Neanderthals and the distinct retromolar gap (typical of Neanderthals) appears in isolated modern European populations.

Theory 2: They were essentially replaced by Homo sapiens. In this case, Neanderthals are a separate species from Homo sapiens. This model does allow for peripheral interbreeding but no significant genetic input from Neanderthals to modern Europeans.

Proponents of this theory cite the following as evidence:

studies of Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA (first extracted in 1997) show that it lies outside the range of modern human mtDNA. Neanderthal mtDNA is four times older than that of Homo sapiens, hence scientists postulate a Neanderthal split from the line leading to modern humans about 500-600,000 years ago. The studies also reveal that Neanderthal mtDNA is no closer to modern European mtDNA than moderns from any other part of the world.

analysis of the draft Neanderthal genome (the nuclear DNA and genes), released in 2010, shows that modern human and Neanderthal lineages began to diverge about 600,000 years ago. It also indicates that there was small-scale interbreeding as non-Africans derive about 1-4% of their DNA from Neanderthals. These results challenge the simplest version of 'Out of Africa' (which claims no interbreeding in its model for modern human origins) but do support the view that the vast majority of genes of non-Africans came with the spread of modern humans that originated in Africa.

studies of the facial growth patterns of young Neanderthals show they developed in distinct ways to Homo sapiens. The differences are therefore deeply genetic, contradicting the evidence of the Lagar Velho boy. The distinctive features include brow ridges, chins, forehead and facial protrusion.

Various reasons have been proposed for the 'replacement' of Neanderthals by modern humans. Today, most theories accept that Neanderthals displayed advanced behaviours and adaptive strategies and were not sluggish brutes that stood no chance against the vastly superior Homo sapiens. However,the incoming Homo sapiens were doing something that was different enough, and just that little bit more superior, to give them an edge under the circumstances. Exactly what was 'a little bit more superior' is debated. Of particular interest are a number of new studies that focus on the role of climate change and the subtle differences that behaviour and biology play in these conditions.

Perhaps their extinction was a combination of two or more of the following factors:

Biological

Neanderthal reproductive success and survival rates appear poor compared to Homo sapiens. Most Neanderthal remains are of individuals rarely over 30 years old and over half are children. Slightly better rates of reproductive success and childhood survival over 10,000 years could be all it took for Homo sapiens to replace Neanderthals.

Neanderthal metabolic rates appeared to be much higher than modern humans so would have required more food to survive. In situations of plenty this would make little difference, but in severe winters or unstable climatic conditions (see below), the dwindling resources would put pressure on populations that needed large amounts of energy from food.

Claims that Neanderthals could not run as well as modern humans over long distances is supported by evidence from Neanderthal ankles. Their heal bones are longer than modern humans', resulting in a longer Achilles tendon. Shorter Achilles, as in modern humans, store more energy so are more efficient for running. Neanderthals generally didn't need to be good long-distance runners as they hunted in cooler regions using ambush tactics, but when conditions changed this could prove a huge disadvantage. Evidence suggests this happened 50,000 years ago as much of northern Europe changed from forest to tundra due to advancing ice sheets. Neanderthals were forced into isolated forest refuges in southern areas while modern humans adapted to hunting on the increasingly widespread tundra.

Social and behavioural

Neanderthal culture lacks the depth of symbolic and progressive thought displayed by modern humans and this may have made competing difficult. Neanderthal culture remained relatively static whereas the contemporary Homo sapiens were steadily evolving a complex culture. By the time Homo sapiens arrived in Europe 40,000 years ago they had a highly developed cultural system. This is despite the fact that 100,000 years ago there is relatively no cultural difference between either species in the archaeological record.

Neanderthals may have had limited speech and language capabilities compared to Homo sapiens and the extent of the differences may have played a role in their extinction. For instance, studies of the base of the skull suggest limited Neanderthal repertoire and the position of the tongue in the mouth and larynx is also different from Homo sapiens. (This is a highly contentious theory with scientists on both sides strongly arguing for or against).

Neanderthals may have lacked the adaptive nature of modern humans who had complex social networks across wide areas. Smaller populations of Neanderthals that tended to stay in limited areas may have made them vulnerable to local extinctions.

