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When we eat food, we take the nutrients out and turn it into energy to keep our bodies operating. Waste is left after our bodies take out everything useful. The urinary system gets rid of the liquid waste from this process. It also works to keep chemicals and water in balance inside the body. The kidney, which is an important organ in the urinary system, functions to control blood pressure and produce erythropoietin (which controls the production of red blood cells in marrow). This system also works with the endocrine  system to secrete hormones.

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- Kidneys: Two bean-shaped organs located below the diaphragm with one on each side of the spine. Each kidney can be split into two major parts; the outer renal cortex and the inner renal medulla. Each kidney also has up to 18 renal lobes, which is a part of the kidney that is made up of a part of the renal pyramid and the adjacent renal cortex. The kidneys’ main function is to filter. They filter extra water and waste from blood. To do this, the kidneys are comprised of millions of nephrons. These nephrons filter out the waste from the blood and put the good stuff back in after the filtration. This process creates urine, which carries the waste away to be excreted from the body. The kidneys also function to create certain hormones. Hormones created by the kidneys regulate blood pressure and keep bones healthy.
- Ureters: There are two ureters in the human body, one connecting from each liver and leading to the bladder. They are comprised of three layers and are typically about 10-12 inches long. Typically, gravity will take urine from the kidney through the ureters and into the bladder. However, sometimes that isn’t possible. In those cases, smooth muscle contraction of the ureters drain the urine. Ureters allow for efficient movement of waste out of the body.
- Bladder: The bladder is an elastic organ that stores urine before it exits the body. It is spherical in shape, but its volume varies per person (a bladder can hold up to 16 ounces of urine in adults). In males, the bladder is located in between the rectum and the pubic symphysis. However, in females, it is between the vagina and uterus. The tissues that make up the bladder contribute to its elasticity. These are the transitional epithelium, visceral muscle tissues, and elastic fibers. The bladder stretches as urine is put into it from the kidney by the ureters and deflates as urine is excreted. - Urethra: The urethra is located below the bladder. It is a canal that allows the urine to exit the bladder and the body. Males have much longer urethras than females. Like the lengths, the functions of the urethra differ between genders as well. In females, the urethra solely functions to excrete urine. In males, the urethra functions to excrete both urine and semen.

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Urinary System's Relationship to Other Systems

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Urinary System's Relationship to Other Systems

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The urinary system works closely with the endocrine system. The endocrine system works to secrete chemicals that helps the kidneys do their job. There is an adrenal gland located on top of each kidney. These glands secrete the aforementioned chemicals, mainly aldosterone and cortisol. These chemicals allow the kidney to burn fat, defend against illness, and regulate both blood sugar and pressure.
The urinary system also connects to the circulatory system. Kidney function depends on blood supply. The kidneys filter all blood that runs through them as the blood returns to the heart. They controls the salt and water levels and removes waste. They turn the waste that comes from the filtration into urine, drain it from the kidneys through the ureters, and excrete the waste. Once the kidneys clean the blood, the blood can return to the heart and then oxygenate the body.

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Like humans, frogs produce urine in their kidneys, transport it through the ureters to the bladder, and excrete it. However, frogs have a cloaca and we do not. Their cloaca serves as the only orifice for the digestive, urinary, and reproductive system. We have separate openings for each system.

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UTIs, or Urinary Tract Infections, are very common. There are 8.1 million cases each year in the United States. These are more common in women than in men. This is because women has shorter urethras, so the bacteria that causes UTIs has quicker access to the bladder. Most cases of UTIs come from sex or from wiping from back to front. The symptoms of a UTI are pain in lower abdomen and during urination or sexual intercourse. Urine can smell foul and/or be cloudy or dark. You can feel fatigued and have cramps. UTIs can be treated with antibiotics and can be prevented by urinating after intercourse and wiping from front to back.

Kidney stones are also common, with 200,000 cases per year. There are many types of kidney stones; calcium, struvite, uric acid, and cystine. Each has a different cause. Calcium stones are the most common and come from when there is a higher than normal concentration of calcium or oxalate in urine. Symptoms associated with kidney stones include severe pain below ribs, pain in urination, nausea, vomiting, cloudy urine, fever, and persistent need to urinate. Doctors can diagnose kidney stones through blood and urine testing and x-rays. Small stones can be passed by drinking lots of water and taking lots of pain relievers. Larger stones can require surgery or need to be broken up using sound waves.

