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An illustration of Musa’s pilgrimage. Depicted is his large entourage including slaves carrying sacks of gold.

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The Golden Staffs of Mansa Musa's Slaves

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The Golden Staffs of Mansa Musa's Slaves

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The Kingdon of Mali was extremely prosperous, possessing massive amounts of gold and attracting philosophers and scholars from distant areas. Mansa Musa was the ruler during its height in power and is regarded as its most successful ruler and one of the wealthiest men of his time. During his hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), he gave away great amounts of gold, often to the less fortunate. His generosity even disrupted the economic regions he visited.

Along with him came upwards of 12,000 slaves, dressed in silk and intricate brocade carrying golden bars and golden staffs.

The golden staffs (along with the expensive clothing and additional gold they carried) represent the prosperity, wealth, and success of the Kingdom. That even slaves, those at the bottom of the hierarchy, could be dressed in silk and wear gold because of the sheer amount Mali possessed at the time.

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Mansa/King

Ruler

Griot

The "right handed men" of the king

Composed of key ministers and administrators

ex. Mayors, Judges, City administrators, Chief of the army, Master of the granaries, Master of ceremonies, Leader of the royal orchestra

Nobles

Freeborn

Artisans/Caste People

Farmers, Musicians, Metalworkers, Leatherworkers, Entertainment, Woodworkers

Positions were also ranked in importance, with Metalworkers often being ranked first and Leatherworkers last

Sometimes metalworkers have different "rights" as to which metal they work with; only some have the "right" to work with "black" metal (iron)

Slaves (Often up to 50% of the population)

Often prisoners of war

Nobles could become slaves (often a result of capture), but caste people could not

Usually distinguished/separated by who was and could be traded or sold, and whether or not they were born in their master's house

Notes:

Generally, the caste has three sections, nobles, freeborns, and slaves.

People were unable to change their position within the hierarchy. Titles were passed within families, specifically from father to son.

People were unable to marry outside of their caste

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Marble tile inscribed with information about the Gao Empire's kings. 

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Tribe: a social group composed chiefly of numerous families, clans, or generations having a shared ancestry and language.

In Mali exist various ethnic groups including Fulani, Songhai, Tuareg, Dogon, Soninké, Bozo, and Bambara. They each have various lifestyles ranging from sedentary farmers to nomadic fishers, pastoralists, and merchants. They each inhabit different parts of Mali, and in some cases stretch out into other modern nations.

The Songhai people lived in the Gao Empire named after the town it was north of. There were three distinct rulers identified by a piece of finely carved marble with inscriptions referring to their names discovered in a cave in 1939. The Gao Empire was overtaken by the Kingdom of Mali sometime in the 13th century, but the Songhai rose and reclaimed land near Gao after Mansa Musa's death. Morocco soon after overtook them and nobles took refuge in modern-day Niger. Agriculture is extremely important to the Songhai people, and they have also been associated with the caravan trade.

The Sonike people founded the Empire of Ghana and are found across many parts of Africa. Archeological evidence suggests they were present in ancient times near southern Mauritania. The empire was destroyed by about the 12th century, but they held an important role in salt trades from the north and western coast for gold found inland. Sonike society and culture is very similar to that of other groups in Mande.

There is only so much evidence available about societies outside of the Kingdom but it is fair to say there was evidence of it around the same time as its existence. The identified ethnic groups have generations of culture and traditions as well as a unique shared language. These societies ranged in development stages, but whether it was an empire, kingdom, or clan, there is evidence.

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File:Stele Almeria Gao-Saney MNM R88-19-279.jpg - Wikipedia

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Early History and Formation

Originated in the 13th century in West Africa, emerging from the Kingdom of Kangaba.

Founded by Sundiata Keita after defeating the Sosso ruler, Sumanguru Kanté, in the Battle of Kirina (c. 1235).

Expanded through conquest, diplomacy, and trade.

Political Structure

Mansa (Emperor): Supreme ruler with political and religious authority.

Centralized Government: Structured administration with governors overseeing provinces.

Tributary System: Conquered regions paid tribute in gold, slaves, and agricultural products.

Islamic Influence: Rulers, like Mansa Musa, embraced Islam and integrated Sharia law into governance.

