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Over the course of this past semester. We have learned many things involving cells, atomic particles, cellular transportation, and many more things. The course of education we have participated in, has been packed full of many informative pieces of knowledge, which we shall now further discuss. Some of the main topics in this course, have been: Cells and their Organelles, Cellular Transportation, and The Evolution of Cells. Many more topics have been discussed. Such as the parts of an atom, what bonds they form, and what charges they have.

In the 1st chapter of our steady progression through the course. We discussed atoms and their parts. First, an atom is the smallest unit of matter. Mainly microscopic, it makes up molecules. Molecules are created of atoms. Molecules that are made up of the same types of atom, are then identifies as elements. Elements are gold, carbon, and many, many more. Atoms have three parts to them. Every atom has a nucleus. The particles that are located in the nucleus, have a neutral charge, or no charge, which are called neutrons. Surrounding those, are the particles that have positive charges, protons, and particles that have negative charges, or electrons. Bonds that are formed between electrons, are called covalent bonds. Covalent bonds are formed between shared electrons between atoms. Ionic bonds are formed between two particles with opposite charges.

In the 2nd chapter, we learned that living things consist of different elements. Also, we learned that an atom is the smallest basic unit of matter. Atoms share a pair of electrons in covalent bonds.  Covalent bonds form when atoms share a pair of electrons. Basically, we learned the basics of cells in the first lesson of chapter two. In lesson two of chapter two, we talked about hydrogen bonds in water, solutions, solvents, polar molecule, and nonpolar molecule. Life depends on hydrogen bonds in water. Polar molecules slightly charged ions, while nonpolar molecules do not have charged regions. Solutions from when one substance dissolves in another. Solvents dissolve other substances.

Lesson three of chapter two talked about things such as polymers, monomers, and the four types of macromolecules. Monomers are the individual subunits, while polymers are made of monomers. The four main types of macromolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids. Carbohydrates can be broken down to provide energy for cells. Some carbohydrates are part of a cell’s structure. Lipids are hydrophobic, also known as water-fearing. Proteins are polymers made of amino acids. Nucleic acids are polymers of monomers called nucleotides.

Lesson four of chapter two was a short lesson that talked about chemical reactions and energy. Bonds break and form during chemical reactions. Chemical reactions release or absorb energy. Energy is added to break bonds and is released when bonds form.The short lesson five of chapter two consists of  enzymes and catalysts. Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy. The lock-and-key model helps illustrate how enzymes function.

Chapter three talks of things as cell structure and function. This lessons talks of cell theory, cell organelles, cell membrane, diffusion and osmosis, then finally active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.

Lesson one, to get started we talked about the discovery of cell, which was actually founded and named by Robert Hooke. From years 1665-1855 many things help create the cel theory. To identify the cells, to better lenses to see cells in a greater detail, to that all plants are made of cells to saying everything is created by cells, to saying that cells come from other cells. Cell Theory: all organisms are made of cells. All existing cells are produced by other living cells. The cell is the basic unit of life.

Lesson two of chapter three goes in depth of the cell explaining what makes a cell.

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell which is Eukaryotic cells do have a nucleus while prokaryotic cell do not. Cells have a cell membrane, nucleus cytoskeleton and many many other parts. Plant and Animal cell do differ tho. A Plant cell contains chloroplast, central vacuole, cell wall. Animal cells have centriole, and lysosome. This lesson goes deeper about what each part does for the cell.

Lesson three we don't need to go in great depth but this is important. Cell membrane are composed of two phospholipid layers. This layer controls what goes in or out of the cell what is needed and what it can throw away.

Lesson four is diffusion and osmosis, this is talked about through the chapter. From passive transport which is a transport that no energy is need but now active transport needs energy. This lesson always talks of isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions.

Lesson five goes in depth about active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis.

As i said active transport needs energy so we use active transport more than you  may think. To running or swimming you need energy. So does active transport. Endocytosis is the process of taking liquids or fairly large molecules into a cell by engulfing them in the membrane. While exocytosis is release of substance out of the cell by fusion of a vesicle with the membrane .

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Video of Salt and Water, Solvent, Solute, and Solution.

