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Alabama anti-literacy law passed, punishing any "free person of color or slave" taught how to read and write

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1840s- the rising prominence of women's schools and colleges

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1840s- the rising prominence of women's schools and colleges

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1840s - separation of church and public schools 

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1840s - separation of church and public schools 

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This is seen in the decision to end federal funding for Catholic schools as well as make the new public school curriculum different from that of a religious school.

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Horace Mann’s Fifth Annual Report (1841) 

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Horace Mann’s Fifth Annual Report (1841) 

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Raised the idea of "value of education as an investment in human capital" (19), but argument was pretty weak.

Emphasizes the national economic benefits of public education, but these benefits were presented as a “supporting role in the ‘higher and nobler’ mission of supporting republican community” (19).

Labaree, Someone Has to Fail

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Separation of students based on their age, inspired by the Prussian practice

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Horace Mann’s Twelfth Annual Report (1848) 

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Horace Mann’s Twelfth Annual Report (1848) 

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“Education, then, beyond all other devices of human origin, is the great equalizer of the conditions of men—the balance-wheel of the social machinery . ... The spread of education, by enlarging the cultivated class or caste, will open a wider area over which the social feelings will expand; and, if this education should be universal and complete it. would do more than all things else to obliterate factitious distinctions in society.”

Labaree, Someone Has to Fail

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Massachusetts establishes first compulsory attendance law requiring all children to attend school

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Laura Town and Charlotte Forten began teaching a community of former slaves in the South Carolina Sea Islands

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Declared that all persons born in the United States to be citizens despite of class, race and status.

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1893 - Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary School

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1893 - Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary School

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A committee proposed to the National Educational Association (NEA) a new structure for the high school curriculum, establishing a standardized core curriculum.

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In response to the proposal, progressivism burst over the country and common core exacerbated an existing culture of meritocracy in the early 20th century

Their logic: if everyone “has access to the same resources,” it’s their fault if they’re still in poverty

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The education of schools and universities during this time were focused on creating workers for the industrial work, since that was the focus of American economy.

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1892 - Introduction of the Pledge of Allegiance

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1892 - Introduction of the Pledge of Allegiance

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Francis Bellamy introduces the Pledge of Allegiance, which became integrated into classroom practices across the country. The wording of the Pledge of Allegiance has been debated upon and revised several times since its original publication to reflect different political and religious agenda.

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18-1900s - American Indian boarding schools

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18-1900s - American Indian boarding schools

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American Indian boarding schools were established in the United States during the early 19th through the mid-20th centuries with a primary objective of "civilizing" or assimilating Native American children and youth into Euro-American culture.

Children were typically immersed in European-American culture. Schools forced removal of indigenous cultural signifiers: cutting the children's hair, having them wear American-style uniforms, forbidding them from speaking their indigenous languages, and replacing their tribal names with English-language names.

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This bill gave federal funding towards secondary schools providing them with vocational training for teachers.

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Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education

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1918 - Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education

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1918 - Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education

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Schools exist to help individuals adapt to the needs of society; as society becomes more complex, schools must transform themselves accordingly; and in this way they will help citizens develop the socially needed qualities of ''intelligence and efficiency."

More of a focus on “socially efficient” education, but there was still a belief that education was for the public good.

The 7 “main objectives of education”:
Health, Command of fundamental processes, Worthy home membership, Vocation, Citizenship, Worthy use of leisure, Ethical character

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1919 - the Progressive Education Association was formed

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1919 - the Progressive Education Association was formed

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This organization studied the effects of progressive education vs traditional education on children’s learning and academic results.

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Black artistic movement in New York City in the 1920s, when writers, poets, painters, and musicians came together to express feelings and experiences, especially about the injustices of Jim Crow; leading figures of the movement included Countee Cullen, Claude McKay, Duke Ellington, Zora Neale Hurston, and Langston Hughes.

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1920 - White women get the right to vote

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1920 - White women get the right to vote

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1920 - United Mine Workers of America is formed 

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1920 - United Mine Workers of America is formed 

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The first important unskilled workers labor union.

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Promotes sentiment that there is a lot of cruelty in the achievement oriented society of the roaring twenties

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1926 - The SAT is administered to select students for the first time

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1926 - The SAT is administered to select students for the first time

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Funding for public education is cut. This causes school closures and teacher layoffs.