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Bradford, A. (2016, June 8). Kidneys: Facts, Functions, & Diseases. Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/52047-kidneys.html

Human Physiology/The Urinary System. (2017, April 13). Retrieved from https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_Urinary_System#Functions_of_the_Urinary_System

Kidney Stones. (2018, March 08). Retrieved from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kidney-stones/symptoms-causes/syc-20355755

Quinlan, S. (2017, November 21). Anatomy of the Internal Organs of a Frog. Retrieved from http://animals.mom.me/anatomy-internal-organs-frog-1114.html

Taylor, T. (2015, March 25). Ureter. Retrieved from http://www.innerbody.com/image_urinov/repo15-new2.html

Taylor, T. (n.d.). Urinary Bladder - Anatomy and Physiology. Retrieved from http://www.innerbody.com/image_dige05/dige15.html

Writer, C. (2017, September 25). What Systems Does the Urinary System Work With? Retrieved from https://healthfully.com/systems-does-urinary-system-work-4571111.html

Your Guide to Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs). (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.webmd.com/women/guide/your-guide-urinary-tract-infections

Zimmermann, K. A. (2018, March 6). Urinary System: Facts, Functions, & Diseases. Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/27012-urinary-system.html

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The lymphatic system works to transport lymph, maintain fluid balance and immunity, and absorb fats. It consists of lymphatic vessels in the network of organs and tissues. These lymphatic vessels move lymph around the body as it helps the body fight infection by carrying white blood cells around.

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- Lymphatic vessels: The lymphatic vessels are a web of narrow structures with valves that move lymph around the body. They have a layer of smooth muscle around them that connect them to the tissue around them. These vessels are also a lot like blood vessels. The contraction of the valves prevents back flow of the lymph and allows lymph to be transported under low pressure.

- Tonsils: There are two tonsils, each located at the back of the throat. They are

pink, covered in of crypts, which are depressions in the tonsils, and are made up of three kinds of tonsil, these types are lingual, palatine, and pharyngeal. The tonsils are the body’s first line of defense against any intruders coming through the throat. To do this, the tonsils release lymphocytes. These lymphocytes grab bacteria and other harmful intruders before they go any farther. This action prevents respiratory infection and other various problems that could be caused by the inhalation of other said infectious organisms.

- Adenoids: Adenoids are often associated with tonsils, but they are located above the tonsils. They do work together, but they aren’t the same thing. Adenoids also trap germs, like the tonsils, but are only in children and babies. They do very useful work, as a very young child can’t handle an infection or an illness very well. The adenoids are essentially extra protection for kids. These shrink after age five and are pretty much gone by age 13 or 14. Adenoids often swell as they try to fight off germs. This is a common issue that can lead to a stuffy nose, swollen glands, and ear problems and can be solved easily with antibiotics or removal.

- Spleen: The spleen can be found in the left side of the abdomen in between the ribs and the stomach. Spleens are composed of red pulp tissue and and white pulp tissue, both have different functions. The red cleans blood and replaces damaged cells, while the white assists the immune system. While the spleen filters the blood, it retains useful components so it can use them to build new red blood cells. While doing that, it can also grow and shrink to hold more or less blood.

- Thymus: The thymus is a gland located between the sternum and the heart. It is composed of two fibrous lobes and it grows through childhood and then goes on to shrink after puberty. This is because this gland becomes less necessary as you mature. This gland’s main function is to develop T cells. These cells defend the body against pathogens. To do this, the thymus takes immature T cells that come from the bone marrow and test them against various antigens. If the T cells are responsive against the antigens, they are allowed to divide and be spread. Through this process, only about 2% of these T cells make it to full maturity.

- Lymph nodes: Lymph nodes are oval/bean-shaped tissue masses that can be found throughout the body, but are found in their largest quantities in the armpits, groin, and neck. These nodes do two things, filter lymph and help construct immune responses. As lymph passes through the body, it can pick up dangerous pathogens. When the lymph passes through the lymph nodes, the bacteria, viruses, and fungi are filtered out. To help with the immune system, the lymph nodes contain B and T cells. B cells activate when they sense antigens in the system. This leads to the antigen being labelled as harmful and antibodies being created to fight it. The T cells go on to assist with getting rid of the harmful intruders.

