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"Biological systems utilize free energy and molecular building blocks to grow, to reproduce and to maintain dynamic homeostasis."

"Organisms capture and store free energy for use in biological processes."

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Both fermentation and cellular respiration use glycolysis to oxidize glucose and other organic fuels to pyruvate:
-The processes have different final electron acceptors: an organic molecule (such as pyruvate or acetaldehyde) in fermentation and O2 in cellular respiration.
-Cellular respiration produces 38 ATP per glucose molecule; fermentation produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule.

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Lactic Acid Fermentation
Pyruvate is reduced to NADH, forming lactate as an end product, with no release of CO2. Lactic acid fermentation by some fungi and bacteria is used to make cheese and yogurt.  Human muscle cells use lactic acid fer

mentation to generate ATP when O2 is scarce.

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Alcohol Fermentation
Pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps, with the first releasing CO2. Alcohol fermentation by yeast is used in brewing, winemaking, and baking.

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Alcohol and Lactic Acid Fermentation
Fermentation consists of glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate NAD+, which can be reused by glycolysis.

The ONLY ATP produced during fermentation are the TWO ATP produced during glycolysis – all other steps regenerate NAD+ so that glycolysis can occur over and over.

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Anaerobic Respiration: Uses an electron transport chain with an electron acceptor other than O2.

Fermentation: Uses phosphorylation instead of an electron transport chain to generate ATP.

Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable cells to produce ATP without the use of oxygen.

Glycolysis can produce ATP with or without O2 (in aerobic or anaerobic conditions). In the absence of O2, glycolysis couples with fermentation or anaerobic respiration to produce ATP.

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The Universal Solvent
Solution: A liquid that is a homogeneous mixture of substances.
Solvent: The dissolving agent.
Solute: The substance that is dissolved.
Aqueous Solution: A solution in which water is the solvent.
Hydration Shell: The sphere of water molecules around each dissolved ion in an aqueous solution.

Water will work inward from the surface of the solute until it dissolves all of it.

If a spoonful of salt is placed in water, the ions in the salt and the water molecules have a mutual affinity owing to he attraction between opposite charges.
-O is negative and attracts to positive sodium.
-H is positive and attracts to negative chlorine. As a result, water will surround the individual sodium and chlorine ions, separating and shielding them from one another.

Molecules within a living system must be broken down in order to be used by the system.

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The Density Anomaly
Ice floats in liquid water because hydrogen bonds in ice are more "ordered," making ice less dense. Water reaches its greatest density at 4°C

Due to the geometry of water molecules, they must move slightly apart to maintain the max number of bonds in a stable structure.

At 0°C, an open latticework is formed, allowing air in, which causes ice to become less dense than liquid water, causing it to float.

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Evaporative Cooling
Evaporation: A transformation of a substance from liquid to gas.
Heat of Vaporization: The heat a liquid must absorb for 1g to be converted to gas.
Evaporative Cooling: As a liquid evaporates, its remaining surface cools.

The high amount of energy required to vaporize water has a wide range of effects, which helps stabilize temperatures in organisms and bodies of water

Evaporation of sweat from human skin dissipates body heat and helps prevent overheating on a hot day or when excess heat is generated by strenuous activity.

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High Specific Heat
High Specific Heat: The amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost in order to stabilize its own temperature.

Water moderates air temperature by absorbing heat from air that is warmer and releasing the stored heat to air that is cooler with only a slight change in its own temperature.

High specific heat is due to the hydrogen bonding, which tends to restrict molecular movement. When heat is added, it must break bonds first rather than increase molecular motion, which takes a lot more energy input than raising the temperature of the air.

EX: Large bodies of water can absorb/store a huge amount of heat from the sun during the day and warm the air at night when cooling off.
EX: Organisms are primarily made of water, so these properties help to maintain body temperature.

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Cohesion & Adhesion

Cohesion: The attraction of water molecules to other water molecules as a result of hydrogen bonding
Adhesion: The clinging of one substance to another.
Capillarity: The ability of water to spread though fine pores or move upward through narrow tubes against the force of gravity.

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4 facilitating properties for an environment for life:
-Cohesive/Adhesive behavior
-Ability to moderate temperature
-Expansion upon freezing
-Versatility as a solvent

The water molecule is a polar molecule, which means that the opposite ends have opposite charges, allowing the molecules to form hydrogen bonds with each other. Water molecules are polar because the oxygen atom has a stronger electronegative pull on shared electrons than the hydrogen atoms.