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Taking official statistics at face value is a problem. More crime could be detected due to police stereotypes and social expectations.
Outdated and country specific

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Morris- Council housing problems causing high crime rates.
Bottoms el al- two identical housing estates in Sheffield, in one the crime rate was 300% higher. Linked to 'tipping' where law abiding families move away from the area leaving a criminalised population

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Differential association: Deviance was behaviour learned through social interaction and useful in planning crime prevention strategies

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Crime and Locality- Shawn and McKay conducted a study of delinquency in Chicago and found that delinquency rates declined from zone 1 to 5. Zone two has the highest rate of delinquents because it is characterised by a high population turnover and mixture of cultures, this is called the Zone of transition.
They concluded that the zone of transition had social disorganisation making it a breeding ground for deviants.
Opportunity theory- Crimes will be committed in locations where targets are attractive to criminals meaning it has a high monetary value and can easily be transported and sold.
Routine Activities Theory- This theory proposes that crimes are likely to happen in particular places because of three things. Firstly, there are more likely to be offenders in the area. Secondly, there are attractive targets for criminal behaviour. Finally, an absence of capable guardians such as property owners.
Cognitive mapping- The Brantinghams argue that we have cognitive maps inside our heads which outline our perception of the geography of our local area. These maps contain places we are familiar with such as home, school or work. Offenders commit crimes in areas they are familiar with

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Marxism: Gordon- Due to poverty, crime may be the only way that the working-class can survive and the only way they can obtain consumer goods.
Right Realism: Clarke- for the working-class the benefits outweigh the cost

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Marxism: The working class are no more criminal than anyone else, however the law protects the bourgeoisie so the working class become easier to criminalise.
White collar crime: Very difficult to prosecute due to problems with who is responsible and who is a victim. Much white collar crime is not dealt with criminally but administratively by external agencies.
Blue collar crime: crimes committed by manual factory workers are street crimes which occur in public view.
Guinness affair: False claims of success led to high share prices and company directors making millions. Ronson received a one-year sentence in Ford and was released on parole after serving about 6 months

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Breakdown in social control of some young people, including families imposing few, if any rules on their children, reduction in powers of contra; given to schools and an increase in street cultures have said to contribute, The police see young people as potential troublemakers.
Labelling Theory: Cicourel found that how a young person presented themselves and behaved directly affected their likelihood of arrest and conviction. If the young person acted as the authority figure imagined a 'typical delinquent' would act, then they would be labelled as criminal.
Social stereotypes that young people commit crime lead to police suspecting and monitoring young people more than older social groups.
Young people are more likely to be convicted once in court as they can't afford expensive lawyer's fees.
Crimes by older people may be under recorded as they are more likely to be in occupations where white collar crime is possible.
Adults usually have responsibilities that limit the scope they have to commit crime

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Younger people, particularly males are more likely to engage in criminal activty than older people. Those receiving most criminal convitctions will be between 14 and 24 years of age.
Peer group pressure may encourage young people to engage in criminal actibity. Young people come under pressure from their peer group to fit in with a groups norms and values.
Subcultures- some young people will develop norms and values that are different to mainstream society within a subculture. Evidence for this can be found with high levels of antisocial behaviour and delinquency which may be seen in gang violence and intimidation.
Boredom- many young people claim they commit crime due to boredome, having nothing to do and nowhere to do.
Their lifestyle takes them to environments where crime takes place, the vast majority of crime is property theft.
Young people seek excitement which could lead them into trouble with the police.

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According to BCS minority ethnics are more likely to be victims of crimes than white people. All minority ethnic groups are more likely to be victims of burglary and vehicle theft than white people. Black people are more likely than whites to be assaulted or murdered. Reasons could be due to the areas where minorities live, higher rate sod unemployment and the number of young ethnics involved in gang activity

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Racist victimisation occurs when an individual is selected as a target because of their race, ethnicity or religion.
Police recorded 61000 racist incidents in 2006, most go unreported and British Crime Survey estimates that there were actually 180000 racial incidents, they just didn't get reported.

