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Cytoplasm by Maelynn Galvez (bH0xczs id0l mALupH3et mLAt3k)

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Cytoplasm by Maelynn Galvez (bH0xczs id0l mALupH3et mLAt3k)

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• jelly like fluid that fills a cell
• made up of mostly water and salt
• both on animal and plant cell
(but seriously, cYTOPLASM HOLDS EVERYTHING (not really everything but every organelle but you get my point))

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Mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles that can be considered the power generators of the cell, converting oxygen and nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the chemical energy "currency" of the cell that powers the cell's metabolic activities.

AYPA DELA CRUZ NG BOHAII NIYOOOO <3

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: If the cell needs less energy, the mitochondria will die.
: Mitochondria are too small to be seen by a light microscope.
: Mitochondria are unique for having a double membrane.
MARRIANNE LANUZA MAGANDA 💙💚💛💜💓💕💖💗💘💝💞💟

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ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (edited))--- T R I X I E*A N N E*G A Y L E * C A B U A N G
It is an interconnected network of flattened sacs or tubes encased in membranes.ER occurs in almost every type of eukaryotic cell except red blood cells and sperm cells. This includes the folding and transport of various proteins, specifically carrying them to the Golgi apparatus.Endoplasmic reticulum has two types:
---Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
=this type if ER is studded with ribosomes. This ER is especially prominent in  certain kinds of cell like hepatocytes where active protein synthesis occur.
---Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
=This type of ER doesn't have ribosomes and is very important to the process of metabolism.

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Nucleus is a membrane-enclosed organelle. It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with large variety of proteins, such as histones to form chromosomes.

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an organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur. It has a double membrane, the inner layer being folded inward to form layers (cristae).YOU CANNOT BREATH WITHOUT ME!!! -ISAAC BATICOS

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ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM BY- T R I X I E*A N N E *      G A Y L E*C A B U A N G

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ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM BY- T R I X I E*A N N E *      G A Y L E*C A B U A N G

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ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM ka ba?

---kasi kapag mawala ka halos namumutla na ko. </3

             (booooooooooooommmmmmmmm!!!!!!)The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle found in the cells of eukaryotic organisms. It is an interconnected network of flattened sacs or tubes encased in membranes. These membranes are continuous, joining with the outer membrane of the nuclear membrane. ER occurs in almost every type of eukaryotic cell except red blood cells and sperm cells.   Endoplasmic reticulum has two types, rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). Rough ER is studded with ribosomes, the site of protein synthesis. This type of ER is especially prominent in certain kinds of cells like hepatocytes where active protein synthesis occurs. Smooth ER doesn't have ribosomes and is very important to the process of metabolism.   Endoplasmic reticulum has a number of jobs within the cell. This includes the folding and transport of various proteins, specifically carrying them to the Golgi apparatus. Someother proteins, mostly the glycoproteins, move across the ER's membrane.   The ER is also responsible for marking these proteins that it transports with a signal sequence. Other proteins are headed outside the ER, so they are packed into transport vesicles and moved out of the cell via the cytoskeleton.   Basically, the ER is the transportation system of the eukaryotic cell, and its proteins are contained within it until they are needed to move.

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ENPLASMIC RETICULUM IIII BY: JEROME BRYAN VIRGO POGI

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ENPLASMIC RETICULUM IIII BY: JEROME BRYAN VIRGO POGI

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The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a type of organelle in eukaryotic cells that forms an interconnected network of flattened, membrane-enclosed sacs or tube-like structures known as cisternae. The membranes of the ER are continuous with the outer nuclear membrane. The endoplasmic reticulum occurs in most types of eukaryotic cells, but is absent from red blood cells and spermatozoa. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: rough and smooth. The outer (cytosolic) face of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded with ribosomes that are the sites of protein synthesis. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is especially prominent in cells such as hepatocytes. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum lacks ribosomes and functions in lipid manufacture and metabolism, the production of steroid hormones, and detoxification.[1] The smooth ER is especially abundant in mammalian liver and gonad cells. The lacy membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum were first seen in 1945 using electron microscopy.

VIRGO BURST

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Kaya pala nahirapan si  Goku na patayin si Cell. Kasi meron syang cell wall

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Kaya pala nahirapan si  Goku na patayin si Cell. Kasi meron syang cell wall

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Cell Wall

A cell wall is a structural layer surrounding some types of cells, situated outside the cell membrane. It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid. It provides the cell with both structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mechanism. Cell walls are present in most prokaryotes (except mycoplasma bacteria), in algae, plants and fungi but rarely in other eukaryotes including animals. A major function is to act as pressure vessels, preventing over-expansion of the cell when water enters.

The composition of cell walls varies between species and may depend on cell type and developmental stage. The primary cell wall of land plants is composed of the polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin. Often, other polymers such as lignin, suberin or cutin are anchored to or embedded in plant cell walls. Algae possess cell walls made of glycoproteins and polysaccharides such as carrageenan and agar that are absent from land plants. In bacteria, the cell wall is composed of peptidoglycan. The cell walls of archaea have various compositions, and may be formed of glycoprotein S-layers, pseudopeptidoglycan, or polysaccharides. Fungi possess cell walls made of the glucosamine polymer chitin. Unusually, diatoms have a cell wall composed of biogenic silica.

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If my right leg is the cell wall and my left the cytoplasm, do you want to be the cell membrane?

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If my right leg is the cell wall and my left the cytoplasm, do you want to be the cell membrane?

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•Cell Membrane•

The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane) is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells. The basic function of the cell membrane is to protect the cell from its surroundings.

It consists of the lipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall, glycocalyx, and intracellular cytoskeleton. Cell membranes can be artificially reassembled.