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Video of Salt and Water, Solvent, Solute, and Solution.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2WS5eFc8x1U

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w3_8FSrqc-I

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There​ ​are​ ​two​ ​types​ ​of​ ​transport​ ​for​ ​proteins​ ​and​ ​other​ ​substances​ ​in​ ​a​ ​cell.​ ​There​ ​is

active​ ​transport,​ ​and​ ​passive​ ​transport.​ ​Active​ ​transport​ ​requires​ ​chemical​ ​energy​ ​from​ ​the​ ​cell

to​ ​retrieve​ ​the​ ​molecules​ ​that​ ​it​ ​needs.​ ​Passive​ ​transport,​ ​on​ ​the​ ​other​ ​hand,​ ​requires​ ​no​ ​energy

from​ ​the​ ​cell.​ ​Molecules​ ​can​ ​move​ ​across​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​membrane​ ​using​ ​passive​ ​transport.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​know

to​ ​move​ ​from​ ​high​ ​to​ ​low​ ​concentration.​ ​There​ ​are​ ​two​ ​types​ ​of​ ​passive​ ​transport.​ ​The​ ​first​ ​is

Diffusion,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​second​ ​is​ ​Osmosis.​ ​There​ ​are​ ​three​ ​types​ ​of​ ​solutions​ ​that​ ​are​ ​the​ ​cause​ ​of

passive​ ​transport.​ ​These​ ​include;​ ​Isotonic,​ ​Hypotonic,​ ​and​ ​Hypertonic.​ ​Now,​ ​we​ ​shall​ ​walk

through​ ​an​ ​experiment​ ​that​ ​describes​ ​what​ ​each​ ​solution​ ​is,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​results,​ ​or​ ​outcomes​ ​of​ ​the

solution.

Suppose​ ​we​ ​have​ ​a​ ​beaker​ ​of​ ​water.​ ​The​ ​water​ ​has​ ​a​ ​.7mm​ ​of​ ​sugar.​ ​Then,​ ​we​ ​place​ ​in

a​ ​single​ ​cell,​ ​which​ ​also​ ​has​ ​.7mm​ ​of​ ​sugar.​ ​The​ ​concentration​ ​of​ ​both​ ​the​ ​solute​ ​and​ ​the​ ​solvent

are​ ​equal.​ ​Therefore,​ ​we​ ​are​ ​lead​ ​to​ ​believe​ ​that​ ​the​ ​solution,​ ​is​ ​isotonic.​ ​The​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​water

flowing​ ​into​ ​the​ ​cell,​ ​directly​ ​matches​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​water​ ​flowing​ ​out​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell.​ ​The​ ​cell​ ​then

remains​ ​the​ ​same,​ ​perfectly​ ​shaped.​ ​It​ ​does​ ​not​ ​swell,​ ​now​ ​does​ ​it​ ​shrivel.

In​ ​the​ ​next​ ​beaker,​ ​we​ ​have​ ​another​ ​single​ ​cell.​ ​The​ ​water​ ​has​ ​3.2mm​ ​of​ ​sugar,​ ​and​ ​the

cell​ ​has​ ​2.2mm​ ​of​ ​sugar.​ ​The​ ​balance​ ​between​ ​the​ ​solute​ ​and​ ​solvent​ ​have​ ​been​ ​altered.​ ​The

solution​ ​is​ ​now​ ​called,​ ​hypertonic.​ ​The​ ​water​ ​flowing​ ​into​ ​the​ ​cell,​ ​is​ ​much​ ​much​ ​less​ ​than​ ​the

amount​ ​of​ ​water​ ​flowing​ ​out​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell.​ ​Therefore,​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​begins​ ​to​ ​shrivel​ ​up​ ​because​ ​it​ ​loses

the​ ​liquid​ ​inside​ ​of​ ​it.

In​ ​our​ ​last​ ​beaker,​ ​we​ ​have​ ​yet​ ​another​ ​single​ ​cell.​ ​The​ ​water​ ​on​ ​the​ ​outside​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​is

2.2mm​ ​of​ ​sugar,​ ​and​ ​on​ ​the​ ​inside​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell,​ ​it​ ​has​ ​3.3mm​ ​of​ ​sugar.​ ​The​ ​balance​ ​between​ ​the

water​ ​outside​ ​and​ ​inside​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​is​ ​yet​ ​again,​ ​unbalanced.​ ​The​ ​water​ ​flowing​ ​into​ ​the​ ​cell,

moves​ ​at​ ​a​ ​greater​ ​speed​ ​than​ ​the​ ​water​ ​does​ ​moving​ ​out​ ​of​ ​it.​ ​Therefore,​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​begins​ ​to

swell.​ ​The​ ​more​ ​that​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​swells,​ ​the​ ​higher​ ​the​ ​possibility​ ​of​ ​it​ ​exploding.

