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Every time an individual learns something, their brain changes.  Because there are several functions of the brain, they all work together to increase one's knowledge, memories, and experiences throughout their academic and personal life.  There must be prior knowledge or connections in order to learn and comprehend new information that is being taught.  By connecting learning to an idea that the student already is familiar with, it is easier to build off of that into introducing new topics.

There are several different types of knowledge

Domain-Specific : knowledge that pertains to a specific task or subject such as a sport for example

General : knowledge that applies to many different situations

Declarative : knowledge that can be declared, usually in words or symbols... "knowing that" something is the case

There are three ways to develop declarative knowledge...
1. integrate new information with existing understanding
2. mnemonics are memorization aids including approaches such as the acronyms and the key word method
3. rote memorization which includes part learning and part distributed practice
Procedural : "knowing how" to do something, must be demonstrated

Self-regulatory : "knowing when and why" to apply your declarative and procedural knowledge

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Information Processing is the human mind's activity of taking in, storing, and using information.

An individual's memory and information processing system is very complex due to many different factors working quickly and at the same time.  There are many different perspectives of this system; however, the most recent perspective dives into three different types of memory and how they correlate and work together.

Attention is crucial in learning new information and influences the three memory processes in the chart above.  It is really hard for students to multi-task so by making sure their attention is fully on the lesson allows for their to be a deeper knowledge developed.  Furthermore, it is hard to stay attentive for a long period of time so time used to teach needs to be intentional and also in a mental and physical place where the individual can concentrate on one task at a time.

The three types of Memory include:

Sensory : initial processing that transforms these incoming stimuli into perceptions... for example hearing horn and recognizing it is a car

Working : "work bench" of the memory system... new information is held temporarily and connecting it with knowledge from the long-term memory to perform tasks

There are many different strategies when looking at working memory.  Cognitive Overload is a term that occurs during the working memory that refers to the amount of mental resources used to perform a certain task.

Two types of Cognitive Overload include intrinsic which is unavoidable and allows the individual to process and make sense of the material.  The other type is extraneous which is avoidable and means that it is caused by poor learning strategies that doesn't help the individual process and make sense of the material.

Long-Term : holds information that is well learned, such as the names of all the people you know... permanent store of knowledge

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Strategies include:
1. identifying the problem
2. setting goals
3.searching for possible solutions
4. anticipating possible consequences
5. acting
6. looking back to evaluate the outcome

To develop efficient problem solvers, it is important to incorporate worked examples that include steps, feedback, cues, relevant information for the individual to use their thought process rather than having to memorize information.    It is also important when problem solving that not only are you aware of the whole problem, you are able to identify key details that allows for a clear solution.

Problem solving is also another strategy that students learn and develop as they age and go through school; however, it is crucial that the teacher gives them more than just examples to look at and try to memorize. Allowing for the students to work and use learning strategies on top of problem solving develops faster responses and answers.

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Transfer is an important concept with an individuals learning.  This means that students are able to transfer concepts they know to another concept they may not be as familiar with.  This concept can occur not only in school settings, but also in physical locations, work settings which allow there to be a successful flow of finishing tasks.  There are two types of transfers.

1. Automatic : the student is transferring knowledge from one area to another without any thought

2. Thoughtful : the student is transferring knowledge from one area to another with thought

Gary Phye described three stages in developing transfer which include the acquisition phase, retention phase, and transfer phase.  Acquisition phase is where the student learns how to use a strategy rather than just receiving instruction.  Retention phase is giving feedback after practice to help students use of strategies.  Transfer phase is where students are able to use the strategies they learned but in different types of problems that appear different on the surface.

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Robust knowledge is seen when an individual has a deep understanding of a concept and can use that knowledge with other situations that are different than what was being taught. Individuals are able to recall using their long-term memory to pull information from one situation to another quickly and efficiently. To develop robust knowledge, one must have a lot of practice, worked examples, analogies and self-explanation. Self-explanation is the key factor in developing this type of knowledge because by being able to explain steps, a model, evidence, or justifying an answer allows the teacher to truly see that the student can back up how they know it.

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---------proposed by Lockhart and Craig in 1972------------

This theory believes that the more an individual deeply and completely processes information as well as connecting and analyzing it with other information in turn, betters our chances of remembering it.

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Metacognition is how an individual thinks through their own thought processes.  The skills can differ and improve as an individual grows older and becomes more comfortable with school, or skills may be affected due to a learning disability.  There are three essential skills of this concept.

1. Planning- deciding how and where you will start, what strategies you will use, how much time you will give to each task

2. Monitoring- asking yourself questions to make sure you are understanding and learning to the best of your ability

3. Evaluating- making judgements about how you are learning and understanding the concept, reflecting on your learning

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Critical thinking is useful in many different types of situations which entails an individual using logic and pulling evidence about the situation to draw and evaluate conclusions.

There are three effective elements of critical thinking:

1. Dialogue: discussions, questions, debates
2. Authentic Instruction: simulations, case studies, role-plays, dilemmas
3. Mentorship: one on one with a child and adult such as a teacher or coach

It is important to over learn because the individual will find key details that they may not have seen before as well as new learning strategies or problem solving skills

Argumentation is the process of debating a claim with someone else. An individual's argumentation skills improve as they age due to children not being able to understand another individual's thoughts if they don't agree with their own. When arguing, it is crucial to understand the other's point of view with respect, as well as understanding as to why they may feel or think a certain way. There are two styles of argumentation.

1. disputative : supporting claim with evidence then refuting your opponent's claims
2. deliberative : collaborate in comparing, contrasting, and evaluating alternatives to reach a final conclusion

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Students develop learning strategies as they age and go through school.  There are thousands kinds of learning strategies that benefit students differently.  Students may prefer different strategies depending on the type of learner they are.  It is important that teachers introduce different types of learning strategies for students to use and try for themselves in order to develop a stronger thought process as they learn new concepts and work individually through problems.

Some examples of Learning Strategies include:
-setting goals
-underlining/highlighting
-skimming the text before reading
-making charts (Venn diagrams, flowcharts)
-using mnemonics
-creating concept maps
-explaining understanding to a peer
-taking notes
-self-testing or questioning
-retrieval practice: retrieving information from memory rather than rereading or restudying, actively recalling ideas, MOST POWERFUL STRATEGY

Once students become comfortable with types of learning strategies, it is important for them to learn when and where certain types are the most useful.

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The capacity of long-term memory is huge and information lasts in there forever.  The only thing is that these memories may not be remembered unless there is a certain concept, conversation, or information that sparks that memory.

There is explicit and implicit memory.

Explicit is a long-term memory that breaks bits of information into inter-related categories or concepts such as movies, people, or dogs.  Our schema is like a little filing cabinet in our brain that stores information in the necessary category and pulled out when that concept is talked about.  It develops and creates by how an individual sees that concept and the world revolving around it which can obviously differ from person to person.

Implicit is long-term memory that can affect our thinking and behavior but we are not necessarily aware that we are recalling those memories. This includes using memories such as skills or habits we have gradually learned... or even memories that are physical or emotional responses.