- Appendix: This narrow, four-inch long organ can be found extending from the bottom of the cecum of the large intestine. While its function is debated, its function in the lymphatic system is thought to be that it contains helpful bacteria that helps us in times of illness or infection. The bacteria can survive in the appendix post-excretion. This allows it can re-grow in the intestines to help further fight infection.

- Lacteals: Lacteals are lymphatic capillaries that are located in the small intestine. In the small intestine, they absorb fats. The lacteals function to transport chyle in the intestines. Chyle is a type of lymph that contains free fatty acids and is formed after the digestion of fats. The lacteals take this chyle and move it to the lymph vessels and then then to the cisterna chyli and finally to the thoracic duct. Through this transportation, the chyle gives its lymph and fat to the blood.

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Lymphatic System's Relationship to Other System

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Lymphatic System's Relationship to Other System

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The lymphatic and cardiovascular system works closely together, mostly because the lymphatic system assists the cardiovascular system. The lymphatic system, using organs like the spleen, cleans the blood and replaces the weak or damaged cells with stronger and newer ones. Many organs of the lymphatic system, like the thymus gland, the lymph nodes, and the spleen, create and transport various types of white blood cells. Blood vessels often leak fluid, and the lymphatic system returns that fluid to the cardiovascular system.
The lymphatic system also collaborates with the muscular system. Skeletal muscles allow lymph to be moved around through pumping and keep it from going with the flow of gravity. If the muscles did not move the lymph, the muscles would feel edema. Layers of muscle protect lymph nodes all over the body. The lymphatic system also helps protect muscles from certain pathogens and lymph returns leaked proteins and other important fluids to the muscles.

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Frogs have lymph that circulates around the body, just like we do. Frogs don’t have adenoids or tonsils, unlike us. Frogs have lymph hearts, which pump lymph that has leaked out back into the blood. We do not have these lymph hearts. Frogs have a coelom. This is a body cavity that contains a type of lymph called coelomic fluid. We have a coelom during development, but it eventually turns into what we call our pleural cavity, along with other cavities.

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Medical Problems of the Lymphatic System 

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Medical Problems of the Lymphatic System 

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Lymphoma is a form of cancer that affects the lymphatic system. This cancer starts in the infection-fighting cells called lymphocytes that are located all over the body, starting from the spleen, thymus gland, and lymph nodes. There are two types of lymphoma; Hodgkin and Non-Hodgkin. The difference is that the two kinds each affect two different kinds of lymphocytes, and Non-Hodgkin can be further identified based on whether it affects T or B cells. Hodgkin affects people from ages 15-35 or over 50. Non-Hodgkin is the seventh most common cancer and can affect anyone ages 14 and up, but is most common in people aged 60 and up. People with lymphoma often have swollen glands, fatigue, weight loss, and shortness of breath. Lymphoma is very curable and can be treated with chemo, immunotherapy, and radiation therapy.

Tonsil stones are debris that ends up getting trapped and then calcifies on the tonsils. This is most common for people who have chronic tonsil inflammation or have tonsillitis frequently. Tonsil stones can lead to bad breath, a sore throat, difficulty swallowing, and ear pain. They can be removed at-home or surgically. Antibiotics and salt water gargles can also ease the symptoms.

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Bailey, R. (2017, November 7). All About Lymph Nodes. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/lymph-nodes-anatomy-373244

Cook, S. P. (Ed.). (2016, April). All About Adenoids. Retrieved from https://kidshealth.org/en/kids/adenoids.html

https://www.livescience.com/44725-spleen.html

Gromisch, M. (2017, August 14). Functions of the Tonsils. Retrieved from https://www.livestrong.com/article/180946-functions-of-the-tonsils/

Harwood, J., Wilkin, D., Kraus, D., Gray-Wilson, N., Brainard, J., Johnson, S., . . . Karasov, C. (2018, May 22). Lymphatic System. Retrieved from https://www.ck12.org/biology/lymphatic-system/lesson/Circulation-and-the-Lymphatic-System-MS-LS/