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For the phospholipids to be both hydrophobic and hydrophilic, means that it has both a hydrophobic and hydrophilic component. The phosphate heads are attracted to the water molecules in their environment. The lipid tails are water fearing, or hydrophobic, nonpolar,  and uncharged.

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Chapter 2

2.1

Living things consist of atoms of different elements.

An atom is the smallest basic unit of matter.

An element is one type of atom.

An atom has a nucleus and electrons.

The nucleus has protons and neutrons.

Electrons are in energy levels outside nucleus.

The atomic number equals the number of protons.

The number of protons equal the number of electrons as long as it’s a neutral atom.

The mass number minus the atomic number equals the number of neutrons.

A compound is made of different elements bound together.

Ions form when atoms gain or lose.

An ion is an atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons.

Ionic bonds form between oppositely charged ions.

Positive ion- cation

Negative ion- anion

Left- metal; right- nonmetal {of the stair case}

Noble gases are stable; every element wants to be stable.

Gain or lose electrons to get 8 and be stable.

An ion is an metal and nonmetal.

Ionic bonds are the full transfer between metals and nonmetals.

Atoms share a pair of electrons in covalent bonds.

A covalent bond forms when atoms share a pair of electrons.

Sharing of electrons between two nonmetals

2.2

Life depends on hydrogen bonds in water.

Water is a polar molecule.

Polar molecules have slightly changed ions.

Nonpolar molecules do not have charged regions.

Hydrogen bonds fro between slightly positive hydrogen atoms and slightly negative ions.

Like dissolve like.

Polar water does not mix with nonpolar grease.

Hydrogen bonds are responsible for three important properties of water. (high specific heat, cohesion, and adhesion.)

Many compounds dissolve in water.

A solution is formed when one substance dissolves in another.

A solution is a homogenous mixture.

Solvents dissolve other substances.

“Like dissolves like”

Polar solvents dissolve polar solutes.

Nonpolar solvents dissolve nonpolar solutes.

Polar substances and nonpolar substances generally remain separate.

Some compounds from acids and bases.

An acid releases a hydrogen ion when it dissolves in water.

A neutral solution has a pH of 7.

2.3

Carbon atoms have unique bonding properties.

Carbon forms covalent bonds with up to four other atoms, including other carbon atoms.

Carbon-based molecules have three general types of structures:     -straight chain

-branched chain         -ring.

Many carbon-based molecules are made of many small subunits bonded together.

Monomers are the individual subunits.

Polymers are made of many monomers.

4 types of macromolecules (carbon-based molecules)   1- carbohydrate (sugars)           2- lipids (fats)  3- proteins  (peptide)   4-nucleic acids

Four main types of carbon-based molecules are found in living things.

Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Carbohydrates include sugars and starches.

Monosaccharides are simple sugars. (monomer of carbohydrate)

Polysaccharides include starches, cellulose, and glycogen. (polymer- carbohydrate) monomer of lipid- fatty acids. Polymer-lipids

Carbohydrates can be broken down to provide energy for cells.

Some carbohydrates are part of cell structure.

Lipids are nonpolar molecules that include fats oils, and cholesterol.

Many contain carbon chains called fatty acids.

Fats and oils contain fatty acids bonded to glycerol.

Lipids have several different functions.

Lipids are nonpolar.

Used to make male hormones.

Lipids are water-fearing (hydrophobic) nonpolar.

Hydrophillic - water loving (polar)

Fats and oils have different types of fatty acids. (saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids)

saturated - can’t add hydrogens. (full) (single bonds) (solid at room temp)

Unsaturated- can add hydrogens. (not full) (double bonds) (liquid at room temp)

Phospholopids make up all cell membranes.

Polar phosphate “head” (hydrophylip)

Nonpolar fatty acids “tails” (hydrophobic)

Lipids have several different functions.

Broken down as a source of energy

Make up cell membranes.

Proteins are polymers made of amino monomers.

Twenty different amino acids are used to build proteins in organisms.

Amino acids differ in side groups, or R groups.

Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds.

Proteins differ in the number and order of amino acids.

Amino acids interact to give a protein its shape.

Incorrect amino acids change a protein’s structure and function.

Nucleic acids are polymers of monomers called nucleotides.

Nucleotides are made of a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogen base.

Cellular energy is known as ATP.

Nucleic acids are polymers of monomers called nucleotides.

