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Toussaint L'Ouverture: From Slavery to Leader

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1. Established the first Sovereign state in Latin America

2. Freed slaves of Saint Domingue

3. He was a great military who was very effective against France while fighting with Spain

4. Toussaints policies and ideas led Haiti to full independence after learning France intended to reintroduce Slavery

5. He inspired movements in South America and Central America as well as abolitionist in North America

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The reason why we should remember Father Miguel is because he shows how much one person can inspire many as shown with his speech but he also should be remembered as an example of why you should never let an opportunity go to waste as shown with his mistake of not continuing momentum at the capital of Mexico

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The thoughts for his revolt were impulsive and not well thought through.

His troops lacked strength and training, and they were poorly armed.

Most of the planning that Father Hidalgo put into place was not fully communicated with his people or even the community. This resulted in confusion throughout the whole group running/involved in the revolt.

As a result of his failure, he fled North in hopes of flying under the radar but he was captured and soon executed.

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https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/hidalgo-y-costilla-miguel

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Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, (born May 8, 1753, Corralejo, near Guanajuato, Mexico-died July 30, 1811, Chihuahua), Roman Catholic priest and revolutionary leader who is called the father of Mexican independence.

Hidalgo was the second child born to Cristóbal Hidalgo and his wife. He studied at a Jesuit secondary school, received a bachelor's degree in theology and philosophy in 1773 from San Nicolás College (now Michoacán University of San Nicolás de Hidalgo) in Valladolid (now Morelia), and was ordained a priest in 1778. He had an uneventful early career, but in 1803 Hidalgo assumed his recently deceased elder brother's duties as parish priest in Dolores (now Dolores Hidalgo, Guanajuato state). His interest in the economic advancement of his parishioners-for example, through the introduction of newer methods of agriculture-and his political convictions regarding the oppression of the people by the Spanish authorities caused the latter to regard him with suspicion.

In 1808 Spain was invaded by French troops, and Napoleon I forced the abdication of King Ferdinand VII in favour of the French emperor's brother Joseph Bonaparte. Though Spanish officials in Mexico were loath to oppose the new king, many Mexicans formed secret societies-some supporting Ferdinand, others advocating independence from Spain. Hidalgo belonged to a pro-independence group in San Miguel (now San Miguel de Allende), near Dolores. When the plot was betrayed to the Spanish, several members were arrested. Warned to flee, Hidalgo decided instead to act promptly. On September 16, 1810, he rang the church bell in Dolores to call his parishioners to an announcement of revolution against the Spanish. His speech was not only an encouragement to revolt but a cry for racial equality and the redistribution of land. It became known as the Grito de Dolores ("Cry of Dolores").

What he began in San Miguel as a movement for independence became a social and economic war of the masses against the upper classes. Joined by thousands of Indians and mestizos, Hidalgo marched forth from Dolores under the banner of Our Lady of Guadalupe. With his followers he captured the city of Guanajuato and other major cities west of Mexico City. Soon Hidalgo was at the gates of the capital, but he hesitated, and the opportunity was lost. His followers melted away. Royalists as well as other elements in Mexico were frightened by the prospect of social upheaval and supported the suppression of the rebellion. After his defeat at Calderón Bridge, outside Guadalajara, on January 17, 1811, Hidalgo fled north, hoping to escape into the United States. He was caught, expelled from the priesthood, and executed by firing squad as a rebel.

Though his accomplishments were not lasting ones, Hidalgo's name became the symbol of the independence movement for most Mexicans. September 16, the anniversary of the Grito de Dolores, is now celebrated as Mexico's Independence Day.

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Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla | Facts, Accomplishments, & Biography

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Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Roman Catholic priest and revolutionary leader who is called the father of Mexican independence.