CELL MEMBRANE FUNCTION

The cell membrane (plasma membrane) is a thin semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell. Its function is to protect the integrity of the interior of the cell by allowing certain substances into the cell, while keeping other substances out. It also serves as a base of attachment for the cytoskeleton in some organisms and the cell wall in others. Thus the cell membrane also serves to help support the cell and help maintain its shape. Another function of the membrane is to regulate cell growth through the balance of endocytosis and exocytosis. In endocytosis, lipids and proteins are removed from the cell membrane as substances are internalized. In exocytosis, vesicles containing lipids and proteins fuse with the cell membrane increasing cell size. Animal cells, plant cells, prokaryotic cells, and fungal cells have plasma membranes. Internal organelles are also encased by membranes.

CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTURE

The cell membrane is primarily composed of a mix of proteins and lipids. Depending on the membrane’s location and role in the body, lipids can make up anywhere from 20 to 80 percent of the membrane, with the remainder being proteins. While lipids help to give membranes their flexibility, proteins monitor and maintain the cell's chemical climate and assist in the transfer of molecules across the membrane.

Cell Membrane Lipids

Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes. Phospholipids form a lipid bilayer in which their hydrophillic (attracted to water) head areas spontaneously arrange to face the aqueous cytosol and the extracellular fluid, while their hydrophobic (repelled by water) tail areas face away from the cytosol and extracellular fluid. The lipid bilayer is semi-permeable, allowing only certain molecules to diffuse across the membrane.
Cholesterol is another lipid component of animal cell membranes. Cholesterol molecules are selectively dispersed between membrane phospholipids. This helps to keep cell membranes from becoming stiff by preventing phospholipids from being too closely packed together. Cholesterol is not found in the membranes of plant cells.
Glycolipids are located on cell membrane surfaces and have a carbohydrate sugar chain attached to them. They help the cell to recognize other cells of the body.

Cell Membrane Proteins

The cell membrane contains two types of associated proteins. Peripheral membrane proteins are exterior to and connected to the membrane by interactions with other proteins. Integral membrane proteins are inserted into the membrane and most pass through the membrane. Portions of these transmembrane proteins are exposed on both sides of the membrane. Cell membrane proteins have a number of different functions. Structural proteins help to give the cell support and shape. Cell membrane receptor proteins help cells communicate with their external environment through the use of hormones, neurotransmitters, and other signaling molecules. Transport proteins, such as globular proteins, transport molecules across cell membranes through facilitated diffusion. Glycoproteins have a carbohydrate chain attached to them. They are embedded in the cell membrane and help in cell to cell communications and molecule transport across the membrane.

×Alexa Macasinag×

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Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. They are organelles that act like a digestive system which takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and creates energy rich molecules for the cell. The biochemical processes of the cell are known as cellular respiration.

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“Cell Wall for Protection and Strengthening the Cell.”
“To Shape and Protect the Cell like the outside wall of a shopping mall, which provides shape and protection for it.”
• What is Cell Wall?
The cell wall is the rigid, semi-permeable protective layer in some cell types.
• What is the function of the Cell Wall?
Cell Wall is usually found in Plant Cell. The Cell Wall surrounds the Cell Membrane and giving the support by adding a layer of protection for the plant cells. It’s purpose is to shape and protect the cell.

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Isang cell wall para protektahan ang puso mong sugatan (HAHAHA)

What  is  cell  wall?

The cell wall is the rigid, semi-permeable protective layer. It provides the cell with both structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mechanism. It is an outer covering of the cell that protects the plant cell and gives it shape.

What  is  the  function  of  a  cell  wall?

Its major function is to act as pressure vessels, preventing over-expansion of the cell when water enters.

My words for you, my cell wall.
You did great. I appreciate all the love and support you've given to me. Thank you for all of the ups and downs and great memories that I will treasure in my heart forever. You guarded me, and now I feel safe. Thank you self, thank you cell wall. Thank you self for being strong. And I will keep believing that someday, they will recognize you and not your mistakes. I'll be forever grateful.

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I am the plant cell and you are my chloroplast because I can't photosynthesize and live without you
-----------------------------
Function
Chloroplasts work to convert light energy of the Sun into sugars that can be used by cells, this process is called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis depends on the lottle green chlorophyll molecules in each chloroplast.
------------------------------
Discoverer
Chloroplasts are organelles in plant and algal cells.The discoverer of chloroplasts in plany cells is Julius von Sachs he is sometimes called "The Father of Plant Physiology"

---Jea Demetrial---

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"Babe, if we were like chromosomes, you'd be my homologous pair ."

What is a chromosome?
*Chromosomes are thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of animal and plant cells.
*Each chromosome is made of protein and a single molecule of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).

What do chromosomes do?
*Chromosomes are a key part of the process that ensures DNA is accurately copied and distributed in the vast majority of cell divisions. (Still, mistakes do occur on rare occasions.)
-Addine Carreon CUTE MALUFETSZXC

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-We fit together like the sticky ends of recombinant DNA.
-If I were an enzyme, I'd be DNA helicase so I could unzip your genes.
-You give me more jolt than a mitochondria!
-Right now we’re just two RNA, but maybe we could transcribe together and become DNA.

The mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a double membrane-bound organele found in all eukaryotic organisms. Some cells in some multicellular organisms may however lack them (for example, mature mammalian red blood cells). A number of unicellular organisms, such as microsporidia, parabasalids, and diplomonads, have also reduced or transformed their mitochondria into other structures.To date, only one eukaryote, Monocercomonoides, is known to have completely lost its mitochondria. The word mitochondrion comes from the Greek μίτος, mitos, "thread", and χονδρίον, chondrion, "granule" or "grain-like". Mitochondria generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of chemical energy.

Mitochondria are commonly between 0.75 and 3 μm in diameter but vary considerably in size and structure. Unless specifically stained, they are not visible. In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in other tasks, such as signaling, cellular differentiation, and cell death, as well as maintaining control of the cell cycle and cell growth. Mitochondrial biogenesis is in turn temporally coordinated with these cellular processes. Mitochondria have been implicated in several human diseases, including mitochondrial disorders, cardiac dysfunction, heart failure and autism.

-Lyncel Marie B. Carillo

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What is a cell?
-->Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms, and is sometimes called the "building block of life." Some organisms, such as bacteria, are unicellular, consisting of a single cell.