Nucleotides are made of sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogen base.

DNA stores genetic information.

RNA builds proteins.

2.4

Bonds break and form during chemical reactions.

Chemical reactions change substances into different ones by breaking and forming chemical bonds.

Reactants are changed during a chemical reaction.

Bond energy is the amount of energy that breaks a bond.

Energy is added to break bonds.

Energy is released when bonds form.

Products are made by a chemical reaction.

A reaction is at equilibrium when reactants and products form at the same rate.

Chemical reactions release or absorb energy.

Activation energy is the amount of energy that needs to be absorbed to start a chemical reaction.

Exothermic reactions release more energy than they absorb.

Reactants have higher bond energies than products.

Excess energy is released by the reaction.

Endothermic reactions absorb more energy than they release.

Reactants have lower bond energies than products.

Energy is absorbed  by the reaction to make up the difference.

2.5

Enzymes are catalysts for chemical reactions in living things.

A catalyst lowers activation energy.

Catalysts are substances that speed up chemical reactions.

Decrease activation energy.

Increases reaction rate.

Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy.

Enzymes allow chemical reactions to occur under tightly controlled conditions.

Enzymes are catalysts in living things.

Enzymes are needed for almost all processes.

Most enzymes are proteins.

All enzymes end in -ase

Disruptions in homeostasis can prevent enzymes from functioning.

Enzymes function best in a small range of conditions.

Changes in temperature and pH can break hydrogen bonds.

An enzyme’s function depends on its structure.

The lock-and-key model helps illustrate how enzymes function.

Substrates brought together

Bonds in substrates weakened.

Substrates bind to an enzyme at certain places called active sites.

The enzyme brings substrates together and weakens the bond.

The catalyzed reaction forms a product that is released from the enzyme.

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Organelles | Function

Cytoskeleton | -supports and shapes cell-provides strength-Helps        position and transport organelles
Nucleus | -stores genetic information-controls most of the organelles
Rough endoplasmic reticulum  | -transports material through the cell-produces proteins
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum | -makes cellular products like hormones and lipids.
Mitochondria | -energy source for the cell
Vacuoles | -Fluid filled sacs that hold material
Lysosomes  | -contains enzymes to digest material
Centrioles | -tubes found in the centrosome
Cell wall | -provides rigid support
Chloroplast | -converts solar energy to chemical energy
Centrosomes  | -where microtubules are produced

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This is why. . . A cell is like a house The Cell Membrane is like the door. It regulates what goes in and out of the cell. Cell Membrane The Cell Wall is like the outside of the house (e.g. bricks). It protects the cell, like the way bricks etc. protects a house. Cell Wall This organelle is like the solar panels on the roof. It absorbs light into energy, the way solar panels create energy from the Sun's heat. Chloroplast The ER in a cell is like the hallways in a house. They are both passageways Endoplasmic Reticulum Lysosome This is like a garbage can. It cleans out the cell like you use the garbage can to clean the house Mitochondria This is also like a solar panel. It converts nutrients to energy like a solar panel converts sun heat to energy Nucleus The Nucleus is like the living room. It's the main part of the cell, like the living room is the main part of the house Ribosomes Ribosomes are like the tools in a house because they synthesize proteins. Proteins complete jobs in a cell, the way tools complete jobs Vacuole The Vacuole is like a refrigerator in a house. It stores water, nutrients and/or waste products

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Lesson 1

Atom-smallest basic unit of matter.

Element-substance made of only one type of atom that cannot be broken down by chemical means.

Compound-substance made of atoms of different elements that are bonded together in a particular ratio.

Ion-atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons.

Ionic bond-chemical bond formed through the electrical force between oppositely charged ions.

Covalent bond-chemical bond formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons.

Molecule- two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds; not necessarily a compound.

Lesson 2

Hydrogen bond-attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a slightly negative atom.

Cohesion-attraction between molecules of the same substance.

Adhesion-attraction molecules of different molecules of different substances.

Solution-mixture that is consistent throughout; also called a homogenous mixture.

Solvent-substance in which solutes dissolve and that is present in greatest concentration in a solution.

Solute-substance that dissolves in a solvent and is present at a lower concentration than the solvent.

Acid-compound that donates a proton when dissolved in a solution.

Base-compound that accepts a proton when dissolved in solution.

pH-measurement of acidity; related to free hydrogen ion concentration in solution.

Lesson 3

Monomer-molecular subunit of a polymer.

