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Evidence to UN highlights extreme poverty in UK

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Philip Alston's visit investigating extreme poverty in the UK likely to cause political row in Britain

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Sociological Perspectives and the family

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Sociological Perspectives and the family

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Choose your organisation from the list or type your organisation name

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Type an organisation name: Which organisation would you like to sign in with?

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Values of the Traditional Family vs Modern family

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Values of the Traditional Family vs Modern family

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Values of the Traditional family (1950's) vs. Modern Family 

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Karl Marx & Conflict Theory: Crash Course Sociology #6

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During the first months of life, infants don't perceive the differences between human beings and material objects in the environment around them. Surely, they don't have yet the self-awareness, feature that characterizes human beings, intended as the awareness that one has an identity separate and independent from others. How can they develop this self-awareness? Sociologists tried to figure it out explaining this phenomenon with different theories. Here we are going to examine the studies of Mead, an American philosopher and sociologist, and Piaget, a Swiss student of child behaviour.

Mead is one of the founder of symbolic interactionism, a sociological school that emphasizes that interaction between human beings takes place through symbols and their interpretation.
As far as Mead's child development work is concerned, he focuses on the emergence of a sense of self. According to him, children imitate the actions they see around them, especially what adults do and when they play they just try to imitate their parents, teachers, family members.
When children are four or five years, they evolve from simple to more complex plays in which they act out an adult role. During this phase, children start to develop their sense of self or self-consciousness understanding they are separate from the rest of the world and they evolve their social self, the identity conferred upon an individual by the reactions of others. Thus, individuals begin to realize who they are becoming aware of how others see them.
The second stage of child development takes place when children are eight or nine years old. At this age, they play organized games with their peers, instead of the unsystematic ones they used to play before. In order to participate in these games, they have to know the rules of play and learn the concepts of fairness and equal participation. Confronting with others during these games, children start to understand the overall values and morality that lead human behaviour. This is the phase in which children grasp the generalized other, the general values and moral rules of a given group or society in which they are growing up.

Jean Piaget, instead, emphasizes the active role of the child who select and interpret what he sees, hears or feels around him. He describes distinct stages of child development focusing on cognition, human thought processes involving perception, reasoning and remembering. Each stage involves the acquisition of new skills and depends on the successful completion of the preceding one. The first stage is called sensorimotor stage, which lasts from birth up to about age two. In this phase, infants learn by touching objects and exploring the environment around them. By the end of this stage, children can distinguish people from objects and understand that their environment has distinct properties and exists independently of their immediate perceptions. The second stage is the preoperational stage, from age two to seven, in which children acquire a mastery of language and the ability to use words and images to represent objects and symbols. Children in this phase are egocentric, they tend to interpret the world around them in terms of their position. A third period, the concrete operational stage, lasts from age seven to eleven. Now children can master logical but not abstract notions and they are much less egocentric. The last stage is the formal operational stage, from age eleven to fifteen, in which the child is able to handle abstract concepts and hypothetical situations.
According to Piaget, the first three periods are universal, but not all adults reach the last one; that depends in part on processes of schooling.

Olivia Masi
Con amicizia letto da Arnaldo Mitola
Bibliography:
- GIDDENS A., DUNEIER M., APPELBAUM R.P., CARR D., Essentials of Sociology, Norton, 2012.

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During the first months of life, infants don't perceive the differences between human beings and material objects in the environment around them. Surely, they don't have yet the self-awareness, feature that characterizes human beings, intended as the awareness that one has an identity separate and independent from others.

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The majority of children in both Growing Up In Scotland birth cohorts were born to mothers who were aged between 20 and 39 years old. Mothers of children born in 2010/11 (Birth Cohort 2) were more likely to be in their twenties (41% for BC1, 46% for BC2) and less likely to be in their thirties (48% for BC1, 44% for BC2) or ager 20 (8% for BC1, 6% for BC2).
Children born in 2010/11 (BC2) were more likely than children born in 2004/5 (BC1) to be living in households with at least one adult educated to degree level (42% versus 34%).

At 10 months of age, 79% of babies live with two parents while 21% live with a single parent.

At this time, 50% of parents were married, 29% were cohabiting, 19% were single and 2% were either separated or divorced.