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he was a part of a pro-independent movement

Unfortunately, there were some setbacks as the group was arrested which promoted Father Miguel to ring the church bell as he gave a speech urging the people to revolt to rise up for independence he also talked about racial equality and the return of land that rightfully belonged to the natives this speech would later be known as the “Grito de delores” this would be one of his accomplishment another one of his accomplishments is when He began more social movements for independence that gained a lot of popularity he became the head of the movement for the social and economic wars against the upper classes him and his fellow members of these movements marched throughout major cities in Mexico capturing them and freeing them from rule of Spain and the upper class

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We used information from the notes we took during class.

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https://www.britannica.com/biography/Agustin-de-Iturbide

https://totallyhistory.com/agustin-de-iturbide/

https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/iturbide-agustin-de

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Although Iturbride’s reign only lasted for less than a year, he was still the leader of the coalition that eventually brought Mexico to independence. Iturbride still remains as an important figure within Mexico, and also Europe for his important role in the war for independence in Mexico.

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In Latin America prior to the revolutions, class was based on privilege as well as ethnicity/race. Peninsulares and Creoles made up the highest social class. They controlled the wealth, land, and power in Spanish colonies. Mestizos were of mixed European and native Indian ancestry and were not treated as citizens and didn’t have much power. The Mulattoes were of mixed European and African ancestry. They were also not treated as citizens and didn't have much power. Africans were both freed and enslaved but dealt with inhuman treatment.  Native Americans were at the bottom of the class hierarchy and were angry due to enslavement and also dealt with inhuman treatment. The Social Hierarchy system created resentment throughout Latin America and inspired revolutions to break out. This class system accomplished a hierarchy of racism and unfair treatment.

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Setbacks

Morelos faced several military setbacks during the Mexican War of Independence. Despite his strategic brilliance and successful captures of key cities, he also encountered defeats and setbacks against better-equipped Spanish forces. Battles such as the Siege of Cuautla and the Battle of Puruarán resulted in losses for the insurgent forces.

Within the independence movement, there were internal divisions and conflicts, including disagreements over strategy, leadership, and ideological differences. These divisions weakened the cohesion and effectiveness of the insurgent forces, hindering their ability to confront the Spanish army unitedly.

While Morelos was successful in capturing various territories from Spanish control, maintaining control over these regions proved challenging. The insurgent forces often faced resistance from local populations or encountered difficulties in governing effectively in areas under their control.

Morelos faced resource constraints, including shortages of supplies, weapons, and manpower. These limitations constrained the mobility and sustainability of his military campaigns and hindered efforts to expand the scope of the independence movement.

One of the most significant setbacks for Morelos was his eventual capture by Spanish forces in 1815. Despite his efforts to evade capture, he was betrayed and apprehended. Subsequently, Morelos endured imprisonment, interrogation, and ultimately, execution by firing squad, marking a tragic end to his leadership in the Mexican War of Independence.

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Dom Pedro I was first ruler of the Empire of Brazil, where he was known as "the Liberator". He played an important role in achieving independence in Brazil and he wanted to abolish enslavement. Without him, Brazil wouldn’t be the united nation it is today.

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Simone Bolivar was born July 24th, 1783, in Caracas, Venezuela. He died December 17th, 1830. He was a Venezuelan soldier and statesman that led the revolutions against Spanish rule.

He was president of Gran Colombia and dictator of Peru. He played a leading role in gaining independence for Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.

Setbacks that he faced included failing his first attempt at revolt as well as in the second attempt having to flee to neighboring countries for safety but after this he returned triumphantly.

He should be remembered because he is considered by many the greatest leader of South American Independence.

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Dom Pedro was the son of King John VI of Portugal. His family fled to Brazil in 1807, when Napoleon conquered Portugal. Eventually King John returned to Portugal in 1821, but Pedro stayed in Brazil. He surrounded himself with ministers who advised independence and soon became the first emperor in 1822.

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Military Mexican Emperor Agustín de Iturbide #nationalmonarchy

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Initially, Iturbride had served in the Spanish military and fought against Mexican independence movements. But in 1810 he switched sides and became a leader in the Mexican War of Independence. Iturbride was an undiplomatic ruler; he eventually failed to cultivate the relationships he needed in order to make his reign a true success. He also frequently endured arguments with an increasingly assertive legislature, many people claimed that Iturbride began to take too much power for himself as he often misjudged his position.