The survival techniques of Neanderthals were not as developed as Homo sapiens. For instance, studies on stress and build-up of tissue in Neanderthal bones indicate they may have lacked systematic and directional planning in procuring food. This Neanderthal predominance of 'brawn over brain' may also be reflected in the number of skeletal injuries seen in both sexes, probably from close range hunting. Other studies show that 40% of Neanderthal remains have hypoplasia, a condition caused by lack of nutrients in early childhood. This is supported by tests on Neanderthal bone collagen which indicate that meat was very significant in Neanderthal diets to the point that they may be lacking the nutrients from other sources used by Homo sapiens, especially fresh water products and vegetable matter.

Neanderthals may not have used their brains they way modern humans do as their brains were shaped differently - modern human brains have expanded parietal and cerebellar regions. These regions develop in the first year of life (Neanderthal infants appear to miss this stage of development) and are linked to key functions like the ability to integrate sensory information and form abstract representations of surroundings.

Possible violent interactions with modern humans.

Environment or climate

New data on the glacial period that occurred from about 65,000 to 25,000 years ago (known as OIS-3) shows that it was a period of rapid, severe and abrupt climate changes with profound environmental impacts. Although Neanderthals were physically adapted to the cold, the severe changes in conditions (within individuals' lifetimes in many cases) allowed no time for populations to recover. Even small advantages in biology, behaviour or lifestyle, such as those mentioned above, would mean the difference between life and death. The archaeological record indicates that modern humans had a wider range of adaptations which would have helped in survival.

There is another angle to the climate change theory. Evidence based on extensive surveys of sites in Europe suggests that Neanderthal replacement was not due to direct competition with modern humans. Instead, evidence suggests that the severe conditions made the continent inhospitable for all humans living in Europe - and all populations died out about 30-28,000 years ago. However, there were other modern human populations living in Africa that were able to recolonise Europe at a later date. As there were no Neanderthal populations elsewhere, they became extinct.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Homo neanderthalensis - The Neanderthals

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Neanderthals co-existed with modern humans for long periods of time before eventually becoming extinct about 28,000 years ago. The unfortunate stereotype of these people as dim-witted and brutish cavemen still lingers in popular ideology but research has revealed a more nuanced picture.

# data[].attributes.body
Neanderthals Were known to be a distinct species of human who lived across Europe and parts of Asia about 40-400 thousand years ago. Neanderthals shared a common ancestor with modern humans as well as living alongside early Homo sapiens for a short period of time in their existence. With this meant that the Neanderthals would end up interbreeding with the Homo sapiens giving some people alive today very little percentages of neanderthal in their DNA, as little as 2%. As far as how they appeared, Neanderthals had large brains and strong muscular bodies as well as stocky physiques to suit cold climates; They made clever tools, hunted large animals and worked with fire. Fossils and DNA evidence prove that the Neanderthals were adaptable and resourceful species, capable of being caring for one another, burying their dead, and eating a diet that varied with nutritious meals including meat, plants fungi, and shellfish. The extinction of the Neanderthals likely stemmed from climate changes and competition with modern day humans.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Ask a Museum scientist

Do you have a burning question about science or nature that you want the answer to? Fill out the form below to let us know.
We'll work with Museum scientists to turn some of your questions into stories featured in our online magazine Discover or videos on our YouTube channel.

This new feature is in beta. Find out more.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What is a Neanderthal? Are Neanderthals human? Find out facts about the species Homo neanderthalensis, including when these ancient people lived and what they looked like.