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Hall and Gilroy argue that black criminality is a myth. Black people are no more criminal than any other members in society, but are seen as such due to distorted media reporting.
Hall- Policing the Crisis: The 1970s was a period of social crisis the result of an international down turn in capitalist economies. Turmoil was shown in a number of inner city riots and the government was looking for someone to scapegoat, as black individuals were more likely to commit mugging they used the media to create a moral panic around this image of a violent black mugger. Thus, black men are targeted more.

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Lea and Young argue that ethnic differences in the statistics actually reflect the true differences in crime rates between ethnicities. They see crime as the production of relative deprivation, subcultures and marginalisation. They argue that racism has led to marginalisation and economic problems, the media also has an impact as it emphasises consumerism, leading to people feeling relatively deprived.
One response to this marginalisation and relative deprivation is subculture formation by unemployed black males who commit utilitarian crime to deal with it. Lea and Young day that there is racism in the criminal justice system, but it does not account for all of it as 90% of crimes are reported. Lea and Young seem to think that racism has to be against all races, when actually police may just be racist against blacks, but not Asians. Also, stereotypes have probably changed after 9/11 no longer regarding Asians as passive, but now as dangerous

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Lack of educational success: 2006- 23% of Afro-Carribbean boys achieved 5 GCSEs, affecting self-confidence and employability.

Family Structure: 60% of young black males live with one parent, single parent families tend to be poorer than nuclear families.

Influence of the mass media: Influence of black rap artists, rap music encourages 'Bling, violence and Criminality.

Recorded crime rate for Asian people is broadly in proportion to numbers in the population, but has risen over the last 10 years. The rise has been explained by the declining influence of religion among some young Asian boys and how increased integration into British culture has weakened the controls previously provided by a tight knit family structure

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1. Police Racism
2. Ethnic differences in offending: It is argued that the disproportionate number of stop and searches reflects ethnic difference in offending.
3. Demographic factors: Over-represented in the population group are they are often unemployed, young, manual workers or street dwellers.
1. Arrests and Cautions:
2006/7 rate for blacks was 3.6 times the rate for whites
2. Prosecution: CPS is more likely to drop cases against ethnic minorities, Bowling and Philips argue that the evidence is usually weak and based on stereotyping
3. Trial: Members of ethnic minorities are more likely to elect for a trial before a jury, meaning they can receive a harsher sentence.
4. Convictions: Black and Asian defendants are less likely to be found guilty. 2006/7 60% of white defendants were found guilty, 52% of blacks and 44% of asians
5. Sentancing: 2006/7 custodial sentences were given to a greater proportion go black offenders (68%) than white (55%)
6. Pre-sentance reports: Hudson and Bramhall argue that PSRs allow for unwitting discrimination, found that reports on Asian offenders where less comprehensive suggesting they were less remorseful than white offenders
7. Prison: Just over a quarter of the male prison population were from ethnic minorities. Blacks five times more likely to be imprisoned than whites

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Members of some ethnic minorities are more likely to be stopped and searched by the police. Police can use their powers if they have 'reasonable suspicion' of wrongdoing. Compared with white people, black people are 7 times more likely to be stopped and searched.

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Following an enquiry into the murder of Stephen Lawrence in 1993, MacPherson concluded that the police force was institutionally racist due to their failure to investigate the case. Police provided limited resources and aid to the family and charges against the suspects were dropped and the family had to go through a private court to receive justice.

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Scraton and Chadwick: Criminalisation is the application of a criminal label to an identifiable social category. They apply this idea to the way that black people are treated as muggers as a conformation of the assumption that immigrants belong to a culture of criminality. They argue an idealogical construction of black criminality has influenced differential policing a discriminatory punishment in specific neighbourhoods., arguing that:
Criminalisation goes hand in hand with marginalisation
The policing and targeting of particular communities have marginalised black people.

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Black people make up 2.8% of the population, but 10% of the prison population.White people are underrepresented in all aspects of the criminal justice system. After a self-report study, Graham and Bowling found that blacks and whites had similar rate of offending, about 44% each.
In 2012 for those 10 or older, a Black person was nearly three times more likely to be arrested per 1,000 of the population than a white person.