Huntington, H. (2017, September 30). How Is the Lymphatic System Related to the Cardiovascular System? Retrieved from https://healthyliving.azcentral.com/how-is-the-lymphatic-system-related-to-the-cardiovascular-system-12192611.html

Lymphatic Vessels. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ap/chapter/lymphatic-vessels/

MacGill, M. (2018, February 23). What does the lymphatic system do? Retrieved from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/303087.php

McAtee, M. (2018, May 02). What is a Lacteal? (W. Everett, Ed.). Retrieved from http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-lacteal.htm

Taylor, T. (n.d.). Appendix - Anatomy Pictures and Information. Retrieved from http://www.innerbody.com/image/dige03.html

Taylor, T. (n.d.). Thymus Gland - Anatomy Pictures and Information. Retrieved from http://www.innerbody.com/image_endoov/lymp04-new.html

Tonsil Stones (Tonsilloliths). (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.webmd.com/oral-health/guide/tonsil-stones-tonsilloliths-treatment-and-prevention#3

Womack, T. (2017, May 05). How does the lymphatic system work with other systems? Retrieved from https://prezi.com/m5nipusbea5u/how-does-the-lymphatic-system-work-with-other-systems/

Zimmermann, K. A. (2018, February 20). Lymphatic System: Facts, Functions & Diseases. Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/26983-lymphatic-system.html

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The endocrine system’s main function is to create and secrete hormones throughout the body. Hormones are very important for the human body. They regulate metabolic function, sexual development, and growth, among other things. They travel through the body in the bloodstream. This system regulates itself. It releases hormones, measures how much is in the blood, then shuts down or stays active depending on the levels.

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- Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is a region of the forebrain that secretes hormones to maintain homeostasis. It regulates blood pressure, electrolyte balance, appetite, weight, sleep cycles, and heart rate. To do this, the hypothalamus secretes various neurohormones. The anti-diuretic hormone, aka ADH, increases the blood in the kidney’s ability to absorb blood and oxytocin which is involved in body temperature and sleep cycles are two of the many aforementioned hormones.
- Pituitary gland: This gland is tiny and pea-sized and can be found at the base of the brain. The pituitary controls almost all of the other endocrine glands, but is itself controlled by the hypothalamus. To control the other glands, it senses their output and stimulates them when they need to be putting out more or less. The pituitary gland can be split into two parts, the front and back lobes. The two lobes secrete different hormones. The frontal lobe primarily secretes six main hormones; the growth, thyroid-stimulating, corticotropin, gonadotropins, and prolactin hormones. The back lobe secretes two hormones, vasopressin and oxytocin.
- Thyroid gland: This gland can be found at the top of your neck under your Adam’s apple. It is typically made up of two lobes connected by an isthmus. The thyroid uses iodine collected from food that you’ve eaten to make triiodothyronine and thyroxine. These hormones travel throughout the body in the bloodstream to maintain the speed at which the cells in the body work.
- Parathyroid glands: The parathyroid glands are a group of four tiny glands situated behind the thyroid gland. These glands maintain the levels of calcium in our body, specifically in our bones and blood. Calcium is very vital for our bodies. It strengthens our bones and provides electrical energy for the muscular and nervous systems. This is why calcium is so closely and meticulously regulated by the parathyroids.
- Adrenal glands: There are two adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. They are small and triangular-shaped and are comprised of two parts. These two parts are the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla. The cortex can be further separated into three parts and each creates its own hormone. The zona fasciculata secretes cortisol, the zona glomerulosa secretes aldosterone, and the zona reticularis secrete DHEA and androgenic steroids. The medulla secretes two of its own hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine. These are all important hormones with functions like reacting to stress and maintaining the metabolism. - Pineal gland: The pineal gland has a rich history and is still not completely understood, but it is known to produce melatonin. It is located almost right in the center of the brain and is only about ⅓ of an inch long. The hormone melatonin is involved in sleep, mainly involved in the Circadian rhythm. It also regulates reproductive hormones.
- Reproductive glands: The sex hormones released by the gonads (the ovaries and testes respectively) are considered steroid hormones. For women, the primary sex hormones released by the ovaries are estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is responsible for the growth of the breasts, vagina, pelvis, and new body hair, while progesterone regulates the uterus during menstruation, helps with ovulation, and allows for milk production. The ovaries also secrete androstenedione, activin, and inhibin. Testosterone is the main hormone secreted by the male reproductive glands. This hormone increases muscle and bone mass, develops broad shoulders and a deeper voice, and is responsible for penis growth. The testes also secrete androstenedione and inhibin.
- Pancreas: While the pancreas is also active in the digestive system, it plays a very important role in the endocrine system as well. Located below and behind the stomach, this organ secretes two vital hormones, insulin and glucagon. These hormones control the levels of glucose, or sugar, in the blood. This is integral to the health of the body. If blood sugar levels get too high, the kidney and many other organs can be damaged. If your blood sugar levels get too low, you can become hypoglycemic, which can lead to a seizure.