More than half (53%) of families with a 10-month old baby in 2011/12 had no savings or investments

5% in BC2 of children are from an ethnic minority background.

Over half (53%) of babies in Birth Cohort 2 aged 10 months have 4 grandparents alive. One third have between 1 and 3 grandparents. 13% of parents say that their children have more than 4 grandparents, as a result of re-partnering (of parents and/or grandparents).

Children from more advantaged circumstances (high household income, least deprived areas) are more likely to be reported as having good health.

Children born in 2010/11(BC2) were more likely than those born in 2004/5 (BC1) to have a long-term health condition (BC1 14%, BC2 17%).

95% of children aged 10 months in 2011/12 (BC2) were described by their main carers as having 'very good' or 'good' health. This proportion has remained stable since 2005/06 (BC1).

12% of babies in BC2 had a long-term condition or illness. Boys (13%) are more likely than girls (10%) to have a long-term condition or illness.

5% of parents in BC2 reported some or a lot of concerns about their child's development, learning, or behaviour. This is a reduction from 8% in 2005/06.

9% of parents in the lowest household income group had concerns, compared with 4% in the two highest income groups.
Parenting and children's health
Policy measures to strengthen parenting skills may benefit children's physical and mental health. The health benefits of better parenting appear greatest for families experiencing higher levels of family adversity.

However, given that day-to-day parenting accounts for some, but not all of the health inequalities linked to family adversity, and family adversity remained associated with poorer health outcomes after taking account of variations in parenting, programmes to improve parenting skills are likely to form only part of the solution to a reduction of social inequalities in health.
Overweight, obesity and physical activity
During 2010/11, at age 6 (BC1), 22% of children in Scotland were overweight or obese. (9% of children were obes overall.)

The factors associated with a child being overweight or obese were: mothers being overweight or obese, frequent snacking on sweets or crisps as a toddler, skipping breakfast, not eating the main meal in a dining area of the home and low parental supervision generally. Mothers having a long-term health problem and mothers classing their local neighbourhood as not 'child-friendly' were also risk factors for children being overweight or obese at age 6.

Neither low physical activity or high 'screen time' were associated with overweight or obesity. This is a common finding in studies looking at children at this age.

Most mothers with an overweight or obese child described their child's weight as 'normal', with only 14% recognising their child as overweight. Mother's recognition of overweight was associated with greater concern for their child's weight but greater recognition and concern at age 4 was not associated with child weight loss by age 6.

These findings suggest that 'whole family' approaches to reducing and preventing child obesity might be more effective than approaches that focus on the child only. At the neighbourhood level, better access to places where children can be physically active in a safe environment, including attractive green spaces, may increase activity levels and reduce sedentary behaviour.
At three years of age, children born in 2010/11 (BC2) had a slightly higher vocabulary score than children born in 2004/5 (BC1). The increase in vocabulary ability between cohorts was experienced by children living in all the different socio-economic sub-groups. Time spent watching television has been shown to be strongly associated with disadvantage (low-income households, low levels of parental education and high area deprivation). In both GUS birth cohorts, 3-year-old children from more disadvantaged households were more likely to watch television for more than 3 hours on a typical weekday and over the course of a weekend. Cognitive development
Children who experience a wide range of activities from an early age (like being read to, singing nursery rhymes and drawing) score higher in cognitive ability tests at age 3 than children with less experience of these activities.

Children from less advantaged households are less likely to experience a wide range of 'home learning' activities than children from more advantaged households.

Experiencing a wide range of activities from an early age does have an impact on cognitive development and can moderate - although by no means eradicate - the effects of socio-demographic advantage.
Social, emotional and behavioural development
Social, emotional and behavioural development is measured using the SDQ (Strengths and Weaknesses Questionnaire) a brief behavioural screening tool designed for use with 3-16 year olds.

At the point of entry to primary school, most children in Scotland do not have any social, emotional or behavioural difficulties as measured by the SDQ.