CELL THEORY

Robert Hooke

- He first examined slices of cork under a compound microscope and noticed that it had small pours, named cells.
(to have a recall of what a compound microscope is, a compound microscope is an optical instrument for forming magnified images of small objects, consisting of an objective lens with a very short focal length and an eyepiece with a longer focal length, both lenses mounted in the same tube)

Anthony Van Leeuwenhoek

- The first man to witness a live cell under a microscope.

Ludolph Christian Treuranus and Johann Jacob

- discovered that cells were separable into individual units.

"The cell is the fundamental element of organization."
- Henri Dutrochet

HISTORY OF CELL THEORY
1665 -Robert Hooke made a simple microscope and looked at a pieve of cork and call the structures that he saw cells.
Late 1600s - Anton Van Leeuwenhoek designed his own microscope.
1838 - German scientist, Matthias Schleiden studied plant tissues and concluded that plants are made up of cells.
1839 - Theodor Schwanh reported that animal tissues were also made of cells.

-reina mangahas

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Endoplasmic Reticulum
° endoplasmic reticulum holds the protiens
endoplasmic reticulum were first seen in 1945 by Keith R. Porter, Albert Claude, Brody Meskers and Ernest F. Fullam, using electron microscopy.

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The O in Mitochondrion stands for Owsome 😂👌 

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The O in Mitochondrion stands for Owsome 😂👌 

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What is a Mitochondrion?
√ Mitochondrion is a organelle membrane-bound organelle commonly found in most cells in large numbers.

What are the functions of Mitochondrion?
√ Acts like the digestive system - takes in nutrients,breaks them down and creates energy-rich molecules for the cell
√ It generates "adenosine triphosphate" or ATP
√ It is known as the "Powerhouse of the Cell" because it provides energy to the cell. Without it,our cells will probably won't work.

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"Buti pa ang lysosomes nakakapag let go"

Definition: an organelle in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells containing degradative enzymes enclosed in a membrane.

Function: Cells produce waste like all living things. The lysosomes are the garbage disposals of the cell. When a part of the cell becomes damaged or obsolete, it is moved to the outer edge of the lysosome.

Structure: Lysosomes are surrounded by a membrane composed of phospholipids that separate the inside of the lysosomes from the membrane's external environment. Phospholipids are the same cellular molecules that make up the cell membrane surrounding the entire cell.

"In biology today,
We learned that a lysosome
Digests old wornout organelles,
And once it becomes too full,
It will burst,
And its digestive enzymes
Will destroy the cell.

I wonder if the heart will do the same,
Take in
all the lonelys,
all the misfits,
all the hurting,
Take it all in,
Until it bursts and destroys you"

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Who discovered Mitochondria
Richard Altmann was a German pathologist and histologist from Deutsch Eylau in the Province of Prussia. Altmann studied medicine in Greifswald, Königsberg, Marburg, and Giessen, obtaining a doctorate at the University of Giessen in 1877, in 1890, established them as cell organelles and called them "bioblasts". The term "mitochondria" was coined by Carl Benda in 1898. Leonor Michaelis discovered that Janus green can be used as a supravital stain for mitochondria in 1900.

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Structure of Mitochondria
A mitochondrion contains outer and inner membranes composed of phospholipid bilayers and proteins. The two membranes have different properties. Because of this double-membraned organization, there are five distinct parts to a mitochondrion.

1. The outer mitochondrial membrane, which encloses the entire organelle, is 60 to 75 angstroms (Å) thick. It has a protein-to-phospholipid ratio similar to that of the eukaryotic plasma membrane (about 1:1 by weight). It contains large numbers of integral membrane proteins called porins. These porins form channels that allow molecules of 5000 daltons or less in molecular weight to freely diffuse from one side of the membrane to the other.

2. The intermembrane space is the space between the outer membrane and the inner membrane. It is also known as perimitochondrial space. Because the outer membrane is freely permeable to small molecules, the concentrations of small molecules, such as ions and sugars, in the intermembrane space is the same as in the cytosol. However, large proteins must have a specific signaling sequence to be transported across the outer membrane, so the protein composition of this space is different from the protein composition of the cytosol. One protein that is localized to the intermembrane space in this way is cytochrome c.

3. The inner mitochondrial membrane contains proteins with five types of functions

1.   Those that perform the redox reactions of oxidative phosphorylation

2.   ATP synthase, which generates ATP in the matrix

3.   Specific transport proteins that regulate metabolite passage into and out of the matrix

4.   Protein import machinery

5.   Mitochondrial fusion and fission protein

It contains more than 151 different polypeptides, and has a very high protein-to-phospholipid ratio (more than 3:1 by weight, which is about 1 protein for 15 phospholipids). The inner membrane is home to around 1/5 of the total protein in a mitochondrion.

4. The inner mitochondrial membrane is compartmentalized into numerous cristae, which expand the surface area of the inner mitochondrial membrane, enhancing its ability to produce ATP. For typical liver mitochondria, the area of the inner membrane is about five times as large as the outer membrane. This ratio is variable and mitochondria from cells that have a greater demand for ATP, such as muscle cells, contain even more cristae. These folds are studded with small round bodies known as F₁ particles or oxysomes. These are not simple random folds but rather invaginations of the inner membrane, which can affect overall chemiosmotic function

5. The matrix is the space enclosed by the inner membrane. It contains about 2/3 of the total protein in a mitochondrion. The matrix is important in the production of ATP with the aid of the ATP synthase contained in the inner membrane. The matrix contains a highly concentrated mixture of hundreds of enzymes, special mitochondrial ribosomes, tRNA, and several copies of the mitochondrial DNA genome. Of the enzymes, the major functions include oxidation of pyruvate and fatty acids, and the citric acid cycle. Mitochondria have their own genetic material, and the machinery to manufacture their own RNAs and proteins

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what is Mitochondria?