# data[].attributes.body
Homo floresiensis (often called “the Hobbit”) is strongly connected to Liang Bua Cave on Flores Island which is described as “the type site of Homo floresiensis”. Archaeologists explain that the site contains “a rich archaeological record spanning from 190 thousand years ago (ka) until the terminal Pleistocene”, showing that Liang Bua preserved long term evidence of ancient human life. However, the article also points out that shellfish were not a major part of behavior during the Pleistocene, stating that “mollusks were not a focus of hominin activity at Liang Bua during the Pleistocene, including that of Homo floresiensis, either for subsistence or the production of artifacts”. Instead, shell use became much more common in later time periods, and when humans were collecting shells they often did it for food. The study found many shells that were intentionally opened and explains that “deliberately breaking open the apex of a shell is almost certainly a strategy to obtain the meat for human consumption”. The researchers also found evidence of tool and art-related behavior because “14 shells showed clear signs of cultural modification: 12 were made into beads, one appears to have been used as a borer, and one as an adze or scraper”. This shows that the Liang Bua site is important not only for Homo floresiensis, but also for understanding how later human communities used tools, food resources, and symbolic items over time.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352409X24004280?

# data[].attributes.headline
Homo heidelbergemsis: Social Life and Survival

# data[].attributes.subject
Homo heidelbergemsis: Social Life and Survival

# data[].attributes.body
Homo heidelbergensis lived between about 700,000 and 200,000 years ago and played an important role in human evolution. According to the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, this species showed strong evidence of social behavior, especially when it came to hunting and cooperation. They were likely some of the first early humans to hunt large animals using wooden spears, which would have required teamwork, planning, and communication within groups. There is also evidence suggesting they cared for injured or weaker members of their group, showing that survival depended on cooperation rather than just individual strength. Their larger brain size compared to earlier species supports the idea that they had more advanced thinking skills, which helped them adapt to different environments. Many scientists believe Homo heidelbergensis is a common ancestor of both Neanderthals and modern humans, making it an important link in understanding how human social behavior developed.

Homo heidelbergensis | The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program

# data[].attributes.body
Recent research conducted on the southern coast of Portugal has identified well-preserved Neanderthal footprints, providing valuable insight into their social behavior and movement patterns. The study records tracks made by both adults and young children who traversed the coastal area approximately 78,000 to 82,000 years ago. These findings indicate that Neanderthals traveled in groups, likely engaged in activities such as foraging or hunting along the shoreline. In contrast to tools or bones, which may be relocated from their original context, footprints capture behavior at the precise location where it occurred. As a result, this evidence offers researchers a more comprehensive understanding of Neanderthal social organization, adaptability, and utilization of coastal environments.

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2025/11/251112111027.htm

# data[].attributes.body
The Homo Naledi has a combination of features. They had hands, wrists, and feet just like modern humans. This species had a small brain, and the shape of its upper jaw was very similar to that of Homo habilis, which is an early human species. Homo Naledi has curved fingers and hip joints. Scientists say it walked on two legs and had very long strides as it walked. Its shoulder position and shape of its fingers helped them climb trees and also hang from them. This represents an ape-like ancestor.

https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/homo-naledi-your-most-recently-discovered-human-relative.html

# data[].attributes.body
H. heidelbergensis is a critical human species in the Middle Pleistocene (~130–780 thousand years ago (ka)). We know from several beautifully preserved crania that this species had a large brain, within the lower range of modern human variation, and a less robust face than early fossil humans. We know from their long bones that they were tall, strong people. From their associated archaeology we know they were capable of producing beautiful tools such as the large handaxes found in huge numbers at Boxgrove in Sussex.

H. Heidelbergensis

# data[].attributes.body
The Homo Heidelbergensis species originated in Africa and spread throughout Europe between 300,000-600,000 years ago. This species was very big on using and creating tools to hunt fairly large species. The bones and fossils found around the fossils of Homo Heidelbergensis matched those of rhinos, hippos, horses, and other larger animals. They're known to have tools and weapons made of wood and stone used by previous species. They had the materials to create clothing made from animal hide, and figured out how to control and use fire.