Conduct problems are the most common type of difficulty amongst children at age 5, experienced by 27% of children. 17% of children experience difficulties with hyperactivity while 15% are reported to have peer relationship problems. 10% of children have emotional difficulties at age 5. These proportions broadly match that which is expected from any community population.
Socioeconomic factors
Comparing children in the highest and lowest income quintiles:
Maternal Employment
Mothers who had a child in 2010/11(BC2) were more likely to remain in work after childbirth and during the first five years of their child's life.
GUS collects information about 'formal' support for parents in the form of services provided by the Health service, local authorities and the voluntary sector. It also collects information about 'informal' support - information, advice and help from friends, family and the local community. Formal support
Most parents see professionals as a source of help. GPs are the most commonly used formal service for families with children under 2 years. 87% of children aged 1-2 had been taken to see a GP in the last year, while 62% had seen a health visitor.

69% of first-time mothers having babies in 2010/11 (BC2) attended all or most of their antenatal classes. Younger mothers are less likely to attend classes than older mothers. The most common reasons for not attending are 'not liking the group format' and not knowing where classes were held.

Younger mothers are significantly more likely than older mothers to be wary of interference from professionals and of being judged by others. However, younger mothers are more likely than older mothers to say that they want more support from professionals like health visitors.

Parents with more negative attitudes towards services are more likely to have lower household incomes, are less likely to be in employment and more likely to have lower educational qualifications. They are also less likely to have confidence in themselves as a parent and to have low actual service use. It is unclear whether low service use results from reluctance or whether reluctance stems from prior poor experience of services.
Informal support (Birth Cohort 1)
Grandparents are a key source of support for most families in Scotland. 95% of families with children under 5 receive some type of help or support from grandparents and many receive a full range of support including regular childcare, babysitting, taking children on outings and providing financial or material support.

Around three-quarters of parents feel that they receive enough support from family and friends. One-fifth of parents feel that they do not get enough help, or none at all.

Older mothers and mothers in couple families are more likely to attend baby/toddler groups than younger mothers and lone mothers.

Parents with weaker networks of family and/or friends score lower in terms of emotional well-being than other parents with stronger networks.

Parents with stronger social networks engage in more activities with their children (such as reading stories and singing nursery rhymes) and also more open to seeking and using help and support from more formal sources when they need it.

Around half of parents (52%) regularly used childcare for their child aged 10 months in 20011/12 (BC1).

Grandparents are the most common type of childcare used in Scotland (BC2), used by 69% of families with babies using childcare. 27% of families use nurseries, 18% use 'other informal care' (friends and siblings) while 10% of families use childminders.

Many families use more than one childcare provider. 59% of families with a child aged just under 4 used more than one provider. The most common form of 'multiple' childcare arrangement is the child's grandparent(s) plus some other form of care, usually nursery.

Parents using more than one childcare provider are no less satisfied with their arrangements than parents using just one provider.

In terms of the characteristics of pre-school education that have an impact on child development outcomes between the ages of 3 and 5 - of the various characteristics considered - type of provision, quality of provision, weekly duration of attendance, the size of the pre-school setting and having attended a nursery or playgroup setting prior to starting pre-school - only the grading on the Care Inspectorate's theme of 'care and support' was found to be associated with assessed child outcomes, after controlling for differences in children's backgrounds.

On average, 4 year olds in 2014 spent just over two hours per week longer at their main Early Learning or Childcare provider than 4 year olds in 2008/09.
Entry to school
87% of children started school the year they were eligible to while 13% were deferred until the following school year. Almost half of all children born during January and February were deferred. Boys were more likely than girls to experience deferred entry - 15% of boys, compared with 9% of girls. The rate of deferral did not vary by parents' level of education, household income or area deprivation. The most common reasons given for deferral were that parents felt that their child was 'not ready for school' (44%) or not old enough (32%). 5% of parents had deferred following advice from their child's nursery.
The transition to school
Most parents felt that their child had been ready to start school but children starting school aged under 5 and those starting at over 5.5 years (and more likely to have been deferred) were more likely to be perceived as less ready.

Almost all parents had done some activities to prepare their child for school, like visiting the school, talking to their child about school and practising letters and numbers. Parents with higher levels of education were more likely to have done a greater number of preparation activities than those with lower educational qualifications.

Most parents (92%) said that their child had adjusted well to school. However about one third of children had complained about school or were sometimes reluctant to go. Boys had more problems adjusting than girls, as did children with higher social, emotional and behavioural difficulties scores and lower cognitive ability scores.
Contact with the school and teachers
The majority of parents (94%) had attended a parents' evening since their child started P1. The main reasons for attending were to find out about their child's progress (81%) and to ask if their child had settled in well and made friends (22%). Almost half of parents had spoken to their child's teacher outwith a parents' event. 86% of parents felt their child's teacher knew their child well and him or her appropriate support.