Mitochondria - Turning on the Powerhouse

Mitochondria are specialized structures unique to the cells of animals, plants and fungi. They serve as batteries, powering various functions of the cell and the organism as a whole. Though mitochondria are an integral part of the cell, evidence shows that they evolved from primitive bacteria.
Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. They are organelles that act like a digestive system which takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and creates energy rich molecules for the cell. The biochemical processes of the cell are known as cellular respiration. Many of the reactions involved in cellular respiration happen in the mitochondria. Mitochondria are the working organelles that keep the cell full of energy.
All living organisms are built with one fundamental brick: the cell. In some cases, a single cell constitutes an entire organism. Cells contain genetic material (DNA and RNA), and they carry out essential functions, such as metabolism and protein synthesis. Cells are also capable of self-replicating. However, the level of organization varies within the cells of different organisms. Based on these differences, organisms are divided into two groups: eukaryotes and prokaryotes.

Plants, animals and fungi are all eukaryotes and have highly ordered cells. Their genetic material is packaged into a central nucleus. They also have specialized cellular components called organelles, each of which executes a specific task. Organelles such as the mitochondria, the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the golgi serve respectively to generate energy, synthesize proteins and package proteins for transport to different parts of the cell and beyond. The nucleus, as well as most eukaryotic organelles, is bound by membranes that regulate the entry and exit of proteins, enzymes and other cellular material to and from the organelle.

Prokaryotes, on the other hand, are single-celled organisms such as bacteria and archaea. Prokaryotic cells are less structured than eukaryotic cells. They have no nucleus; instead their genetic material is free-floating within the cell. They also lack the many membrane-bound organelles found in eukaryotic cells. Thus, prokaryotes have no mitochondria.
Picture of Mitochondria plant cell and animal cell

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-Nichole Odion
Robert Brown in 1833 named and discovered nucleus in plant cells.

Nucleus the most prominent organelle of the cell. The number of nuclei may vary, they may be uni-nucleate (single nucleus), bi-nucleate (two nuclei) or even multi-nucleate.

Nucleus is present in all eukaryotic cells, they may be absent in few cells like the mammalian RBCs.
The shape of the nucleus is mostly round, it may be oval, disc shaped depending on the type of cell.

It stores the cell'shereditary material, or DNA, and it coordinates the cell's activities, which include intermediary metabolism, growth, protein synthesis, and reproduction

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-Francie Luares <3
"I don't know if you've heard. Ribosomes are the reason you're alive right now"
Ribosomes are a sub organelle that makes protein. And protein is needed for many cell, and it builds and maintains body tissue and for repairing damage or directing chemical processes.

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Nucleus kaba? Dahil I can't think without you
"Nucleus"
Ang nucleus ay ang utak ng isang cell
Alam mo parang ako yung cell at ikaw yung nucleus
Wala nang iba pang katulad mo sa loob ko
Di ko kayang mamuhay pag wala ka
Dahil ikaw yung tipong wala ako pag wala ka
Ikaw yung tipong di ko makakalimutan
Dahil ikaw yung pinakamahalaga
Ikaw yung tipong mapapapanganga yung mga tao
Dahil sa mga kaya mong gawin na di nila nakikita
Ikaw yung tipong most of the time kailangan ka
Ikaw yung tipong nagcocontrol ng buhay ko
At ikaw yung tipong kailngan kong pahalagahan dahil pag nawala ka
Parang wala naring saysay ang buhay ko
Kaya't mahal maiikumpera kita sa isang Nucleus
Napakahalaga pero
Di makita ng iba

=======================NUCLEUS========================

It stores the cell's hereditary material, or DNA, and it coordinates the cell's activities, which include intermediary metabolism, growth, protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell division). Only the cells of advanced organisms, known as eukaryotes, have a nucleus.

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"Cell ka ba?"
"Bakit?"
"Kase,
I 'CELL' can't get over you."

_________________________________________________
Everything is made up cell. All living things are made up of cell. Like what was said above, you can't get over it, because it's always with you until you die.

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Mitochondrion ka ba?
Kasi ikaw nag produce ng energy sa buhay kong puno ng negativity

__ MITOCHONDRIA__
Mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles that can be considered the power generators of the cell, converting oxygen and nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the chemical energy "currency" of the cell that powers the cell's metabolic activities. This process is called aerobic respiration and is the reason animals breathe oxygen. Without mitochondria (singular, mitochondrion), higher animals would likely not exist because their cells would only be able to obtain energy from anaerobic respiration (in the absence of oxygen), a process much less efficient than aerobic respiration. In fact, mitochondria enable cells to produce 15 times more ATP than they could otherwise, and complex animals, like humans, need large amounts of energy in order to survive.

-Joshua Andrei Buhat

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^_^ Cell Membrane $_$ Created by: Juztine Eire Romero

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^_^ Cell Membrane $_$ Created by: Juztine Eire Romero

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Sana cell membrane na lang ako para makontrol ko ang mga lumalabas at mga pumapasok.

The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane) is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells. The basic function of the cell membrane is to protect the cell from its surroundings.

It consists of the lipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall, glycocalyx, and intracellular cytoskeleton. Cell membranes can be artificially reassembled.

History

Main article: History of cell membrane theory

The structure has been variously referred to by different writers as the ectoplast (de Vries, 1885), Plasmahaut (plasma skin, Pfeffer, 1877, 1891), Hautschicht (skin layer, Pfeffer, 1886; used with a different meaning by Hofmeister, 1867), plasmatic membrane (Pfeffer, 1900), plasma membrane, cytoplasmic membrane, cell envelope and cell membrane.

Some authors that did not believe that there was a functional permeable boundary at the surface of the cell preferred to use the term plasmalemma (coined by Mast, 1924) for the external region of the cell.

Function

A detailed diagram of the cell membrane

Illustration depicting cellular diffusion

The cell membrane (or plasma membrane or plasmalemma) surrounds the cytoplasm of living cells, physically separating the intracellular components from the extracellular environment. The cell membrane also plays a role in anchoring the cytoskeleton to provide shape to the cell, and in attaching to the extracellular matrix and other cells to hold them together to form tissues. Fungi, bacteria, most archaea, and plants also have a cell wall, which provides a mechanical support to the cell and precludes the passage of larger molecules.