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Accomplishments - Emperor Agustin I held a major role in ending the War after achieving independence from Spain. Shortly after, he became the emperor of Mexico. He is best known for his actions during the Mexican War of Independence that took place in 1821, while he also put together a coalition that eventually brought him control of the capital, better known as Mexico City. In the same year, Iturbride began his own rebellion, he then published the Triguarantine Plan or the Plan of Iguala (23 articles, set out a program of conservative policies, these would rest on union, independence, and religion). He gained immediate support from the Creole population, his plan was to employ a larger number of Creoles rather than Spaniards in government jobs. He also wanted to leave the colonial administration of Mexico largely untouched.

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1. Toussaint was described as greedy and cruel by historians and writers at the time

2. He was also described as a hypocrite who was phony to his religious beliefs and wouldn't stick to his preachings

3. He turned his war sacrilegious which means the violation or misuse of something considered sacred

4. Showed impulses of tyranny which made him unfavorable

5. Forced freed slaves to work for him

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Toussaint L'Ouverture led a successful slave uprising and freed slaves in Saint-Domingue (Haiti). He transformed the colony into a country run by former black slaves as a nominal French protectorate and made himself ruler of the entire island of Hispaniola.

Restored the plantation system using paid labor, negotiated trade treaties with Britain and the United States, and maintained a large and well-disciplined army.

He was a major factor in the end of the Transatlantic Slave Trade

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Why We Should remember him

Jose Maria Morelos was a leader in the Mexican War of Independence. He emerged as a key leader in the struggle for Mexican independence following the execution of Miguel Hidalgo, another leader of the movement.

Morelos successfully captured several strategic cities, including Cuautla, Oaxaca, and Acapulco, weakening Spanish control over the region and expanding the territory under insurgent control.

Morelos drafted the "Sentiments of the Nation" (Sentimientos de la Nación), a document outlining his vision for an independent Mexico. It advocated for equality, land reform, abolition of slavery, and other progressive principles.

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The King who Declared Independence from Himself | The Life & Times of Pedro I

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Major accomplishments of which Pedro I had received were: 1) He was the first promulgator of Brazils Constitution.

2) Lead the independence war against Portugal, convincing others to unify with him. Through this, he created a constitutional monarchy in Brazil, and became Emperor.

3) Declared Brazils independence from Portugal in 1822, this also paved the way for the abolishment of slavery in 1888.

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Brazil's history in the nineteenth century was dramatically shaped by events in Europe - namely, the ascendancy of Napoleon Bonaparte to the throne of France, and his subsequent conquest of much of continental Europe, including the Iberian Peninsula. As Napoleon's forces marched on Portugal, which had been a consistent ally of the Britain, France's nemesis, the royal court fled for the new world, establishing a court in Rio de Janeiro in 1808.

During his 13-year stay in Rio, Dom João VI brought a number of European-style institutions to the city - a printing press, an opera house, naval and military academies, and much more - so much so that, even after Napoleon's defeat and exile, the Portuguese monarch did not want to return to the court in Lisbon. He found himself more comfortable in Brazil. By choosing a faraway colony as a seat of power, João angered other European countries. His solution was to elevate Brazil to a monarchy and make himself de-facto ruler of two nations.

Still, his subjects and British allies clamored for his return, and so in 1821 João left his son, Prince Pedro, as regent in Brazil and returned to Europe.

Coronation of Pedro I

Brazil's independence from Portugal was a relatively anticlimactic event - there was no war, no act of congress, no overthrow of the government. With Dom João back in Lisbon, the Portuguese Cortes [parliament] attempted to restore Brazil to colonial status. But Pedro, as regent, rejected their attempts. On January 9, 1822, he officially and publicly announced his refusal to obey an order from Parliament that he return to Portugal. That day is now known as the Dia do Fico, a Brazilian holiday, for Pedro's proclamation: "I shall remain."

