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The Romans first entered Britain in 55 BC under Julius Caesar, although they did not begin a permanent occupation until 43 AD, when Emperor Claudius sent a much better prepared force to subjugate the fierce British Celts. The Romans, under attack at home from Visigoths, Ostrogoths and Vandals, abandoned Britain to the Celts in 410 AD, completing their withdrawal by 436 AD. Within a remarkably short time after this withdrawal, the Roman influence on Britain, in language as in many other walks of life, was all but lost, as Britain settled in to the so-called Dark Ages.

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The Anglo-Saxon Migration (5th - 7th centuries)

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The Anglo-Saxon Migration (5th - 7th centuries)

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Role in Language Evolution: The Anglo-Saxon migration, also known as the "Saxon Advent," refers to the period when Germanic tribes, including the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, migrated to the British Isles from the European continent. As these tribes settled in Britain, they brought their Germanic languages, which eventually evolved into Old English. This migration significantly influenced the vocabulary, grammar, and phonology of Old English, leading to its development as a distinct Germanic language.

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The first attempt to introduce the Roman Christian religion to Anglo-Saxon Britain was made in the 6th century. In 597 a group of missionaries from Rome dispatched by Pope Gregory the Great “St Augustine’s mission” first landed on the shore of Kent. The introduction of Christianity influenced greatly the growth of culture and learning. Monasteries were founded all over the country. The openings of monasteries, influenced the education, many monastic schools were opened. Religious services and teaching were conducted in Latin.

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At the beginning of 7th century, Germanic tribes began to make the short journey across the North

Sea. West Germanic invaders from Jutland and southern Denmark: the Angles (whose

name is the source of the words England and English), Saxons, and Jutes, began

populating the British Isles in the fifth and sixth centuries AD. They spoke a mutually

intelligible language, similar to modern Frisian – the language of northeastern region of the Netherlands – that is called Old English. The Heptarchy is a collective name applied to seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. These were: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia (kingdoms of the Angles), Kent (Jutes), Essex, Sussex and Wessex (Saxons).

Anglo-Saxon invaders pushed the original, Celtic-speaking inhabitants out of what

is now England into Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland, leaving behind a few

Celtic words.

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Lindisfarne raid, Viking assault in 793 on the island of Lindisfarne (Holy Island) off the coast of what is now Northumberland. The monastery at Lindisfarne was the preeminent centre of Christianity in the kingdom of Northumbria. The event sent tremors throughout English Christendom and marked the beginning of the Viking Age in Europe.

The raid at Lindisfarne at the end of the 8th century was not the first Viking incursion into the British Isles. In an entry for the year 787, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports the arrival of “three ships of Northmen” on the coast of Wessex, a band of foreigners who promptly killed the local reeve when he came to conduct them to the king. Additionally, a Kentish charter from 792 indicates that defensive measures against “pagan seamen” had been taken in the kingdom of Mercia. However, the attack on Lindisfarne in 793 was the first recorded Viking raid in England and in Europe more broadly, and its importance is signaled by the strange incidents that accompany it in the historical record.

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865 marked a turning point in Anglo-Saxon England. What followed wasn't simply raids, but a full-blown invasion by the Great Heathen Army, a formidable Viking force determined to conquer and settle. Years of intense battles ensued, reshaping the political landscape and leaving an indelible mark on history.

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Fall of Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia 840s-870s

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Fall of Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia 840s-870s

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Within ten years nearly all of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms fell to the invaders: Northumbria in 867, East Anglia in 869, and nearly all of Mercia in 874–77. Kingdoms, centres of learning, archives, and churches all fell before the onslaught from the invading Danes. Only the Kingdom of Wessex was able to survive. While they shared cultural similarities with the Anglo-Saxons, they brought their own language, another impact on the developing English language. Words such as sky, skin, wagon originated with the language of the Vikings.

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878 - Alfred leads the Anglo-Saxons to decisive victory

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878 - Alfred leads the Anglo-Saxons to decisive victory

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The victory took place at the Battle of Edington in 878 AD, where King Alfred the Great led the Anglo-Saxons to a decisive victory against the Great Heathen Army, a powerful Viking force led by Guthrum. This battle marked a turning point in the ongoing Viking invasions of England and solidified Alfred's reputation as a great leader and strategist.

By 878, Viking raids had ravaged most of England, with all Anglo-Saxon kingdoms except Wessex under Viking control.

Alfred, known for his resourcefulness, had been hiding in the Somerset marshes after suffering setbacks.

He rallied his forces and adopted innovative tactics, including building a fortified burh (hill fort) network.

The exact date is uncertain, but it likely occurred between May 6th and 12th.

Alfred used clever terrain manipulation and a hidden shield wall to surprise the Viking army.

The Anglo-Saxons exploited a psychological advantage by charging downhill with a powerful "boar's head wedge" formation.

The battle was fierce, but the Anglo-Saxons ultimately triumphed, inflicting heavy losses on the Vikings.

Guthrum agreed to the Treaty of Wedmore, which established a border between Anglo-Saxon and Viking-controlled territory (the Danelaw).

This marked a significant shift in power, halting the Viking advance and paving the way for Alfred's later reconquests.

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On 14 October 1066 Duke William of Normandy defeated King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings. It remains one of the most famous events in English history. The Norman victory had a lasting political impact on England and coincided with cultural changes across Europe. As a result a complete change of the English aristocracy by a Norman aristocracy. The language became the one of lower classes and in consequence it disappeared as an written language (in law, literature, documents).