The cell membrane is selectively permeable and able to regulate what enters and exits the cell, thus facilitating the transport of materials needed for survival. The movement of substances across the membrane can be either "passive", occurring without the input of cellular energy, or "active", requiring the cell to expend energy in transporting it. The membrane also maintains the cell potential. The cell membrane thus works as a selective filter that allows only certain things to come inside or go outside the cell. The cell employs a number of transport mechanisms that involve biological membranes:

1. Passive osmosis and diffusion: Some substances (small molecules, ions) such as carbon dioxide (CO₂) and oxygen (O₂), can move across the plasma membrane by diffusion, which is a passive transport process. Because the membrane acts as a barrier for certain molecules and ions, they can occur in different concentrations on the two sides of the membrane. Such a concentration gradient across a semipermeable membrane sets up an osmotic flowfor the water.

2. Transmembrane protein channels and transporters: Nutrients, such as sugars or amino acids, must enter the cell, and certain products of metabolism must leave the cell. Such molecules diffuse passively through protein channels such as aquaporins (in the case of water (H₂O)) in facilitated diffusion or are pumped across the membrane by transmembrane transporters. Protein channel proteins, also called permeases, are usually quite specific, recognizing and transporting only a limited food group of chemical substances, often even only a single substance.

3. Endocytosis: Endocytosis is the process in which cells absorb molecules by engulfing them. The plasma membrane creates a small deformation inward, called an invagination, in which the substance to be transported is captured. The deformation then pinches off from the membrane on the inside of the cell, creating a vesicle containing the captured substance. Endocytosis is a pathway for internalizing solid particles ("cell eating" or phagocytosis), small molecules and ions ("cell drinking" or pinocytosis), and macromolecules. Endocytosis requires energy and is thus a form of active transport.

4. Exocytosis: Just as material can be brought into the cell by invagination and formation of a vesicle, the membrane of a vesicle can be fused with the plasma membrane, extruding its contents to the surrounding medium. This is the process of exocytosis. Exocytosis occurs in various cells to remove undigested residues of substances brought in by endocytosis, to secrete substances such as hormones and enzymes, and to transport a substance completely across a cellular barrier. In the process of exocytosis, the undigested waste-containing food vacuole or the secretory vesicle budded from Golgi apparatus, is first moved by cytoskeleton from the interior of the cell to the surface. The vesicle membrane comes in contact with the plasma membrane. The lipid molecules of the two bilayers rearrange themselves and the two membranes are, thus, fused. A passage is formed in the fused membrane and the vesicles discharges its contents outside the cell.

Prokaryotes

Gram-negative bacteria have both a plasma membrane and an outer membrane separated by periplasm. Other prokaryoteshave only a plasma membrane. Bacteria are also surrounded by a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan (amino acids and sugars). Some eukaryotic cells also have cell walls, but none that are made of peptidoglycan. The outer membrane of gram negative bacteria is rich in lipopolysaccharides. The outer membrane can bleb out into periplasmic protrusions under stress conditions or upon virulence requirements while encountering a host target cell, and thus such blebs may work as virulence organelles.

Structures

Fluid mosaic model

According to the fluid mosaic model of S. J. Singer and G. L. Nicolson (1972), which replaced the earlier model of Davson and Danielli, biological membranes can be considered as a two-dimensional liquid in which lipid and protein molecules diffuse more or less easily.[16] Although the lipid bilayers that form the basis of the membranes do indeed form two-dimensional liquids by themselves, the plasma membrane also contains a large quantity of proteins, which provide more structure. Examples of such structures are protein-protein complexes, pickets and fences formed by the actin-based cytoskeleton, and potentially lipid rafts.

Lipid bilayer

Diagram of the arrangement of amphipathic lipid molecules to form a lipid bilayer. The yellow polarhead groups separate the grey hydrophobic tails from the aqueous cytosolic and extracellular environments.

Lipid bilayers form through the process of self-assembly. The cell membrane consists primarily of a thin layer of amphipathic phospholipids that spontaneously arrange so that the hydrophobic "tail" regions are isolated from the surrounding water while the hydrophilic "head" regions interact with the intracellular (cytosolic) and extracellular faces of the resulting bilayer. This forms a continuous, spherical lipid bilayer. Hydrophobic interactions (also known as the hydrophobic effect) are the major driving forces in the formation of lipid bilayers. An increase in interactions between hydrophobic molecules (causing clustering of hydrophobic regions) allows water molecules to bond more freely with each other, increasing the entropy of the system. This complex interaction can include noncovalent interactions such as van der Waals, electrostatic and hydrogen bonds.

Lipid bilayers are generally impermeable to ions and polar molecules. The arrangement of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent polar solutes (ex. amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins, and ions) from diffusing across the membrane, but generally allows for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules. This affords the cell the ability to control the movement of these substances via transmembrane protein complexes such as pores, channels and gates.

Flippases and scramblases concentrate phosphatidyl serine, which carries a negative charge, on the inner membrane. Along with NANA, this creates an extra barrier to charged moieties moving through the membrane.

Membranes serve diverse functions in eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. One important role is to regulate the movement of materials into and out of cells. The phospholipid bilayer structure (fluid mosaic model) with specific membrane proteins accounts for the selective permeability of the membrane and passive and active transport mechanisms. In addition, membranes in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotes facilitate the synthesis of ATP through chemiosmosis.

Membrane polarity

Alpha intercalated cell

The apical membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that faces inward to the lumen. This is particularly evident in epithelial and endothelial cells, but also describes other polarized cells, such as neurons. The basolateral membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that forms its basal and lateral surfaces. It faces outwards, towards the interstitium, and away from the lumen. Basolateral membrane is a compound phrase referring to the terms "basal (base) membrane" and "lateral (side) membrane", which, especially in epithelial cells, are identical in composition and activity. Proteins (such as ion channels and pumps) are free to move from the basal to the lateral surface of the cell or vice versa in accordance with the fluid mosaic model. Tight junctions join epithelial cells near their apical surface to prevent the migration of proteins from the basolateral membrane to the apical membrane. The basal and lateral surfaces thus remain roughly equivalent. to one another, yet distinct from the apical surface.