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Enforces minimum wage and maximum hours.

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1933 - Frances Perkins becomes the U.S. secretary of labor. She is the woman to be appointed to the U.S. Cabinet.

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1933 - Frances Perkins becomes the U.S. secretary of labor. She is the woman to be appointed to the U.S. Cabinet.

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Proposes the New Deal, which were known as the three R’s (Relief, Reform, Recovery) in order to provide relief from the depression.

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1935 - Rate of Americans with high school diplomas is 40%, a rapid expansion from just 9% in 1910.

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1935 - Rate of Americans with high school diplomas is 40%, a rapid expansion from just 9% in 1910.

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1940 - Women start to be seen as worthy of vocational education as women take up “men’s roles” in the workforce while young men are drafted to war

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1940 - Women start to be seen as worthy of vocational education as women take up “men’s roles” in the workforce while young men are drafted to war

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The UN was officially established with five permanent members of the Security Council - US, UK, France, Soviet Union, and the Republic of China, along with a majority of 46 signatories.

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-Segregated schools were announced illegal.

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- Goal was to enhance and strengthen the American school system through funds as a result of the push for international competition

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New York City School Boycott
One of the largest protests in American history, even larger than the March on Washington.
Meant to protest quality of schools and lack of integration.

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1965 - The Elementary and Secondary Education Act

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1965 - The Elementary and Secondary Education Act

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Part of President Johnson’s war on poverty, emphasized high standards and accountability

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Ruled that neither students nor teachers “shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate”

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1971 Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education 

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1971 Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education 

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Upheld the constitutionality of school busing programs as a tool of desegregation.

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It prohibits discrimination against students based on their sex in an educational institution.

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1972 Mills v. The Board of Education of Washington, D.C. 

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1972 Mills v. The Board of Education of Washington, D.C. 

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Extended the PARC v. Pennsylvania ruling, requires the provision of adequate alternative educational services suited to a child’s needs which includes special education

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The Court’s decision in the 1973 San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez case argued that citizens are not entitled to an equally funded education. Because school funding is tied to property taxes, citizens further shift to becoming consumers that can choose better schools by moving to neighborhoods with higher property values.

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1974-The General Education Provisions Act of 1974

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1974-The General Education Provisions Act of 1974

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Banned the use of federal funding for supporting school busing programs, meaning that school districts (and more importantly, the parents that support them) have to voluntarily opt into busing programs. Desegregation essentially becomes a choice, further pushing citizens towards being consumers.

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1974-Vorchheimer vs. School District of Philadelphia 

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1974-Vorchheimer vs. School District of Philadelphia 

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Vorchheimer was rejected from Central High School on the basis of sex. She then filed a lawsuit against Central contending their exclusion of female students—which violated the Equal Protection Clause. Raised the question of whether U.S. Constitutional law required all public education systems to be co-ed.

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1976-The Supreme Court makes private schools' segregation illegal

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1976-The Supreme Court makes private schools' segregation illegal

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The Supreme Court brought out an additional decision, requiring private school to comply with the integration of races during admissions. If not, it is a violation of the federal civil rights law.

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1982- Board of Island Union Free School District v. Steven A. Pico

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1982- Board of Island Union Free School District v. Steven A. Pico

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“Our Constitution does not permit the official suppression of ideas.”

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President Ronald Reagan’s Secretary of Education published a landmark report about the dire state of the American education system. The report gave several suggestions on how to improve schools, such as more standardized testing, more funding, and curriculum changes. The report caused a wave of education reform at the local, state, and federal level.

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Ahead of the Reagan Institute's Summit on Education, which commemorates the 35th anniversary of the release of "A Nation at Risk," The 74 is publishing a special series of articles, essays, and retrospectives about the release and the aftermath of the famous education report. See our full series here.
"A Nation at Risk," the damning report that sparked the modern education reform movement, turns 35 this year. The Ronald Reagan Foundation and Institute is marking the anniversary with a daylong summit to discuss progress since the report's release and the future of American education.

The report, released during Ronald Reagan's presidency, warned of a "rising tide of mediocrity" in American schools that demanded national attention.