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On average, two women a week are killed by a violent partner or ex-partner in the UK
Up to 3 million women and girls across the UK experience rape, domestic violence and stalking each year
Men are far more likely to be victims of violent street crime
Zedner argues that more crimes are committed in public places of entertainment which are visited more by males than females. Fear of crime is related to objective factors, thus women engage in avoidance behaviour.
Lees shows that men who have killed their partners tend to see it as a crime of passion, having been provoked into violence by the female partner's nagging or promiscuity. Female killers of their partners have often been subjected to long periods of violence and tend to wait until the partner is asleep or drunk until committing the act.

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In 2001 three former male prisons needed to be converted into female prisons, as the number being convicted had almost trebled within 6 years.
Hand and Dodd- Between 2000 and 2008, police statistics show the number of females arrseted for violence rose by an average of 17% each year.

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Adler rejects biological theories; instead she argues that differences in behaviour are socially determined. Adler argues that the feminist movements brought about progressive changes in the status of women. Previously women did have the same aspirations as men, but like the proletariat, were oppressed and lacking power to obtain their goals. The road to success required women to seek status through men by conforming to the male definition of felinity. Women's liberation removed restrictions on women's behaviours and opportunities.
Dark side to Women's Liberation: Women were beginning to take on male social roles in both legitimate and illegitimate areas. No longer confined to lesser crimes, a new breed of female criminals emerged with aspirations and skills to engage in major crimes. Adler argues that social forces were more important in determining criminal behaviour than biological differences. The differences in physical strength and size that may exist due to technology and modern weapons.
Eval: The data Adler used only covered a 12-year period, so she couldn't see if the increases in female crime had occurred previously. It may not be that women were committing crime than in the past, but that changes in the criminal justice system may have intensified its attention to female criminals (Box and Hale)

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Unstructured recorded interviews. The Class Deal: Women who work will be offered material rewards. The Gender Deal: Patriarchal ideology promises women material and emotional rewards from family life. If these rewards were not available or not worth it, crime would become more likely. 'They had nothing to lose, but a lot to gain'

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Biological Explanations: Lombrosso argued that women biologically lack the aggressive trait that males possess, thus explaining why they are less likely to be involved in particular crimes.
Functionalist "Sex Role" Theory: Related to the roles that adult males and females take within the family and how children are socialised into gender specific behaviours form an early age. Boys are socialised into being tough and are more likely to commit criminal acts.
Differential/Patriarchal Control: Heidensohn argues that the most striking thing about female behaviour is how conformist it is. In her view this is because patriarchal society imposers fat more control over women and it reduces their opportunities to offend. Control at home- Expected to base their lives around the home. Dobash and Dobash found that some husbands would exercise their control through financial power, thereby restricting their time out of the home. Control in public- Fears regarding 'reputation' which encourages women to submit to the social controls that are imposed upon them. Lees in her study 'Losing Out' found that girls tend to both avoid the label of 'slag' and also of 'tight bitch' by conforming to the social control imposed upon them. Control at work- The glass ceiling is said to prevent women from climbing the occupational ladder.

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Chivalry Thesis- most who work in the criminal justice system are men and they are socialised to act in a chivalrous way towards women. The CJS is more lenient towards women. Sear and Player found that 35% of females found guilty to an offence were cautioned compared to 19% of males. 50% of females received suspended sentences of imprisonment compared to 36% of men.
NACRO commented that there are a number of factors that influence magistrates and judges in their approach to the sentencing of females. In particular, factors such as whether they are exclusively responsible for running the home.
Evidence Against: Females may be treated more harshly due to 'double standards'. Some even point to the development of rape culture where the victim is often seen as partly responsible due to being dressed 'provocatively'. Edwards found that women were subject to an oppressive and paternalistic form of justice.

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To check the reliability of official crime statistics, Anne Campbell conducted a self-report study of delinquent girls and found that males only committed twice as much as females. Box has criticised Campbell's study due to the sample size and focusing on petty offences. He also believes that Campbell has inflated the extent of juvenile delinquency amongst girls.
Graham and Bowling used self-report studies to challenge the validity of official crime statistics when studying gender patterns. Males only committed twice as much crime as females, but the OCS suggest males commit 4x as much compared to females.

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Of the total UK prison population in April 2017 only 4.6% of it was made up of women.
Several arguments that have been put forward by sociologists to explain this:
Women are good at committing crime and less likely to be caught
Women are less criminal
The CJS treats women more favourably than men
Types of crime that women are more likely to commit include, shoplifting and hauntingly stolen goods.