Two-thirds of parents had received information or advice from the school about how to help their child to learn. Almost all of these parents found the information useful.
Parental involvement
Parents were asked whether they had participated in a range of activities since their child had started Primary 1. The most common activity was visiting the child's classroom (86%) followed by attending a school event in which their child had participated (81%). 24% of parents had attended a Parent Council, PTA or other such meeting while 19% of parents had volunteered in the classroom, school office or library.

5% of parents had not taken part in any activities or event at their child's school. Couple families, older mothers, parents in less deprived areas and those with higher educational qualifications reported higher levels of involvement.
These findings are from a project that investigated family and school influences on children's social and emotional well-being at age 7 (BC1). Both children's behavioural and emotional difficulties and their subjective well-being are considered.
11% of children have high levels of behavioural and emotional problems as assessed through the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) - parent reported.

For the purposes of the analysis, 25% of children were classed as having low life satisfaction, as assessed using an abbreviated version of the Huebner Life Satisfaction Scale, developed for use with children aged 7-14. Children were asked to respond to 5 items (Do you ... feel that your life is going well, wish your life was different, feel that your life is just right, feel you have what you want in life, feel that you have a good life?) using a 4-point scale (never, sometimes, often, always).

Children with high levels of emotional and behavioural difficulties are more likely to report low levels of life satisfaction (39%) than those with normal levels (24%).

Factors associated with both child mental health problems (behavioural and emotional difficulties) and low subjective well-being are: greater mother-child conflict and lower parental knowledge of the child's activities and relationships when not at school; difficulties adjusting to the learning and social environment at primary school; and the child having poorer quality friendships with other children.

Economic factors and some other aspects of family life (including family structure and the child's leisure activities) are not clearly associated with either measure of social and emotional well-being, after allowing for other influences.

Family stressors such as poor maternal health, family mental health/ substance use problems and low maternal warmth are associated with child mental health problems but not child subjective well-being.

Experiencing a recent death, illness or accident in the family, and less positive parenting were associated with children's subjective well-being, irrespective of levels of behavioural and emotional difficulties.

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The majority of children in both Growing Up In Scotland birth cohorts were born to mothers who were aged between 20 and 39 years old. Mothers of children born in 2010/11 (Birth Cohort 2) were more likely to be in their twenties (41% for BC1, 46% for BC2) and less likely to be in their thirties (48% for BC1, 44% for BC2) or ager 20 (8% for BC1, 6% for BC2).

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It works collaboratively with research participants, service users, practitioners and policymakers, and is committed to challenging rather than reinforcing current hierarchies and exclusions to inform policies and practices that shape the lives of children and families.

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It works collaboratively with research participants, service users, practitioners and policymakers, and is committed to challenging rather than reinforcing current hierarchies and exclusions to inform policies and practices that shape the lives of children and families.

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The 3-Step Improvement Framework for Scotland’s Public Services

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The Functionalist Perspective

Functionalists view the family unit as a construct that fulfills important functions and keeps society running smoothly.

Learning Objectives

Explain the social functions of the family through the perspective of structural functionalism

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Functionalists identify a number of functions families typically perform: reproduction; socialization; care, protection, and emotional support; assignment of status; and regulation of sexual behavior through social norms.

For functionalists, the family creates well-integrated members of society by instilling the social culture into children.

Radcliffe-Brown proposed that most stateless, "primitive" societies, lacking strong centralized institutions, are based on an association of descent groups. These clans emerge from family units.

Key Terms

family: A group of people related by blood, marriage, law or custom.

Radcliffe-Brown: A British social anthropologist from the early twentieth century who contributed to the development of the theory of structural-functionalism.

institution: An established organization, especially one dedicated to education, public service, culture, or the care of the destitute, poor etc.

Structural functionalism is a framework that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. In this way, society is like an organism and each aspect of society (institutions, social constructs, etc.) is like an organ that works together to keep the whole functioning smoothly. This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation, which is a broad focus on the social structures that shape society as a whole. Functionalism addresses society in terms of the function of its constituent elements: norms, customs, traditions and institutions. Functionalists, in general, identify a number of functions families typically perform: reproduction; socialization; care, protection, and emotional support; assignment of status; and regulation of sexual behavior through the norm of legitimacy.