https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/homo-heidelbergensis/

# data[].attributes.body
Denisovans traveled the Earth between about 300,000 and 50,000 years ago, mostly in eastern and southern Asia. They were named after the Denisova Cave in Russia, where their fossils were discovered, although the remains are too fragmentary to be dated accurately. Excavations of the cave began in the 1970s, but it wasn’t until 2008 that researchers found a tiny finger bone in layer 11 with enough preserved DNA to conduct genetic analysis. This analysis revealed that Denisovans were close cousins of Neanderthals. The article states that the two populations interbred around 46,000 years ago and suggests that another interbreeding event occurred about 30,000 years ago, possibly even as recently as 15,000 years ago. This makes Denisovans and Neanderthals some of our most recent ancestral relatives. It also explains how Neanderthals, Denisovans, and modern humans are all descended from, or share common ancestors with Homo heidelbergensis, detailing how these groups interbred and eventually dispersed into Europe. When trying to reconstruct Denisovan physical features, researchers struggle due to the scarcity and fragmentary nature of their fossils, but some traits have been identified. First their molars differed in both numbers and size compared to those of modern humans and Neanderthals, suggesting differences in evolutionary development. Second their jawbones were strongly built and shorter than those of Neanderthals.

The Denisovans - The Australian Museum

# data[].attributes.body
I chose Homo heidelbergensis because this early human species shows clear signs of advanced behavior for its time. According to an article from the Smithsonian Human Origins Program, H. heidelbergensis was among the first to control fire, build simple shelters, and routinely hunt large animals, which suggests cooperation and planning among group members. They also made and used stone and wooden tools, like those found at the site of Schöningen, Germany, which indicate complex tool‑making skills and social interaction. These behaviors point to increased cognitive ability and a social structure that was more advanced than earlier hominins, helping us understand how human behavior and group cooperation developed over time.

Homo heidelbergensis | The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Your browser does not support the audio element.

Homo heidelbergensis

Where Lived: Europe; possibly Asia (China); Africa (eastern and southern)

When Lived: About 700,000 to 200,000 years ago

This early human had a very large browridge, and a larger braincase and flatter face than older early human species. It was the first early human species to live in colder climates; their short, wide bodies were likely an adaptation to conserving heat. It lived at the time of the oldest definite control of fire and use of wooden spears, and it was the first early human species to routinely hunt large animals. This early human also broke new ground; it was the first species to build shelters, creating simple dwellings out of wood and rock.
History of Discovery:
Height: Males: average 5 ft 9 in (175 cm); Females: average 5 ft 2 in (157 cm)

Weight: Males: average 136 lbs (62 kg); Females: average 112 lbs (51 kg)

We don't know everything aboutearly humans-but we keep learning more! Paleoanthropologists are constantly in the field, excavating new areas with groundbreaking technology, and continually filling in some of the gaps about our understanding of human .

Below are some of the still unanswered questions about Homo heidelbergensis that may be answered with future discoveries:

1. Did this early human indeed range in time from 1.3 million to 200,000 years ago, and in geography from Africa to Europe to Asia? Or are there more than one species represented among the fossils that some scientists call H. heidelbergensis (including H. antecessor, H. cepranensis, and H. rhodesiensis)?

2. Many scientists think this species was ancestral to our own, but which species was the ancestor of H. heidelbergensis?

3. Did H. heidelbergensis have any cultural or behavioral adaptations that facilitated it living in colder climates?

4. Did regional groups or populations of H. heidelbergensis exhibit any unique behaviors or anatomical adaptations?

First paper:

Schoetensack, O., 1908. Der Unterkiefer des Homo heidelbergensis aus den Sanden von Mauer bei Heidelberg. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann.

Other recommended readings:

Martinez, I., Rosa, L., Arsuaga, J.-L. Jarabo, P., Quam, R., Lorenzo, C., Gracia, A., Carretero, J.-M., Bermúdez de Castro, J.M., Carbonell, E., 2004. Auditory capacities in Middle Pleistocene humans from the Sierra de Atapuerca in Spain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101, 9976-9981.

Mounier, A., Marchal, F., Condemi, S. 2009. Is Homo heidelbergensis a distinct ? New insight on the Mauer ". Journal of Human 56, 219-246.

Rightmire, G.P., 1998. Human evolution in the Middle Pleistocene: the role of Homo heidelbergensis. Evolutionary Anthropology 6, 218-227.

Stringer, C.B., Trinkaus, E., Roberts, M.B., Parfitt, S.A., Macphail, R.I., 1998.The Middle Pleistocene human tibia from Boxgrove. Journal of Human Evolution 34, 509-547.
How They Survived: Evolutionary Tree Information:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Your browser does not support the audio element. Homo heidelbergensis Where Lived: Europe; possibly Asia (China); Africa (eastern and southern) When Lived: About 700,000 to 200,000 years ago This early human had a very large browridge, and a larger braincase and flatter face than older early human species.