Polymer-large,carbon-based molecule formed by monomers.

Carbohydrate-molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; includes sugars and starches.

Lipid-nonpolar molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; includes fats and oils.

Fatty acid-hydrocarbon chain often bonded to glycerol in a lipid.

Protein-polymer composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds; folds into a particular structure depending on bonds between amino acids.

Amino acid-molecule that makes up proteins; composed

Nucleic acid-polymer of nucleotides; the genetic material of organisms.

Lesson 4

Chemical reaction- process by which substances change into different substances through the breaking and forming of chemical bonds.

Reactant-substance that is changed by a chemical reaction.

Product-substance formed by a chemical reaction.

Bond energy-amount of energy needed to break a bond between two particular atoms; or the amount of energy released when a bond forms between two particular atoms.

Equilibrium- condition in which reactants and products of a chemical reaction are formed at the same rate.

Activation energy- energy input necessary to initiate a chemical reaction.

Exothermic- chemical reaction that yields a net release of energy in the form of heat.

Endothermic- chemical reaction that requires a net input of energy.

Lesson 5

Catalyst- substance that decreases activation energy and increases reaction rate in a chemical reaction.

Enzyme- protein that catalyzes chemical reactions for organisms.

Substrate- reactant in a chemical reaction upon which an enzyme acts.

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An atom is the smallest basic unit of life.

An element is the one of atom.

Proton, neutron, electrons, three parts of a atom.

Nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons.

Atomic number = number of protons.

Atomic number can be found on the periodic table.

Number of protons=electron if it is neutral.

Mass number - atomic number = neutron.

Positive ion = cation    negative = anion.

Ionic bonds form between oppositely charged ions usually between metals and nonmetals.

Ionic bonds are the full transfer of electrons between metals and nonmetals.

A covalent bonds form when atoms share a pair of electrons. Happens between two nonmetals.

A solution is formed when one substance dissolves in another.

Solvents dissolves another substance .

Solute is dissolved.

Salt is a nacl.

The ph scales ranks from 0-14 middle number is 7  acidic high h+ concentration

7-above low h+ concentration more basic.

Neutrals are around 7.

Monomer is one thing many mers is  a polymer.

4 types of macromolecules

1:Carbohydrates=sugars   C-O-H

Monosaccharides are simple sugars

Polysaccharides are starches,cellulose and glycogen.

2: lipids are fats.

C-H-o

Are nonpolar. Are the polymer and monomer is the fatty acids

They are hydrophobic. - [water fearing]

[Water loving] -hydrophilic.

Saturated is solid unsaturated is liquid .

Phosphate are the head the tails or lipid or nonpolar.

Proteins are polymers of amino acid monomers.

Another name for protein is polypeptide.

Incorrect amino acids change  proteins structure and function.

Nucleic acids are the polymer of monomers called nucleotides.

Cellular energy is know as

[  ----- ]

[                 ]

[         ATP.     ]

[                  ]

[ -----]

Bonds break and form during chemical reactions.

Bond energy is the amount of energy that breaks the bond.

Activation energy is the amount of energy that needs to be absorbed to start reaction.

Exothermic reaction released.

Endothermic absorbs more energy that released.

“This week I want our focus to be on using our class time most efficiently. Often times we use class time to visit and not work on HW, ask questions, or study. Let's start this week by changing our habits and make it more of a natural thing to do during our free class time. ASK questions! WANT to learn! BE INVOLVED!”

Catalyst are use for speeding up a reaction by lowering the activation energy.

Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

All enzymes end of- ase

Lock and key.

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Science as process: The word science is derived from a Latin verb meaning "to know." That is, biology is an ongoing process of learning, not just a list of facts.

Evolution: Evolution is simply how living things evolve, or change, over time. It explains inherited similarities in organisms and causes of variation.

Energy transfer: All organisms perform work as they move, grow, and reproduce and need an energy source to do so. Organisms constantly transfer energy to their surroundings, and vice versa. This transfer involves the conversion of one form of energy into another.

Continuity and change: Organisms reproduce to ensure their species continues. But combining genes also results in variations in offspring.

Relationship of structure to function: Every type of organism has developed parts to adapt to its habitat. Birds have different kinds of beaks, and plants have different kinds of seeds, for example.

Regulation: Also called homeostasis. Cells, animals, and ecosystems work to maintain stable internal conditions, such as body temperature, even when external conditions change.