The Reagan Institute Summit on Education, slated for April 12 in Washington, D.C., will convene a diverse group of education and political leaders, including Sen. Lamar Alexander of Tennessee, Rep. Virginia Foxx of North Carolina, Newark Mayor Ras Baraka, State Superintendents John White of Louisiana and Carey Wright of Mississippi, and Télyse Masaoay, a Vanderbilt University student, among others.

Education Secretary Betsy DeVos will join former Education Secretary William Bennett for a conversation on past and present policy priorities. It was also announced April 11 that former Second Lady Jill Biden will appear.

"Our current political climate is characterized by factionalism and increasing division," Reagan Foundation Executive Director John Heubusch told The 74 in an email. "But the next generation of leaders - who are the hope of this democracy - need us to unite on common ground. There is a need for substantive, bipartisan discussion on American education policy."

"A Nation at Risk" called on Americans to cultivate "a learning society" that values rigorous academic standards and constant teaching and learning across industries. In that spirit, the summit will open with a conversation between former secretary of state Condoleezza Rice and former secretary of homeland security and current University of California president Janet Napolitano about what the learning society looks like in 2018 and how it can create opportunities for all students.

The summit will close with a panel discussion among four former secretaries of education. John B. King, Arne Duncan, Margaret Spellings, and Rod Paige will talk about the "the role education plays writ large in society" to prepare students not only for college and career but also to "come to the public square both engaged and informed," Tony Pennay, chief learning officer for the Reagan Foundation, told The 74.

In between, the conference will host discussions about current topics like the Every Student Succeeds Act, "the new basics" students need to succeed today, and the changing role of college in American society.

Pennay said he is excited about the star power and political diversity of the speakers.

"Getting that really big cross section of folks all coming together ... is a really good thing," he said.

Pennay added that he hopes the summit will become an annual event and that this year's is just "the start of a conversation." He sees the summit as part of the foundation's work to continue Reagan's legacy in education, grounded in the president's farewell address, which declared, "An informed patriotism is what we want."

Disclosure: The Walton Family Foundation provides financial support to the Reagan Institute Summit on Education and .

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Complete Preview: As 'A Nation at Risk' Turns 35, the Reagan Institute Invites Top Education Leaders at D.C. Summit

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Ahead of the Reagan Institute's Summit on Education, which commemorates the 35th anniversary of the release of "A Nation at Risk," The 74 is publishing a special series of articles, essays, and retrospectives about the release and the aftermath of the famous education report. See our full series here.

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1987 - ACT UP - HIV/AIDS activist group formed

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1987 - ACT UP - HIV/AIDS activist group formed

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The non-profit organization that recruits college graduates to teach as corps members is founded by Wendy Kopp

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1990 - "Politics, Markets and America's Schools" Published

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1990 - "Politics, Markets and America's Schools" Published

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Argument 1: Schools are more successful when given greater autonomy

Argument 2: Democratic governance of schools leads to bureaucracy which is not as effective as market-based governance

“Markets are simply more efficient at promoting the school autonomy needed for effective teaching and learning” - Labaree

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1990's - Major push for teacher qualifications

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1990's - Major push for teacher qualifications

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With leadership from the Council of Chief State School Officers, many states begin to develop guidelines for teacher certifications.

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1992 - The first charter school in the country, City Academy, opens in St. Paul, Minnesota

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1992 - The first charter school in the country, City Academy, opens in St. Paul, Minnesota

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The idea behind charter schools was to create an alternative way of schooling that could not be done in traditional public schools. By 1995, 18 states followed Minnesotas lead by passing their own charter school legislation. However, the move was not without criticism. Many argued that charter schools would divert resources from public schools, thus damaging the system further.

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The National Center for Educational Statistics found that from 1994 to the fall of 2001, internet access in U.S. public schools increased from 35 percent to 99 percent.

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In 1994, the Improving America's Schools Act was enacted to support high standards for all students, to implement professional experiences that better prepare teachers to teach to high standards, to provide flexibility for school districts and states to implement standards, to hold school districts responsible for meeting standards, and to promote familial and communal partnership.

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In 1994, the School-to-Work Opportunities Act established a national framework for School-to-Work Opportunities in all states. It reflects Labaree's noted shift in the purpose of education from forming citizens to forming laborers.