The Family

Radcliffe-Brown proposed that most stateless, "primitive" societies that lack strong centralized institutions are based on an association of corporate-descent groups. Structural functionalism also took on the argument that the basic building block of society is the nuclear family, and that the clan is an outgrowth, not vice versa. Durkheim was concerned with the question of how certain societies maintain internal stability and survive over time. Based on the metaphor above of an organism in which many parts function together to sustain the whole, Durkheim argued that complicated societies are held together by organic solidarity.

Functions of the Family

For functionalists, the family creates well-integrated members of society and instills culture into the new members of society. It provides important ascribed statuses such as social class and ethnicity to new members. It is responsible for social replacement by reproducing new members, to replace its dying members. Further, the family gives individuals property rights and also affords the assignment and maintenance of kinship order. Lastly, families offer material and emotional security and provides care and support for the individuals who need care.

The Conflict Perspective

The conflict perspective views the family as a vehicle to maintain patriarchy (gender inequality) and social inequality in society.

Learning Objectives

Analyze the family from the perspective of conflict theory

Key Takeaways

Key Points

The conflict perspective describes the inequalities that exist in all societies globally, and considers aspects of society as ways for those with power and status to maintain control over scare resources.

According to conflict theorists, the family works toward the continuance of social inequality within a society by maintaining and reinforcing the status quo.

Through inheritance, the wealthy families are able to keep their privileged social position for their members.

Conflict theorists have seen the family as a social arrangement benefiting men more than women.

Key Terms

family: A group of people related by blood, marriage, law or custom.

inheritance: The passing of title to an estate upon death.

Conflict Perspective: A perspective in the social sciences that emphasizes the social, political or material inequality of a social group; critiques the broad socio-political system; or otherwise detracts from structural functionalism and ideological conservativism.

The Conflict perspective refers to the inequalities that exist in all societies globally. Conflict theory is particularly interested in the various aspects of master status in social position-the primary identifying characteristic of an individual seen in terms of race or ethnicity, sex or gender, age, religion, ability or disability, and socio-economic status. According to the Conflict paradigm, every society is plagued by inequality based on social differences among the dominant group and all of the other groups in society. When we are analyzing any element of society from this perspective, we need to look at the structures of wealth, power and status, and the ways in which those structures maintain social, economic, political and coercive power of one group at the expense of others.

The Family

According to conflict theorists, the family works toward the continuance of social inequality within a society by maintaining and reinforcing the status quo. Because inheritance, education and social capital are transmitted through the family structure, wealthy families are able to keep their privileged social position for their members, while individuals from poor families are denied similar status.

Conflict theorists have also seen the family as a social arrangement benefiting men more than women, allowing men to maintain a position of power. The traditional family form in most cultures is patriarchal, contributing to inequality between the sexes. Males tend to have more power and females tend to have less. Traditional male roles and responsibilities are valued more than the traditional roles done by their wives (i.e., housekeeping, child rearing). The traditional family is also an inequitable structure for women and children. For example, more than 60 percent of all mothers with children under six are in the paid workforce. Even though these women spend as much (or more) time at paid jobs as their husbands, they also do more of the housework and child care.

The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

Symbolic interactionists view the family as a site of social reproduction where meanings are negotiated and maintained by family members.

Learning Objectives

Analyze family rituals through the symbolic interactionalist perspective

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Symbolic interactionism is a theory that analyzes patterns of communication, interpretation, and adjustment between individuals in society. The theory is a framework for understanding how individuals interact with each other and within society through the meanings of symbols.

Role-taking is a key mechanism that permits an individual to appreciate another person's perspective and to understand what an action might mean to that person. Role-taking emerges at an early age through activities such as playing house.

Symbolic interactionists explore the changing meanings attached to family. Symbolic interactionists argue that shared activities help to build emotional bonds, and that marriage and family relationships are based on negotiated meanings.

The interactionist perspective emphasizes that families reinforce and rejuvenate bonds through symbolic rituals such as family meals and holidays.