Pedro was lucky. His decision matched public opinion among Brazilian landowners and bureaucrats, who reflected important political interests. The divide between Portugal and Brazil widened, until September of 1822, when Pedro rejected a final decree from Portugal with the statement "Independência ou Morte!" [Independence or death.] From there he went on with the business of establishing the new Empire of Brazil, clearing out Portuguese loyalists within his government but making no changes to the existing socio-economic order.

In this account, Father Belchior Pinheira de Oliveira, a confidant of Prince Pedro, describes the exact moment of the declaration of independence, just after the prince has received the Cortes' demand that he return.

Accompanied by me, Cordeiro, Bregaro, Carlota, and others, D. Pedro silently walked toward our horses at the side of the road. Suddenly, he halted in the middle of the road and said to me, "Father Belchior, they asked for it and they will get it. The Côrtes is persecuting me and calling me an adolescent and a Brazilian. Well, now let them see their adolescent in action. From today on our relations with them are finished. I want nothing more from the Portuguese government, and I proclaim Brazil forevermore separated from Portugal."

With enthusiasm we immediately answered, "Long live liberty! Long live an independent Brazil! Long live D. Pedro!"

The Prince turned to his adjutant and said, "Tell my guard that I have just declared the complete independence of Brazil. We are free from Portugal."

Lieutenant Canto e Melo rode toward a market where most of the soldiers of the guard remained. He returned to the Prince with them shouting enthusiastically in favor of an independent and separate Brazil, D. Pedro, and the Catholic Religion.

D. Pedro before the guard said, 'The Portuguese Côrtes wants to enslave and to persecute us. Henceforth our relations are broken. Not one tie unites us!' (Burns, 199)

What, according to Father Belchior's account, were Pedro's concerns in breaking away from Portugal?

What do his declaration and his supporters' response indicate about the likely changes to the regime after independence?

Here Debret presents a grand, theatrical interpretation of the ascendancy of Emperor Pedro I and the separation of Brazil from the kingdom of Portugal. Framed by a curtain and flanked by symbols of the new nation's independence, the former prince regent takes center stage. Debret is at once conveying two messages that later artists would frequently reiterate: that Brazil is a separate entity with its own history; and that, despite its differences with the Old World, its peoples can see it as a peer of the long-standing civilizations that came before it.

The decision to label the new government an "empire" rather than a "kingdom" was a calculated and political one - Roman emperors were divinely supported, but did not receive their earthly power from their blood, as Pedro would have in Lisbon following the death of his father, Joao VI. In theory, at least, a Roman emperor received a mandate from the people to rule on their behalf. Lacking an imperial history of its own, Brazil adopted another's. As Pedro holds the new Constitution, the diverse peoples around him cheer and clamor for his rule. White and black parents put their children forward, as if waiting for them to be blessed, while bandeirantes pledge their allegiance and a soldier fires a cannon in celebration.

Notice, in the shadows to the left and right of the throne, the Indian civilians and warriors, respectively; the presence of indigenous peoples was an oft-invoked piece of evidence for "Brazilian history." In 1862, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of the coronation Debret acclaims here, elites in Rio de Janeiro unveiled an equestrian statue of Pedro I; Native Brazilians are carved beneath the triumphal national monument as a means of reminding viewers that the country had a past before the Portuguese.

Some other details are worth observing. The boat in the far left foreground is carrying coffee and sugar, the two most important crops at the time of this painting. The old man on the right is from Sao Paulo, while his grandson, upon whom he is leaning, is from Minas Gerais. Finally, the entire scene is consecrated by heraldic angels and three cherubim carrying a crowned orb with the letter "P," presumably for "Pedro." This orb resembles the imperial coat of arms, which also decorated the national flag until the empire's end in 1889.

Portraits of a King and an Emperor

The man in the images on the left is King João VI, and the man on the right is the Emperor Pedro I.

What does the difference in attire of these two men reflect about their political positions?

