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or is it Kali

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Gene cloning is exactly what it sounds like- the replication of genetic material. To clone a gene, a genetic engineer must first identify a gene that they would like to replicate. These genes can come from any type of organism, and are sought out because they wield a desirable protein product. A vector-a means of carrying the DNA- must also be identified. Often, genetic engineers use plasmids-circular pieces of bacterial DNA- as a vector. After a vector and gene are identified, a restriction enzyme is used to isolate the gene and to carve a whole in the plasmid. The gene of interest and the plasmid are mixed, and DNA ligase joins the two DNA molecules together. Once the gene is incorporated into a plasmid, a bacterium will take the plasmid. When this bacterium replicates, its offspring will have the same plasmid, and therefore, the gene of interest.

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1. Cloning ~ therapeutic vs reproductive   

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1. Cloning ~ therapeutic vs reproductive   

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Reproductive cloning is creating an animal genetically identical to the parent through somatic cell nuclear transfer, the embryo formed is then placed back in the uterine environment. During therapeutic conning the embryo is created the same way, but the cloned cells remain in the lab.

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Gene therapy allows for alteration of genes in order to relieve someone of a genetic disease caused by a single traceable gene by replacing it with a normal gene.
This process involves cloning the normal gene and inserting it into the nucleic acid of a retrovirus vector that has been rendered harmless
Bone marrow cells are then taken from the patient and infected with the virus, the virus inserts its nucleic acid, including the human gene, into the cell's DNA
The engineered cells are then injected back into the patient, if the procedure is successful, the cells will multiply throughout the patient's life and produce the missing protein.
The patient is cured.

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Gene cloning is exactly what it sounds like- replicating a gene- carrying segment of DNA. To do this, a technician must first identify the gene that they wish to clone. It can come from the DNA of any type of organism. They must also find a vector, which carries the DNA between organisms. Often, bacterial plasmids- circular pieces of DNA separate from the bacterial chromosome-are used. After the gene and vector are identified, a restriction enzyme is used to cut the gene of interest out of the organism, and to carve a who

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Systematic study of full protein sets (proteomes). Since proteins actually carry out most the activities of the cell it is important for scientists to understand where and when proteins are produced, and how they interact. Studying this helps us understand the functions of cells and organisms and that genes can't tell us, after all there are about 100,00 proteins and only 21,000 genes. The study of proteomics give biologists the ability to compile catalogs of genes and proteins, the listing of all the "parts" that contribute the the operation of an organism, it tissues, and its cells. With this info researchers are now directing their attention from the individual parts, to how they function together in biological systems.

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Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) is a type of polymorphism that results from variation in the DNA sequence recognized by restriction enzymes. Differences in DNA of homologous chromosomes is revealed by differences in lengths of the restriction fragments produced by enzymatic digestion of a selected region of a chromosome.

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is a combination of cloned cDNA(complementary DNA) fragments inserted into a collection of host cells, which together constitute some portion of the transcriptome of the organism and stored as a "library". cDNA is produced from fully transcribed mRNA found in the nucleus and therefore contains only the expressed genes of an organism. Similarly, tissue-specific cDNA libraries can be produced. In eukaryotic cells the mature mRNA is already spliced, hence the cDNA produced lacks introns and can be readily expressed in a bacterial cell.

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A probe is a fragment of DNA or RNA that has been radioactively labeled and is used to detect identical nucleotide sequences to it in DNA or RNA.

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Gene Therapy is the alteration of an afflicted individuals genes by replacing a defective gene with a normal allele. It is used to treat people with genetic disorders by repairing their defective genes by inserting normal alleles into somatic cells of the tissue that is being affected by the disorder. In order for the therapy to to fix the problem permanently the allele must be placed into cells that multiply a persons whole life.

The procedure is:
1. A normal gene is cloned and inserted into a virus
2. Defective bone marrow cells from the afflicted person are infected with the altered virus.
3. The virus inserts inserts its DNA along with the new gene.
4. The engineered cells are then injected back into the afflicted person and the normalized cells multiply throughout the persons life and cure the disorder.

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Proteomics - the study of whole sets of proteins and their interactions
- There are about 100,000 kinds of proteins in the human body
- Proteomics enables biologists to approach the study of life from a more in depth perspective.
- The study consists of how these proteins work in muscle, tissues, organs, etc.
- Proteome --> proteins expressed by a genome, tissue, cell, or organism

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Genomic libraries are sets of DNA fragments containing all of an organisms genes, can be constructed and stored in cloned bacterial plasmids, phages, or bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs)

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Microarray:

A microarray is a grid of DNA segments of known sequence that is used to test and map DNA fragments, antibodies, or proteins. DNA microarrays tell what genes are active (transcribed) in a particular sample of cells.

1. A researcher isolates all of the mRNA transcribed from genes in a particular type of cell
2. The collection of mRNA is mixed with reverse transcriptase to produce a mixture of DNA fragments (cDNA); cDNA are produced in the presence of nucleotides that have been modified to glow
3.A small amount of fluorescently labeled cDNA mixture is added to each of the fixed DNA fragments in the microarray
4. After nonbinding cDNA is rinsed away, the remaining cDNA produces a detectable glow in the microarray telling researchers which genes are being transcribed.

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Prokaryotic cells have been used to make medication for diabetes by producing Insulin. The majority of bacteria has been used to make medication. Eukaryotic cells are used to test proteins that need enzymes not found in prokaryotic cells. Both cells have been used to test for Human Growth Hormone.

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Polymerase chain reaction is a technique used in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence.

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STR stands for Short tandem repeat. Short tandem repeats are regions of noncoding DNA that contains repeats of the same nucleotide sequence. STR analysis is a method used to compare specific loci on DNA.

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In 1990, a bunch of governments decided to determine the the nucleotide sequence of all the DNA in the human genome and identify the location and sequence of every gene.

They discovered that there's a whole lot of nucleotide pairs (3.2 billion) but very few genes (only 21,000). Scientists believe we make up for our lack of genes through alternative DNA splicing, a process that would explain our complexity.
They also discovered that only a small portion of human DNA is for coding proteins.

A lot of it is noncoding DNA.  Scientists are largely unaware of what this "junk DNA" does.

Much of it is Repetitive DNA, nucleotide sequences present in many copies throughout the genome.

Having  a mapped out genome is useful for diagnosing genetic diseases.

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Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate mixtures like DNA and proteins. The separation is based on how positively or how negatively charged a molecule is, and its size. Gel electrophoresis uses a gel (like gelatin) and an electric field is put through the gel.