Interdependence in nature: The flow of energy and cycling of matter are the two processes that determine the relationships between organisms and their surroundings.

Science, technology, and society: Scientific inquiry should consider the ethical and social impact of the research. In other words, scientists must make decisions based on what society should do over what it can do.

Newer Research Methods

As scientists learned more about nature and science, they began to challenge established ideas like spontaneous generation.

This was the beginning of what is now known as scientific inquiry. Scientists use three key methods to research and analyze data: observation, investigation, and experimentation. Scientific inquiry begins with observation. It is a process in which scientists gather information in an orderly manner. They record their observations, which become data that they categorize. Data is of two types: Numerical data is called quantitative data.Descriptive data, data that cannot be counted, is called qualitative data. An example of quantitative data is, "A plant has 10 leaves." An example of qualitative data is, "The leaves are healthy."

Based on the data she's gathered, a scientist may propose a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a question framed by a scientist to explain a set of observations. It's a prediction that must be testable. So the scientist must conduct experiments or do more investigation.

A hypothesis isn't always proven correct. Experiments or investigation may prove the hypothesis wrong. Then the scientist must reformulate the hypothesis and start over again.

Common Metric Units
Length1 meter = 100 centimeters1000 meters = 1 kilometer
Mass1 kilogram = 1000 grams
Volume1 liter = 1000 milliliters
Temperature0°C = freezing point of water100°C = boiling point of water

Biology, the study of life, is the science on which many kinds of study are based: medicine, nutrition, molecules, ecosystems, and more. Several themes, such as evolution and energy transfer, are consistent throughout Biology's many disciplines.

Research methodologies have undergone a significant change over the years. Observation, investigation, and experimentation remain the backbone of research, but microscopes and computers have greatly enhanced scientific knowledge and study.

The data gathered by researchers must be organized and analyzed so that it is useful. Tables and graphs are good ways to represent data.

Explore some exciting careers in biology and its interdisciplinary branches. Perhaps you'll find the career you're meant for!

Everything in our enormous universe is either matter or energy. Matter defines the physical objects; energy drives them to perform work. The study of matter and how it reacts is chemistry. The study of energy is physics.

Biology incorporates both. This lesson is about some basic chemistry because when you know that, you will understand biology better.

Covalent bonds are generally stronger than ionic bonds. Also, covalent bonds form when neutral atoms share electrons, instead of ions. How atoms share electrons depends on how the electrons in different atomic orbitals are distributed.

Most atoms have more than one orbital around their nucleus. As the atomic number of an atom increases, the number of orbitals also increases. The outermost orbital, called the valence shell, is the one that forms the bond. Atoms bind to one another so that the valence shell of each atom has eight electrons. Again, let's use the element carbon to explain.

The carbon atom contains six electrons and has two orbitals: two electrons in the one closer to the nucleus and four in the outer one. So the carbon atom seeks other atoms with four electrons in their valence shells to share so that each atom has eight electrons. Look at the picture to see how carbon and oxygen share electrons to form carbon dioxide.

In organisms, compounds rarely exist as pure substances. They typically form mixtures with other compounds. There are three types of mixtures:solutions, suspensions, and colloids. Mixtures can be of any two or more chemical compounds, but in biology, we mostly study mixtures of water with other compounds. (Remember, all living things are mostly water.)

When water mixes with a compound, it forms an aqueous solution.Aqueous solutions differ in density of concentration measured by molarity. Molarity is the number of moles of a chemical compound dissolved per liter of water. In other words, the higher the molarity, the higher the concentration.

You can see the difference between solutions and suspensions in a simple experiment. Add a spoonful of salt to a glass of water. Stir until you don't see the salt anymore. In another glass of water add some soil.No matter how long you stir this mixture, the soil won't dissolve.

So that's one difference: a solution is a mixture in which a solute (in this case, salt) dissolves in a solvent (in this case, water). Also, the solution is clear. Substances like salt and sugar homogenize completely in water so that you can't see any solid particles.

The water to which you added soil is cloudy. It's called a suspension because the soil particles are suspended in the water. They can sediment, or settle to the bottom, if left undisturbed. Also, in a suspension, it's possible to separate the particles from the liquid because they're big.

It's important to know a little chemistry in order to understand biological systems because all living things are composed of chemical compounds of some sort. An atom is the basic unit of matter, consisting of three main parts: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons have a positive charge, and electrons have a negative charge. Neutrons are neutral.Atoms of the same type combine to form an element. All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, which give it its atomic number. Elements arranged in order of their atomic numbers from smallest to largest form the periodic table.

Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Isotopes have many uses in medicine, food preservation, and other professions.

Atoms with fewer or more electrons than protons are called ions.Positive ions can combine with negative ones to form ionic bonds, which are weak. Conversely, covalent bonds are strong. They are formed when neutral atoms share electrons.

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Lesson 1

Biosphere-all organisms and the part of Earth where they exist.

Biodiversity-variety of life within an area.

Species-group of organisms so similar to one another that they can breed and produce fertile offspring.

Biology-scientific study of all forms of life.

Organism-any individual living thing.

Cell-basic unit of life.

Metabolism-all chemical processes that synthesize or breakdown materials within an organism.

DNA-molecule that stores genetic information in all organisms.

Lesson 2

System-changing, organized group of related parts that interact to form a whole.

Ecosystem-collection of organisms and nonliving things, such as climate, soil, water, and rocks, in an area.

Homeostasis-regulation and maintenance of constant internal conditions in an organism.

Evolution-change in a species over time; process of biological change by which descendents come to differ from their ancestors.

Adaption-inherited trait that is selected for over time because it allows organisms to better survive in their environment.

Lesson 3

Observation-using the senses to study the world; using tools to collect measurements; examining previous research results.

Data-observations and measurements recorded during an experiment.

Hypothesis-proposed explanation or answer to a scientific question.

Experiment-process that tests a hypothesis by collecting information under controlled under controlled conditions.

Independent variable-condition or factor that is manipulated by scientists during an experiment.

Dependent variable- experimental data collected through observation and measurement.

Constant-condition that is controlled so that it does not change during an experiment.

Theory-proposed explanation for a wide variety of observations and experimental results.

Lesson 4

Microscope-tool that provides an enlarged image of an object.

Gene-specific region of DNA that codes for a particular protein.

Molecular genetics-study of DNA structure and function on the molecular level.

Genomics-study and comparison of genomes within a single species or among different species.

Lesson 5

Biotechnology-use and application of living things and biological processes

Transgenic-organism whose genome has been altered to contain one or more genes from another organism or species.

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file:///home/chronos/u-890d76bf90b189ecc6e358466eb7340691e1f58d/Downloads/PowerpointChpt3.pdf

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3.1 Cell Theory

Cells are the basic unit of life.

Produce energy

Adapt to surroundings

Made up of one or more cells

Has genetic material

The cell theory grew out of the work of many scientists and improvement in the microscope.

Many scientists contributed to the cell theory.

More was learned about cells as microscopes improved.

The cell theory is a unifying concept of biology.

Hook: The first one to identify the cell.

Lebjiinghook: He called the species found in the pond water animicals.

Shleden: Discovered plants have cells.

Schwann: Said all living things are made up of cells.

Vercihow: all cells come from preexisting cells.

Early studies led to the development of the cell theory.

The cell theory has three principals.

All organisms are made of cells.

All cells come from preexisting cells

Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and most internal structures of eukaryotic cells.

All cell share certain characteristics.

Cells tend to be microscopic

Call cells are enclosed membrane.

A cells are filled with cytoplasm.

All cells must have:

1. Cell membrane

2. Cytoplasm

3. Genetic material

4. Ribosomes

There are two cell types: eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells.

Prokaryotic cell do not have a nucleus

Prokaryotic cell do not have cell membrane bound organelles.

Lesson 3.2

Cells have an internal structure

The cytoskeleton has many function

Supports and shapes cell

Helps position and transport organelles

Provides strength

Assists in cell division

Aids in cell movement

Several organelles are involved in making and processing proteins.

THe nucleus stores genetic information

Many processes occur in the endoplasmic reticulum

There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Other organelles have various functions.

Mitochondria supply energy to the cell

Vacuoles are fluid-filled sacs that hold materials.

Lysosomes contain enzymes to digest material.

Centrioles are tubes found in the centrosomes.

Plant Cells have cell walls and chloroplasts

A cell wall provides rigid support

Chloroplasts convert solar energy to chemical energy

Lesson 3.3

Cell membranes are composed of two phospholipid layers.

The cell membrane has two major functions

Forms a boundary between inside and outside of the cell

Controls passage of materials

The fluid mosaic model describes the membrane

The cell membrane is made of a phospholipid layer

There are other molecules embedded in the membrane

Tail of a phospholipid, is nonpolar  hydrophobic

Head of a phospholipid, is polar hydrophillic

The cell membrane is selectively permeable

Chemical signals are transmitted across the cell membrane

Receptors bind with ligands and changes shape

There are two types of receptors

Intracellular receptor

Membrane receptor

Section 4

Materials move across membranes because of concentration differences.