What is the value in comparing them side by side? What are the similarities and differences between them?

Comparisons of Rio de Janeiro

Why did Debret show these two images, the close-up of the palace and the long view of the coastline, together? How does one complement the other?

What assumptions can be made about the economy and social structure of Rio de Janiero from these images?

How does the plaza depicted in this image differ from the one shown in Debret's "Vue de la Place de Palais, à Rio de Janiero"?

What kinds of people are shown and what kinds of tasks are they doing?

How does the architecture differ from that of the aforementioned image?

Arrival of Princess Leopoldine

What does this illustration say about the Brazilian monarchy?

How is the princess welcomed to Brazil?

How does the illustration reflect both European and Brazilian values in terms of its setting, its people, and its architecture?

Pedro II Assumes Leadership

The focal point of this Debret painting, hard to see from afar, is standing on a chair. In 1831, under pressure from the Brazilian military and the Portuguese monarchy, Dom Pedro I returned to Portugal to assume the throne (his father had died five years earlier), leaving his son Pedro II as the claimant to the Brazilian imperial seat of power.

Pedro II was five years old at the time, so a triumvirate of regents was arranged, planning to rule the country until the young emperor reached age 18. Here we see the symbolic acclamation of the new leader, who waves to the crowd from a balcony in the upper-left while in military dress. For the Brazilian elites, the continued existence of an emperor was vital from a symbolic point of view. Although liberals and conservatives split on how power should be centralized in this still-young government, they supported the regents' plan all the same.

The men on horseback closest to Pedro's balcony represent the different sectors of Rio de Janeiro, the capital city from 1793 to 1960. Behind the line of soldiers in the center, notice the celebrating men, many of whom are holding branches, which were meant to symbolize the national colors, green and gold. All the revelers appear to be well off, if not elite. There are no clearly poor people in this audience, but they were not as invested in preserving the status quo as the elites who wanted to ward off any potential political tumult that might accompany a change of power. Indeed, following a series of small revolts in the 1830s that questioned the empire's legitimacy and what Brazil stood for, the country's elites pushed for Pedro II to assume power four years early. He did so in 1840, and would rule the "Second Empire" for the next 59 years.

Further Reading

Roderick Barman's Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825-1891 studies the reign of the emperor, "a complex personality who simultaneously compels sympathy, exasperation, and respect."

Sources

Burns, Bradford, ed. A Documentary History of Brazil. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1966.

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Brazil's history in the nineteenth century was dramatically shaped by events in Europe - namely, the ascendancy of Napoleon Bonaparte to the throne of France, and his subsequent conquest of much of continental Europe, including the Iberian Peninsula.

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Jose de San Martin, nicknamed "the Liberator of Argentina, Chile and Peru", was a creole who initially fought for Spain, but after seeking education in Europe and being exposed to Enlightenment Ideas as well as the teachings of someone named General Miranda, he returned to Latin America to aid several countries in their revolutions against the Spanish rule. His greatest achievements include helping liberate Argentina and Chile, and partly Peru. It is important to remember San Martin because he played an extremely large role in liberating countries from the Spanish rule. Without San Martin, the future of Argentina, Chile and Peru is unknown.

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Latin American Social Classes for Latin American Revolutions

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Jose Maria Morelos managed to conquer most of the South of Mexico along with pieces of the central part. In today's state of Morelos, he developed his most important military action known as the Sitio de Cuautla (Cuautla Besiege), making him the first enemy of the royal army.

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José María Morelos: The Priest Turned Revolutionary Leader | BIOGRAPHY

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Description-Born September 27th, 1783 in Vallodolid, Viceroyalty of New Spain. Agustin was a military caudillo who later became the leader of the conservative factions in the Mexican independence movement and was briefly the Emperor of Mexico. After endless fighting, he was able to negotiate the plan de iguala. He was able to support mexico and aided in their eventual becoming of an independent state. Once he became Emperor, the country soon turned on him for his inability to rule with order and stability.