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The Columbine High School Massacre was a school shooting and attempted bombing that occurred at a local high school in Colorado by two senior students. 12 students and 1 teacher were killed, making it the deadliest school shooting at the time. The day after the massacre, 55% of parents said they feared for their children's safety at school. Following shootings in the decades since have continued to strike fear in students and their parents. In 2018, 57% of teens said they were worried about a shooting at their school, and one in four said they were "very worried."

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2001: inauguration of President George W. Bush

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2001: inauguration of President George W. Bush

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2001 Attack against the Twin Towers of World Trade Center

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2001 Attack against the Twin Towers of World Trade Center

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In January 2002, President Bush signs the NCLB Act into law. The law has bipartisan support in congress and requires states to test students in reading and math from grades 3-12. Movement towards standards-based education, i.e. measuring academic ‘success’ by test scores.

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addition of more federal cognitive disability services and federal financial aid programs

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2012: Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA)

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2012: Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA)

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In 2012, President Obama signs DACA into law, an immigration act that defers deportation for undocumented immigrants who moved to the United States as children.

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Founded in response to the acquittal of Trayvon Martin, #BlackLivesMatter is an international group and and protest movement with the goal of eradicating white supremacy and countering acts of violence inflicted on Black communities.

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December 2015: Every Student Succeeds Act

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December 2015: Every Student Succeeds Act

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In December 2015, the ESSA is signed into law. The ESSA is an update to NCLB that moves accountability for testing and budgeting from the federal government to the states.

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1831 - Virginia declares all meetings to teach free Black people illegal

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1831 - Virginia declares all meetings to teach free Black people illegal

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Virginia passes law declaring all meetings to teach free Black people illegal

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2011 - Michelle Obama Implements National School Lunch Program in 2011 to combat childhood obesity

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2011 - Michelle Obama Implements National School Lunch Program in 2011 to combat childhood obesity

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2016 Completion of the Panama Canal Expansion Project

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2016 Completion of the Panama Canal Expansion Project

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AKA Third Set of Locks Project. Allowed a new lane of traffic for larger number of ships with lessened travel time.

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2011 - Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting

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2011 - Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting

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2018 - Stoneman Douglas High School shooting

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2018 - Stoneman Douglas High School shooting

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Students across the nation protest against gun violence on National Walkout Day, also marking the 19th anniversary of the Columbine shooting

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March 2019: National School Climate Protest

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March 2019: National School Climate Protest

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Students all around the world had a walkout on Friday to support climate reform. This movement was inspired by Greta Thunburg's ongoing protest.

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Shift to virtual learning

Importance of schools and teachers brought to light

Mask mandates

“The analysis by The New York Times in conjunction with Stanford University shows that in those 33 states, 10,000 local public schools lost at least 20 percent of their kindergarteners. In 2019 and in 2018, only 4,000 or so schools experienced such steep drops.” (Dana Goldstein and Alicia Pariapiano)

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may 2020: detroit right to literacy ruling

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may 2020: detroit right to literacy ruling

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The 6th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled 2-1 in Gary B. v. Whitmer that students have a right to minimum education, namely the right to read.

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May 2020-Present: Ongoing protests against white supremacist violence and police brutality

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May 2020-Present: Ongoing protests against white supremacist violence and police brutality

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In response to the murder of several Black people at the hands of police officers and white vigilantes in 2020, multiple protests and protest actions took place and sparked a national conversation on Abolition, defunding the police, funding Black and low-income communities, and teaching Critical Race Theory in public schools. Those mourned during the protests include George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, and Ahmaud Arbery.

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As of September 2021, eight states (ID, OK, TN, TX, IA, NH, AZ, SC) have passed legislation banning the use or teaching of critical race theory in public schools.

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1849 - Ohio established segregated schools 

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1849 - Ohio established segregated schools 

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First schools made exclusively for black students.

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The US Supreme Court ruled the Separate but equal principle of the Jim Crow Laws.

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Grimm vs. Gloucester County School Board

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Grimm vs. Gloucester County School Board

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Gavin Grimm is a transgender boy who was forced to use the girl's bathroom for most of his high school experience. He was prohibited from using the common student restrooms and was forced to use a separate bathroom from other students due to his gender expression. The Grimm family sued the school for discrimination and as a result, the District Court ruled in his favor on August 26, 2020.

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1988 the year of the least segregated schools

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1988 the year of the least segregated schools