Membrane structures

Cell membrane can form different types of "supramembrane" structures such as caveola, postsynaptic density, podosome, invadopodium, focal adhesion, and different types of cell junctions. These structures are usually responsible for cell adhesion, communication, endocytosis and exocytosis. They can be visualized by electron microscopy or fluorescence microscopy. They are composed of specific proteins, such as integrins and cadherins.

Cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton is found underlying the cell membrane in the cytoplasm and provides a scaffolding for membrane proteins to anchor to, as well as forming organelles that extend from the cell. Indeed, cytoskeletal elements interact extensively and intimately with the cell membrane.Anchoring proteins restricts them to a particular cell surface — for example, the apical surface of epithelial cells that line the vertebrate gut — and limits how far they may diffuse within the bilayer. The cytoskeleton is able to form appendage-like organelles, such as cilia, which are microtubule-based extensions covered by the cell membrane, and filopodia, which are actin-based extensions. These extensions are ensheathed in membrane and project from the surface of the cell in order to sense the external environment and/or make contact with the substrate or other cells. The apical surfaces of epithelial cells are dense with actin-based finger-like projections known as microvilli, which increase cell surface area and thereby increase the absorption rate of nutrients. Localized decoupling of the cytoskeleton and cell membrane results in formation of a bleb.

Composition

Cell membranes contain a variety of biological molecules, notably lipids and proteins. Material is incorporated into the membrane, or deleted from it, by a variety of mechanisms:

Fusion of intracellular vesicles with the membrane (exocytosis) not only excretes the contents of the vesicle but also incorporates the vesicle membrane's components into the cell membrane. The membrane may form blebs around extracellular material that pinch off to become vesicles (endocytosis).

If a membrane is continuous with a tubular structure made of membrane material, then material from the tube can be drawn into the membrane continuously.

Although the concentration of membrane components in the aqueous phase is low (stable membrane components have low solubility in water), there is an exchange of molecules between the lipid and aqueous phases.

Lipids

Examples of the major membrane phospholipids and glycolipids: phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho), phosphatidylethanolamine (PtdEtn), phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns), phosphatidylserine(PtdSer).

The cell membrane consists of three classes of amphipathic lipids: phospholipids, glycolipids, and sterols. The amount of each depends upon the type of cell, but in the majority of cases phospholipids are the most abundant. In RBC studies, 30% of the plasma membrane is lipid.

The fatty chains in phospholipids and glycolipids usually contain an even number of carbon atoms, typically between 16 and 20. The 16- and 18-carbon fatty acids are the most common. Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated, with the configuration of the double bonds nearly always "cis". The length and the degree of unsaturation of fatty acid chains have a profound effect on membrane fluidity[19] as unsaturated lipids create a kink, preventing the fatty acids from packing together as tightly, thus decreasing the melting temperature (increasing the fluidity) of the membrane. The ability of some organisms to regulate the fluidity of their cell membranes by altering lipid composition is called homeoviscous adaptation.

The entire membrane is held together via non-covalent interaction of hydrophobic tails, however the structure is quite fluid and not fixed rigidly in place. Under physiological conditions phospholipid molecules in the cell membrane are in the liquid crystalline state. It means the lipid molecules are free to diffuse and exhibit rapid lateral diffusion along the layer in which they are present. However, the exchange of phospholipid molecules between intracellular and extracellular leaflets of the bilayer is a very slow process. Lipid rafts and caveolae are examples of cholesterol-enriched microdomains in the cell membrane. Also, a fraction of the lipid in direct contact with integral membrane proteins, which is tightly bound to the protein surface is called annular lipid shell; it behaves as a part of protein complex.

In animal cells cholesterol is normally found dispersed in varying degrees throughout cell membranes, in the irregular spaces between the hydrophobic tails of the membrane lipids, where it confers a stiffening and strengthening effect on the membrane.

Phospholipids forming lipid vesicles

Lipid vesicles or liposomes are circular pockets that are enclosed by a lipid bilayer. These structures are used in laboratories to study the effects of chemicals in cells by delivering these chemicals directly to the cell, as well as getting more insight into cell membrane permeability. Lipid vesicles and liposomes are formed by first suspending a lipid in an aqueous solution then agitating the mixture through sonication, resulting in a vesicle. By measuring the rate of efflux from that of the inside of the vesicle to the ambient solution, allows researcher to better understand membrane permeability. Vesicles can be formed with molecules and ions inside the vesicle by forming the vesicle with the desired molecule or ion present in the solution. Proteins can also be embedded into the membrane through solubilizing the desired proteins in the presence of detergents and attaching them to the phospholipids in which the liposome is formed. These provide researchers with a tool to examine various membrane protein functions.

Carbohydrates

Plasma membranes also contain carbohydrates, predominantly glycoproteins, but with some glycolipids (cerebrosides and gangliosides). For the most part, no glycosylation occurs on membranes within the cell; rather generally glycosylation occurs on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane. The glycocalyx is an important feature in all cells, especially epitheliawith microvilli. Recent data suggest the glycocalyx participates in cell adhesion, lymphocyte homing, and many others. The penultimate sugar is galactose and the terminal sugar is sialic acid, as the sugar backbone is modified in the Golgi apparatus. Sialic acid carries a negative charge, providing an external barrier to charged particles.