Passive transport does not require energy input from a cell

Molecules can move across the cell membrane through passive transport

There are two types of passive transport

High to low concentration

Diffusion “simple”

Osmosis

Some molecules can only diffuse through transport proteins.

Some molecules cannot easily diffuse across the cell membrane

Facilitated diffusion is diffusion through transport proteins

DIffusion and Osmosis are types of passive transport

THere are three types of solutions

Isotonic

Hypertonic

Hypotonic

Hypo = below concentration

Hypo = above concentration

Iso = same concentration

Lysis is when a cell bursts open.

Solvent: present in the highest quantity. Typically water

Solute: What is dissolved in the solvent.

Solution: Solvent and Solute

Cells use energy to transport materials that cannot diffuse across a membrane

Diffusion and Osmosis are types of passive transport

Molecules diffuse down a concentration gradient

Active transport requires energy input from a cell and enables a cell to move a substance against its concentration gradient.

Passive transport requires no energy from the cell

Active transport is powered by chemical energy. ( ATP)

Active transport occurs through protein pumps

Cells use active transport to maintain homeostasis

A cell can import and export large materials or large amounts of material in vesicles dring the processes of endocytosis and exocytosis

Cells use energy to transport material in vesicles

Endocytosis is the process of taking materials into the cell

Phagocytosis is a form of Endocytosis

Exocytosis is the process of expelling materials form the cell

# data[].attributes.body
Cell theory: theory that states that all organisms are made of cells, all cells are produced by other living cells, and the cel is the most basic unit of life.

Cytoplasm: jelly-like substance inside cells that contains molecules and in some cells organelles

Organelle: structures specialized to perform distinct processes within a cell

Prokaryotic cell: Does not have a nucleus or membrane bound organelles

Eukaryotic cell: Does have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

Cytoskeleton: network of proteins, such as microtubules and microfilaments, inside a eukaryotic cell that supports and shapes the cell

Nucleus: the storehouse for most of the genetic information, or DNA in cells

Endoplasmic reticulum: interconnected network of thin, folded, membranes

Ribosome: tiny organelles that link amino acids together to form proteins

Golgi apparatus: closely layered stacks of membrane-enclosed spaces that process, sort, and deliver proteins

Vesicle: small membrane bound sacs that divide some materials from the rest of the cytoplam and transport these materials from place to place.

Mitochondrion: supplies energy to the cell

Vacuole: a fluid-filled sac used for the storage of materials needed by the cell

Lysosome: membrane bound organelles that contain enzymes

Centriole: small cylinder shaped organelle made of protein tubes arranged in a circle; aids mitosis

Cell wall: rigid structure that gives protection, support, and shape to cells in plants, algae, fungi, and bacteria

Chloroplast: organelle composed of numerous membranes that are used to convert solar energy into chemical energy; contains chlorophyll

Cell membrane: double-layer of phospholipids that forms a boundary between a cell and the surrounding environment and controls the passage of materials into and out of the cell

Phospholipid: a molecule that is composed of three basic parts; a charged phosphate group, glycerol, and two fatty acid chains.

Fluid mosaic model: describes the arrangement of the molecules that make up a cell membrane

Selective permeability: allows some, but not all, materials to cross into the cell

Receptor: a protein that detects a signal molecule and performs an action in response

Passive transport: movement of molecules across a cell membrane without energy input from the cell

Diffusion:  moves substances across the membrane

Concentration gradient: difference in the concentration of a substance from one location to another

Osmosis:  to move across a semipermeable membrane from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration

Isotonic: same concentration of dissolved particles as the cell

Hypertonic: has a higher concentration of dissolved particles then a cell

Hypotonic: has a lower concentration of dissolved particles than a cell

Facilitated diffusion:  the diffusion of molecules across a membrane through transport proteins

Active transport: energy requiring movement of molecules across a membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration

Endocytosis: the process of taking liquids or fairly large molecules into a cell by  engulfing them in a membrane

Phagocytosis: is a type of endocytosis in which the cell membrane engulfs large particles; also means, “Cell Eating”

Exocytosis: the opposite of endocytosis, the release of substances out of a cell by the fusion of a vesicle with the membrane