# data[].attributes.body
The Homo floresiensis has exhibited high cognitive and technological abilities. Research claims that even as their bodies shrank due to evolutionary pressures, their brains reorganized enough to retain the basic cognitive functions necessary to use and manufacture stone tools. These toolkits, which included flaked stones with sharp edges for cutting and processing materials. These were essential for survival in their environment. This showed that they maintained effective problem solving skills over many generations

source: https://phys.org/news/2016-06-homo-floresiensis-tools-shrank-island.html

# data[].attributes.body
In recent research shows that Homo Neanderthalensis were highly intelligent and socially complex, not primitive as once believed. Evidence from archaeological sites indicates that they made advanced stone tools, controlled fire, and hunted large animals in coordinated groups. Neanderthals also cared for injured and elderly members of their communities, suggesting strong social bonds and cooperation. Some findings even suggest symbolic behavior, such as the use of pigments and personal ornaments. These behaviors demonstrate that Neanderthals had cognitive abilities and social structures similar to modern humans, challenging earlier assumptions about their intelligence.

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-neanderthalensis

# data[].attributes.body
Homo neanderthalensis, better known as Neanderthals, have very similar characteristics to that of human beings. Neanderthals were beings that lived in different parts of Europe and Asia and are directly linked back to one of the earliest species known as Homo sapiens. According to this article, Neanderthal fossils are some of the first ever to be found, helping to shape what we know about this species and others like. It is fossils like these that have allowed scientist and researchers to formulate the data and translate the past, connecting the similarities between these species and human beings. There were certain physical attributes associated with Neanderthals. Most were known to have shorter, stronger muscle builds. This allowed for the survival of the species during times such as the Ice Age. The higher muscle mass allowed Neanderthals to regulate these cold temperatures and remain successful. Another physical characteristic that helped them to survive the cold weather was their larger noses. While this may not seem relevant, it allowed for air to warm before entering the internal systems and reaching the lungs. While there are many physical similarities to Neanderthals and humans, there are notable differences in the physical makeup of these beings. This is due to the evolution of time and our surroundings. The earth has evolved, and with it, the species living on the earth. During the time of the Neanderthals, their bodies were created in a way that allowed them to survive harsh environments and conditions that were linked to that time. One invention associated with Neanderthals is Mousterian stone tools. These were created from different stones and rocks and were used for different purposes. There rocks were used for hunting, shelter, warmth, etc. Another fascinating fact that was discovered from the fossils that have been found is the ability they had to care for each other. Certain fossils suggest significant injuries, making it impossible to survive without care. Therefore, even though care looked significantly different for these species, there is evidence to suggest cognitive understanding of pain and the need to care for others. There is also historical evidence of Neanderthal graves, linking back to emotional intelligence and an understanding of loss and distinctive behaviors associated with loss. While Neanderthals no longer exist today, there are still human beings that carry the genetics of this fascinating species, carrying on the legacy and name of Neanderthals.

Homo neanderthalensis. (2024, January 3). The Smithsonian Institution’s Human Origins Program. https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-neanderthalensis

https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-neanderthalensis

# data[].attributes.body
Homo Floresiensis is nicknamed the Hobbit and has only been found on the island of flores, Indonesia. They were approximately 3 feet 6 inches and had smaller brains with large teeth and no chins. They used stone tools found on the island and are thought to represent a modern human with a growth disease or disorder. They also had limited food and lacked predators as well.