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Endocrine System's Relationship to Other Systems

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Endocrine System's Relationship to Other Systems

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The endocrine system uses the circulatory system to transport its hormones around the body to do their jobs. The glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream and through this they can reach the spots they need to get to. This is an efficient way to transport the hormones as the blood would already be circulating other materials.

The endocrine system also works with the digestive system through the pancreas. The pancreas is very involved in both digestion and hormone secretion. When our bodies digest carbs, they get turned into sugars. The pancreas produces insulin in response to sugar in the body. The insulin regulates the breakdown/digestion of sugar.

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Frogs use the same glands as us in their endocrine system. They have gonads, a pancreas, and adrenal, pituitary, thymus, thyroid, and parathyroid glands. However, frogs lose their thymus after maturation. Some glands have different functions than ours. For example, the thyroid in the frog regulates the shedding of the horny layer of the frog, which we don’t do.

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Medical Problems of the Endocrine System

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Medical Problems of the Endocrine System

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Hypothyroidism: Hypothyroidism is a very common condition. It is essentially an underactive thyroid. This can cause a lot of issues, such as delayed puberty, hair loss, high cholesterol, sexual dysfunction, and/or weight gain. This can be caused by inflammation of the thyroid or various medical treatments. It can be treated with hormone replacement and/or T4 supplements.

Diabetes: Diabetes, or more specifically Type 1 Diabetes, is a common chronic condition caused by the pancreas not creating any or not enough insulin. This type of diabetes is also called Juvenile Diabetes, as its onset is at a very young age. This type of diabetes can lead to nerve damage, kidney damage, eye damage, pregnancy complications, among many other dangers. Diabetes isn’t technically curable, but it can be treated and people with diabetes can live a very normal life. Treatments include taking insulin, counting carbs, fats, and proteins, monitoring blood sugar, and exercise.

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Bailey, R. (n.d.). An Introduction to Gonads and Sex Hormones. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/gonads-373484

Brady, B., MD. (2018, April 27). Thyroid Gland: Overview. Retrieved from https://www.endocrineweb.com/conditions/thyroid-nodules/thyroid-gland-controls-bodys-metabolism-how-it-works-symptoms-hyperthyroi

Chapman, I. M. (n.d.). Overview of the Pituitary Gland. Retrieved from https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/hormonal-and-metabolic-disorders/pituitary-gland-disorders/overview-of-the-pituitary-gland

Gupta, M. (2016, August 30). Endocrine System of a Toad | Zoology. Retrieved from http://www.biologydiscussion.com/toad/endocrine-system-of-a-toad-zoology/49220

How the Endocrine System Functions With Other Systems. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://endocrinesystems.weebly.com/how-the-endocrine-system-functions-with-other-systems.html

Kemp, S., MD. (n.d.). Endocrine System Anatomy, Function, Organs & Glands (M. C. Stoppler MD, Ed.). Retrieved from https://www.emedicinehealth.com/anatomy_of_the_endocrine_system/article_em.htm#pituitary_gland

Norman, J., MD. (n.d.). Hypothyroidism: Overview, Causes, and Symptoms. Retrieved from https://www.endocrineweb.com/conditions/thyroid/hypothyroidism-too-little-thyroid-hormone

Type 1 diabetes. (2017, August 07). Retrieved from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/type-1-diabetes/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353017