Key Terms

family: A group of people related by blood, marriage, law or custom.

ritual: Rite; a repeated set of actions

bonds: Ties and relationships between individuals.

Symbolic interactionism is a social theory that focuses on the analysis of patterns of communication, interpretation, and adjustment between individuals in relation to the meanings of symbols. According to the theory, an individual's verbal and nonverbal responses are constructed in expectation of how the initial speaker will react.

This emphasis on symbols, negotiated meaning, and the construction of society as an aspect of symbolic interactionism focuses attention on the roles that people play in society. Role-taking is a key mechanism through which an individual can appreciate another person's perspective and better understand the significance of a particular action to that person. Role-taking begins at an early age, through such activities as playing house and pretending to be different people. These activities have an improvisational quality that contrasts with, say, an actor's scripted role-playing. In social contexts, the uncertainty of roles places the burden of role-making on the people in a given situation.

Ethnomethodology, an offshoot of symbolic interactionism, examines how people's interactions can create the illusion of a shared social order despite a lack of mutual understanding and the presence of differing perspectives. Harold Garfinkel demonstrated this situation through so-called experiments in trust, or breaching experiments, wherein students would interrupt ordinary conversations because they refused to take for granted that they knew what the other person was saying.

The Family

Symbolic interactionists also explore the changing meanings attached to family. They argue that shared activities help to build emotional bonds among family members, and that marriage and family relationships are based on negotiated meanings. The interactionist perspective emphasizes that families reinforce and rejuvenate bonds through symbolic mechanism rituals such as family meals and holidays.

The Feminist Perspective

Feminists view the family as a historical institution that has maintained and perpetuated sexual inequalities.

Learning Objectives

Describe the goals of first and second-wave feminism

Key Takeaways

Key Points

Feminism is a broad term that is the result of several historical social movements attempting to gain equal economic, political, and social rights for women.

First-wave feminism focused mainly on legal equality, such as voting, education, employment, the marriage laws, and the plight of intelligent, white, middle-class women.

Second-wave feminism went a step further is seeking equality in family, employment, reproductive rights, and sexuality.

Both feminist and masculinist authors have decried predetermined gender roles as unjust.

Key Terms

gender: The socio-cultural phenomenon of the division of people into various categories such as male and female, with each having associated roles, expectations, stereotypes, etc.

Feminism is a broad term that is the result of several historical social movements attempting to gain equal economic, political, and social rights for women. First-wave feminism focused mainly on legal equality, such as voting, education, employment, marriage laws, and the plight of intelligent, white, middle-class women. Second-wave feminism went a step further by seeking equality in family, employment, reproductive rights, and sexuality. Although there was great improvements with perceptions and representations of women that extended globally, the movement was not unified and several different forms of feminism began to emerge: black feminism, lesbian feminism, liberal feminism, and social feminism.

Sociology of Motherhood

In many cultures, especially in a traditional western one, a mother is usually the wife in a married couple. Her role in the family is celebrated on Mother's Day. Some often view mothers' duties as raising and looking after their children every minute of every day. Mothers frequently have a very important role in raising offspring, and the title can be given to a non-biological mother that fills this role. This is common in stepmothers (female married to biological father). In most family structures, the mother is both a biological parent and a primary caregiver.

However, this limited role has increasingly been called into question. Both feminist and masculist authors have decried such predetermined roles as unjust. In the United States, 82.5 million women are mothers of all ages, while the national average age of first child births is 25.1 years. In 2008, 10% of births were to teenage girls, and 14% were to women ages 35 and older.

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Functionalists view the family unit as a construct that fulfills important functions and keeps society running smoothly. Explain the social functions of the family through the perspective of structural functionalism Key Points Functionalists identify a number of functions families typically perform: reproduction; socialization; care, protection, and emotional support; assignment of status; and regulation of sexual behavior through social norms. For functionalists, the family creates well-integrated members of society by instilling the social culture into children.

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National Guidance for Child Protection in Scotland 2014

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Cathy Nutbrown

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The Children and Young People's Commissioner Scotland

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The Children and Young People's Commissioner Scotland

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The Children and Young People's Commissioner Scotland is Nicola Killean. She works with her team to protect the human rights of children and young people.

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National Care Standards Principles

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What are Human Rights?

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A human rights based approach.