Proteins

Type | Description | Examples
Integral proteins
or transmembrane proteins | Span the membrane and have a hydrophilic cytosolic domain, which interacts with internal molecules, a hydrophobic membrane-spanning domain that anchors it within the cell membrane, and a hydrophilic extracellular domain that interacts with external molecules. The hydrophobic domain consists of one, multiple, or a combination of α-helices and β sheet protein motifs. | Ion channels, proton pumps, G protein-coupled receptor
Lipid anchored proteins | Covalently bound to single or multiple lipid molecules; hydrophobically insert into the cell membrane and anchor the protein. The protein itself is not in contact with the membrane. | G proteins
Peripheral proteins | Attached to integral membrane proteins, or associated with peripheral regions of the lipid bilayer. These proteins tend to have only temporary interactions with biological membranes, and once reacted, the molecule dissociates to carry on its work in the cytoplasm. | Some enzymes, some hormones

The cell membrane has large content of proteins, typically around 50% of membrane volume These proteins are important for cell because they are responsible for various biological activities. Approximately a third of the genes in yeast code specifically for them, and this number is even higher in multicellular organisms.[18]

The cell membrane, being exposed to the outside environment, is an important site of cell–cell communication. As such, a large variety of protein receptors and identification proteins, such as antigens, are present on the surface of the membrane. Functions of membrane proteins can also include cell–cell contact, surface recognition, cytoskeleton contact, signaling, enzymatic activity, or transporting substances across the membrane.

Most membrane proteins must be inserted in some way into the membrane. For this to occur, an N-terminus "signal sequence" of amino acids directs proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum, which inserts the proteins into a lipid bilayer. Once inserted, the proteins are then transported to their final destination in vesicles, where the vesicle fuses with the target membrane.

Variation

The cell membrane has different lipid and protein compositions in distinct types of cells and may have therefore specific names for certain cell types:

Sarcolemma in myocytes

Oolemma in oocytes

Axolemma in neuronal processes - axons

Historically, the plasma membrane was also referred to as the plasmalemma

Permeability

The permeability of a membrane is the rate of passive diffusion of molecules through the membrane. These molecules are known as permeant molecules. Permeability depends mainly on the electric charge and polarity of the molecule and to a lesser extent the molar mass of the molecule. Due to the cell membrane's hydrophobic nature, small electrically neutral molecules pass through the membrane more easily than charged, large ones. The inability of charged molecules to pass through the cell membrane results in pH partition of substances throughout the fluid compartments of the body.

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Dana Eugenio
Chloroplast ka ba?
Kasi hindi mabubusog ang araw ko kapag hindi kita nakita eh...

»»»Chloroplasts absorb sunlight and use it in conjunction with water and carbon dioxide gas to PRODUCE FOODS FOR THE PLANT

»»»Chloroplasts capture light energy from the sun to produce the free energy stored in ATP and NADPH through a process called photosynthesis

»»»Chloroplasts are part of a group of organelles called plastids, pouches within a plant cell.

»»»dana eugenio«««

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Nucleus -Lance Gabrielle G. Eusebio-

The cell nucleus​ is a membrane bound structure that contains the cell's hereditary information and controls the cell's growth and reproduction. It is the command center of a eukaryotic cell and is commonly the most prominent organelle in a cell.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS

The cell nucleus is bound by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. This membrane separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm.

Like the cell membrane, the nuclear envelope consists of phospholipids that form a lipid bilayer. The envelope helps to maintain the shape of the nucleus and assists in regulating the flow of molecules into and out of the nucleus through nuclear pores.

Chromosomes are located within the nucleus. Chromosomes consist of DNA, which contains heredity information and instructions for cell growth, development, and reproduction. When a cell is "resting" i.e. not dividing, the chromosomes are organized into long entangled structures called chromatin and not into individual chromosomes as we typically think of them.

THE NUCLEOLUS

Contained within the nucleus is a dense structure composed of RNA and proteinscalled the nucleolus. The nucleolus contains nucleolar organizers, which are parts of chromosomes with the genes for ribosome synthesis on them. The nucleolus helps to synthesize ribosomes by transcribing and assembling ribosomal RNA.

A ribosome is composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
The nucleus regulates the synthesis of proteins in the cytoplasm through the use of messenger RNA (mRNA). Messenger RNA is a transcribed DNA segment that serves as a template for protein production. It is produced in the nucleus and travels to the cytoplasm through the nuclear pores of the nuclear envelope.

Once in the cytoplasm, ribosomes and another RNA molecule called transfer RNAwork together to translate mRNA to produce proteins.

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-_-HARLENE N. HONRUBIA-_-

The smooth ER has a wide range of functions including carbohydrate and lipid synthesis. Lipids such as phospholipids and cholesterol are necessary for the construction of cell membranes. Smooth ER also serves as a transitional area for vesicles that transport ER products to various destinations. In liver cells the smooth ER produces enzymes that help to detoxify certain compounds. In muscles the smooth ER assists in the contraction of muscle cells, and in brain cells it synthesizes male and female hormones.

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Me: ENERGY ENERGY GAP BEAT ENERGY GAP DRINK MILO EVERYDAY!                                   ALSO ME: LUH BES, ANO CONNECT?                                     ME: ALA LANG MITOCHONDRIA!                                                                             Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. They are organelles that act like a digestive system which takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and creates energy rich molecules for the cell. The biochemical processes of the cell are known as cellular respiration.

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Me: ENERGY ENERGY GAP BEAT ENERGY GAP DRINK MILO EVERYDAY!                                   ALSO ME: LUH BES, ANO CONNECT?                                     ME: ALA LANG MITOCHONDRIA!                                                                             Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. They are organelles that act like a digestive system which takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and creates energy rich molecules for the cell. The biochemical processes of the cell are known as cellular respiration.

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-Ma. Danica J. Montaniel

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-Lorenzo Miguel Delos Santos
Amyloplasts are non-pigmented organelles found in some plant cells. They are responsible for the synthesis and storage of starch granules, through the polymerization of glucose.
Amyloplasts also convert this starch back into sugar when the plant needs energy. Large numbers of amyloplasts can be found in fruit and in underground storage tissues of some plants, such as in potato tubers.
Amyloplasts are plastids, specifically leucoplasts. Plastids are a specialized class of cellular organelles that carry their own genome and are believed to be descendants of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) which formed a symbiotic relationship with the eukaryotic cell.
Starch synthesis and storage also takes place in chloroplasts, a type of pigmented plastid involved in photosynthesis. Amyloplasts and chloroplasts are closely related, and amyloplasts can turn into chloroplasts; this is for instance observed when potato tubers are exposed to light and turn green.