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878 - Alfred leads the Anglo-Saxons to decisive victory

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878 - Alfred leads the Anglo-Saxons to decisive victory

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The Battle of Hastings was a decisive conflict that took place on October 14, 1066, near the town of Hastings in Sussex, England.

The battle was fought between the Norman army, led by Duke William II of Normandy (William the Conqueror), and the English army, led by King Harold II of England.

The Norman invasion of England was prompted by William's claim to the English throne, which he believed was rightfully his due to a promise made by Harold and disputed succession following the death of King Edward the Confessor.

The battle ended in victory for the Normans, largely due to the effectiveness of their cavalry and the death of King Harold during the fighting.

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700—Approximate date of the earliest manuscript records of Old English.

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700—Approximate date of the earliest manuscript records of Old English.

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840s-870s Falling of Northumbria,East Anglia and Mercia

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840s-870s Falling of Northumbria,East Anglia and Mercia

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Between 55 B.C. and 43 A.D., big changes happened in the Roman Empire. Julius Caesar conquered new lands like Gaul and Britain, making Rome more powerful. But Caesar was killed by his rivals, leading to chaos. His nephew, Augustus, took over and became the first emperor. Under him, there was peace called Pax Romana. This time also saw the start of Christianity, which later became a major religion. The Roman Empire kept growing, spreading its culture and influence across Europe, Africa, and Asia Minor. These years laid the foundation for much of what we know about ancient history and shaped the world we live in today.

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1066 Consequences of the Norman conquest

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1066 Consequences of the Norman conquest

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The extent and desirability of the changes brought about by the conquest have long been disputed by historians. Certainly, in political terms, William’s victory destroyed England’s links with Scandinavia, bringing the country instead into close contact with the Continent, especially France. Inside England the most radical change was the introduction of land tenure and military service. While tenure of land in return for services had existed in England before the conquest, William revolutionized the upper ranks of English society by dividing the country among about 180 Norman tenants-in-chief and innumerable mesne (intermediate) tenants, all holding their fiefs by knight service . The result, the almost total replacement of the English aristocracy with a Norman one, was paralleled by similar changes of personnel among the upper clergy and administrative officers.

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The advent of Christianity marked the beginning of written English, superseding the limited use of Futhorc runes. Almost all surviving Old English writings are Christian, with notable exceptions like the Runic poem and the 'erce, erce, erce...' incantation, possibly pre-Christian. Christianization introduced new terminology and fostered creative expression, evident in works like Exodus, the Dream of the Rood, and Sermo Wulfstan ad Anglos. Without Christianity, it's unlikely that Old English poetry would have survived. Christianity spurred the development of written style, notably seen in Ælfric's homilies, providing a purpose for reading and writing in Old English.

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The Rise of The Seven Great Kingdoms (Heptarchy) 600-800 A.D.

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The Rise of The Seven Great Kingdoms (Heptarchy) 600-800 A.D.

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The Heptarchy were the seven petty kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England that flourished from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century until they were consolidated in the 8th century into the four kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, and Wessex.

Germanic tribes began to make the short journey across the North Sea and began populating the British Isles in the fifth and sixth centuries AD.

West Germanic invaders from Jutland and southern Denmark:

•the Angles (whose name is the source of the words England and English)

•Saxons

• Jutes.

They spoke a mutually intelligible language, similar to modern Frisian - the language of northeastern region of the Netherlands - that is called Old English.

The term 'Heptarchy' (from the Greek ἑπταρχία, 'heptarchia'; from ἑπτά, 'hepta': "seven"; ἀρχή, 'arche': "reign, rule" and the suffix -ία, '-ia') is used because of the traditional belief that there had been seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, usually described as East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex, and Wessex.

The first known written reference to the historiographical traditional belief that there were these 'seven kingdoms' was in Henry of Huntingdon's 12th century work, Historia Anglorum; the term Heptarchy is not known to have been used to describe them until the 16th century.

By convention, the Heptarchy period lasted from the end of Roman rule in Britain in the 5th century, until most of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms came under the overlordship of Egbert of Wessex in 829. This approximately 400-year period of European history is often referred to as the Early Middle Agesor, more controversially, as the Dark Ages.

Although heptarchy suggests the existence of seven kingdoms, the term is just used as a label of convenience and does not imply the existence of a clear-cut or stable group of seven kingdoms.

In the late 6th century, the king of Kent was a prominent lord in the south.

In the 7th century, the rulers of Northumbria and Wessex were powerful.

In the 8th century, Mercia achieved hegemony over the other surviving kingdoms, particularly during the reign of Offa the Great.

Four major dialects of Old English emerged, Northumbrian in the north of England, Mercian in the Midlands, West Saxon in the south and west, and Kentish in the Southeast.

Old English reflected the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon kingdomsestablished in different parts of Britain. The Late West Saxon dialect eventually became dominant.

Written records of each OE dialect:

-Northumbrian (Franks' casket, Ruthwell cross, Caedmon's hymns),

-Mercian (translation of the Psalter),

-Kentish (psalms),

-West Saxon (The Anglo-Saxon chronicle, the translation of a philosophical treatise Cura Pastoralis, King Alfred's Orosius - a book on history).

The decline of the Heptarchy and the eventual emergence of the kingdom of England was a drawn-out process, taking place over the course of the 9th to 10th centuries. In the 9th century, the Danish enclave at York expanded into the Danelaw, with about half of England under Danish rule.