Homo floresiensis | The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program

# data[].attributes.body
The Homo floresiensis was nicknamed "the hobbit" due to being about only three feet in height. This species lived in a challenging island environment, between 100,000 and 60,000 years ago, alongside predators, such as Komodo dragons and carnivorous storks; requiring advanced survival strategies. New fossil evidence, including an adult humerus dating back 700,000 years ago, suggest that Homo floresiensis evolved from a much taller ancestor, possibly Homo erectus, and became shorter due to limited island resources. In fact, due to the small size of the humerus, it was originally believed to belong to a child; however, further analysis showed adult bone structure. Due to a slightly shifted shaft, it is believed that this species had tree climbing abilities. This species was not alone in undergoing dwarfism, as remains of miniature species of extinct elephants were discovered. The brain volume of Homo floresiensis was only about one-third the volume of a typical brain today. Despite having a small brain, this species demonstrated advanced abilities in toolmaking, hunting, and avoiding predators. Stone tools found by archeologists on multiple sites of the Indonesian Island of Flores suggests Homo floresiensis had complex thinking skills allowing for them to plan and adapt to their environment.

https://www.science.org/content/article/hobbit-may-have-shrunk-early-evolved-tall-human-ancestor

# data[].attributes.body
Recent scientific discoveries have found that an archaeological fossil of a prehistoric jawbone discovered in the Penghu Channel near Taiwan belongs to a Denisovan. The Denisovan fossil belongs to a species of human relatives that are closely associated with Neanderthals. This fossil has expanded the known habitat of Homo denisovan across eastern Eurasia well beyond the fossil discoveries made in Siberia and the Tibetan Plateau. The fossil has been found to have characteristic physical features such as strong jaws and large teeth. There are also genetic materials that reveal that Denisovans had interbred with Homo sapiens and had donated genetic elements that helped the species adapt to their environment.

Article: “Denisovan jawbone helps to reveal appearance of ancient human species” - Natural History Museum
https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2025/april/denisovan-jawbone-helps-reveal-appearance-ancient-human-species.html

# data[].attributes.body
The skeletal system of the Neanderthal is different from modern day humans. They had larger and thicker femur and humerus bones, and they had denser overall bones compared to modern humans. This allowed them to live a more high-impact lifestyle. The muscles of the Neanderthal would crush the bones of a modern-day human, but the thicker bones of the Neanderthal prevented this. Neanderthal skeletons also had more pronounced muscle attachment sites. This allowed the muscles to have more leverage and power. https://scienceinsights.org/how-strong-were-neanderthals-compared-to-modern-humans/

# data[].attributes.body
Homo neanderthalensis were a species of early humans who lived across parts of Europe and Asia from about 400,000 to 40,000 years ago. They were muscular with strong brow ridges, physical traits that helped them survive in cold environments. Neanderthals were skilled hunters and toolmakers, using sophisticated stone tools and even mastering the Levallois technique to prepare tools ahead of time. This allowed for a nomadic lifestyle, while still being able to acquire necessary resources down the line. Fossils show that they lived alongside early Homo sapiens, and genetic evidence suggests that even some modern humans inherited around 2% of their DNA from Neanderthals. Although once being seen as primitive, they were intelligent and cared for others in their groups, showing complex behavior and adaptability. https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/who-were-the-neanderthals.html

# data[].attributes.body
Over a decade ago the first fossils attributed to the Homo naledi were discovered from Rising Star Cave system in South Africa. They were found barely fossilized preserved in soft - mud like sediments not hard breccia. The age of the Homo naledi is still somewhat debatable, however, recent studies suggest the age remains between 335 kyr and 241 kyr. The overall bauplan is a distinctive combination of primitive and more derived features. After more than 10 years of research there is still a lot to learn about Homo naledi.

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Paul-Pettitt-3/publication/382960805_What_we_know_and_do_not_know_after_the_first_decade_of_Homo_naledi/links/6734af9aa78ba469f060a62d/What-we-know-and-do-not-know-after-the-first-decade-of-Homo-naledi.pdf

# data[].attributes.body
Homo Naledi is a hominin species that was discovered in the Rising Star cave in South Africa. Although their brains were much smaller than the average human's, research shows that they exhibited surprisingly complex behaviors. Fossil evidence shows that they may have purposely buried their dead in places that are difficult to reach deep within the cave system. This contradicts the fact that advanced behaviors, such as caring for the dead, required a large brain size and suggests that social awareness and intentional actions may have evolved earlier than previously thought.

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/earliest-human-burial-homo-naledi-berger

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
H naledi reconstruction   IMG_2355a l.jpg