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Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that are the earliest and most primitive forms of life on earth. As organized in the Three Domain System, prokaryotes include bacteria and archaeans. Some prokaryotes, such as cyanobacteria, are photosynthetic organisms and are capable of photosynthesis.

Many prokaryotes are extremophiles and can live and thrive in various types of extreme environments including hydrothermal vents, hot springs, swamps, wetlands, and the guts of humans and animals ( Helicobacter pylori).

Prokaryotic bacteria can be found almost anywhere and are part of the human microbiota. They live on your skin, in your body, and on everyday objects in your environment.

Prokaryotic Cell Structure

Prokaryotic cells are not as complex as eukaryotic cells. They have no true nucleus as the DNA is not contained within a membrane or separated from the rest of the cell, but is coiled up in a region of the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.

Prokaryotic organisms have varying cell shapes. The most common bacteria shapes are spherical, rod-shaped, and spiral.

Using bacteria as our sample prokaryote, the following structures and organelles can be found in bacterial cells:

Capsule: Found in some bacterial cells, this additional outer covering protects the cell when it is engulfed by other organisms, assists in retaining moisture, and helps the cell adhere to surfaces and nutrients.

Cell Wall: The cell wall is an outer covering that protects the bacterial cell and gives it shape.

Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm is a gel-like substance composed mainly of water that also contains enzymes, salts, cell components, and various organic molecules.

Cell Membrane or Plasma Membrane: The cell membrane surrounds the cell's cytoplasm and regulates the flow of substances in and out of the cell.

Pili (Pilus singular): Hair-like structures on the surface of the cell that attach to other bacterial cells. Shorter pili called fimbriae help bacteria attach to surfaces.

Flagella: Flagella are long, whip-like protrusions that aid in cellular locomotion.

Ribosomes: Ribosomes are cell structures responsible for protein production.

Plasmids: Plasmids are gene-carrying, circular DNA structures that are not involved in reproduction.

Nucleoid Region: Area of the cytoplasm that contains the single bacterial DNA molecule.

Prokaryotic cells lack organelles found in eukaryoitic cells such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticuli, and Golgi complexes. According to the Endosymbiotic Theory, eukaryotic organelles are thought to have evolved from prokaryotic cells living in endosymbiotic relationships with one another.

Like plant cells, bacteria have a cell wall. Some bacteria also have a polysaccharide capsule layer surrounding the cell wall. This is the layer where bacteria produce biofilm, a slimy substance that helps bacterial colonies adhere to surfaces and to each other for protection against antibiotics, chemicals, and other hazardous substances.

Similar to plants and algae, some prokaryotes also have photosynthetic pigments. These light-absorbing pigments enable photosynthetic bacteria to obtain nutrition from light.

Binary Fission

Most prokaryotes reproduce asexually through a process called binary fission. During binary fission, the single DNA molecule replicates and the original cell is divided into two identical cells.

Steps of Binary Fission

Binary fission begins with DNA replication of the single DNA molecule. Both copies of DNA attach to the cell membrane.

Next, the cell membrane begins to grow between the two DNA molecules. Once the bacterium just about doubles its original size, the cell membrane begins to pinch inward.

A cell wall then forms between the two DNA molecules dividing the original cell into two identical daughter cells.

Although E.coli and other bacteria most commonly reproduce by binary fission, this mode of reproduction does not produce genetic variation within the organism.

Prokaryotic Recombination

Genetic variation within prokaryotic organisms is accomplished through recombination. In recombination, genes from one prokaryote are incorporated into the genome of another prokaryote.

Recombination is accomplished in bacterial reproduction by the processes of conjugation, transformation, or transduction.

In conjugation, bacteria connect through a protein tube structure called a pilus. Genes are transferred between bacteria through the pilus.

In transformation, bacteria take up DNA from their surrounding environment. The DNA is transported across the bacterial cell membrane and incorporated into the bacterial cell's DNA.

Transduction involves the exchange of bacterial DNA through viral infection. Bacteriophages, viruses that infect bacteria, transfer bacterial DNA from previously infected bacteria to any additional bacteria that they infect.

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Learn About Prokaryotic Cells, Prokaryotes - Bacteria and Archaeans

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Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that are the earliest and most primitive forms of life on earth. As organized in the Three Domain System, prokaryotes include bacteria and archaeans. Some prokaryotes, such as cyanobacteria, are photosynthetic organisms and are capable of photosynthesis.

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- Aifa Dela Cruz

Animal cells are eukaryotic cells, or cells with a membrane-bound nucleus. Unlike prokaryotic cells, DNA in animal cells is housed within the nucleus. In addition to having a nucleus, animal cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles, or tiny cellular structures, that carry out specific functions necessary for normal cellular operation. Organelles have a wide range of responsibilities that include everything from producing hormones and enzymes to providing energy for animal cells.

Organs are composed of tissues, which are in turn composed of cells. Plants have three tissue types: ground, dermal, and vascular. Animals have four: epithelial, connective, muscle, and bone.

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"Your the cell and I'm the CELL MEMBRANE, your protection is my obligation."    

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"Your the cell and I'm the CELL MEMBRANE, your protection is my obligation."    

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-JoanaGarcia

Cell Membrane
Structure- a bilipid membraneous layer composed of proteins and carbohydrates.  It is fluid like.

Function - the cell membrane separates the cell from its external environment, and is selectively permeable (controls what gets in and out).  It protects the cell and provides stability.

Did You Know???
-The cell membrane is the only way that materials can enter or leave the cell.
-During cell division, the cell membrane folds and pinches off to create two new cells, each surrounded by part of the same original membrane.
-Cell membranes are called bilayer because it is formed out of two layers of fats.

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crush: i love science
me: mee—mitochondria is the power house of the cell

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Lalaaa