Gbara (Council of Elders): Advised the Mansa on governance and policy.

Mansa Musa’s Pilgrimage (1324-1325)

Embarked on a legendary pilgrimage to Mecca with a vast entourage.

Distributed enormous amounts of gold in Cairo, Medina, and Mecca, causing inflation in Egypt for over a decade.

Displayed Mali’s immense wealth and power, strengthening its global reputation.

Refused to bow to other rulers, emphasizing Mali’s sovereignty.

Economic Influence

Gold Trade: One of the world’s largest gold producers.

Timbuktu and Gao: Major trade and learning centers.

Salt-Gold Trade: Controlled the trans-Saharan trade routes.

Impact of Musa’s Pilgrimage: The sudden influx of gold devalued it in Egypt.

Cultural and Religious Influence

Spread of Islam: Encouraged Islamic scholarship and mosque construction.

Timbuktu: Became an intellectual hub with institutions like Sankore University.

Integration of Indigenous Traditions: Blended Islam with African customs.

Decline of the Empire

Succession disputes after Mansa Musa’s reign weakened the empire.

Tuareg Invasion (15th century): Led to the loss of key cities like Timbuktu.

Songhai Empire’s Rise: Eventually overshadowed and absorbed Mali’s territories.

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Certain ethnic groups, like the Tuareg (A Mali associated nomadic people), practiced a matrilineal system where lineage and inheritance were traced through the mother's line.

Mali’s matrilineal traditions sometimes allowed royal succession through the female line.

Succession: The Mansa’s sister’s son was often favored over his own biological children.

Political Power and Leadership

Queen Mothers (also called Mothers of the King) held significant influence at court:

Women in these roles acted as advisors, intermediaries, and co-rulers, influencing governance.

Economic Power:

Women managed large-scale farms, cultivating key crops like millet, sorghum, and rice.

Women were central to the market economy, trading textiles, spices, and food.

Craftsmanship: Women were active in pottery, weaving, and leatherwork.

Social and Cultural Influence:

Oral tradition keepers: Women preserved history through storytelling, music, and dance.

Mothers held a sacred status, being the primary caregivers, teachers, and nurturers.

Influence in Religion: Some women served as spiritual leaders or priestesses, conducting rituals.

Marriage and Family Structure:

Women had autonomy in marriage choices and played a role in forming family alliances.

In some cases, women could initiate divorce, reflecting a degree of independence.

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Political Structure & Governance:

The Mansa (King) held supreme power, and leadership was almost exclusively male-dominated.

Patrilineal succession: Power passed down through male heirs or relatives (sons, brothers, or uncles).

Some rulers, like Abu Bakr, used maternal lineage but had to be adopted by a male ruler to claim power.

Gender & Power Dynamics:

Women were influential in family and economic roles but did not rule as Mansas.

Matrilineal succession existed, but ultimate power remained with men.

Slaves of royal mothers had higher status, as their children could be heirs.

Stability & Administration:

The empire survived bad rulers due to a strong administrative system.

Governors managed provinces, while officials handled towns and trade.

The military ensured control over trade routes and quelled rebellions.

Cultural & Religious Influence:

Islam dominated governance, laws, and education.

Timbuktu became a major learning center, housing Sankore University.

Despite matrilineal elements, the empire remained primarily patriarchal.

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The Djenné-Jeno Terracotta Sculptures are key artifacts from a major trade and cultural hub even before the Mali Empire. Djenné-Jeno helped shape West Africa’s economy and society, and by the mid-13th century, cities like Djenné and Timbuktu became centers of trade, learning, and religion, expanding under Mansu Musas' rule. These sculptures reflect an advanced artistic tradition tied to rituals, status, and remembrance. The jewelry and markings on many figures represent social hierarchy, spiritual beliefs, or cultural storytelling. They also represent roles and tradition, with many of the statues depicting an artistic version of humans of many status's.

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Pardee School of Global Studies African Studies Center. “The Empire of Mali (1230-1600).” Boston University African Studies Center. Accessed April 3, 2025. https://www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/teachingresources/history/ancient-to-medieval-history/k_o_mali/.

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