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1- Less control of extraneous variable which could lower the validity and reliability.
2- Methodological issues:
- Experimenters can't be sure that the participants were not repeated as they took the same route everday.
- Participants may have been exposed to more than once condition of the experiment.
- Suspecting the emergency was a set-up might have made the participants more or less likely to offer help, creating demand characteristics.
3- Passengers were subway passengers from New York, that means the sample is unrepresentative.
4- Ethical Issues :
- Participants did not give consent to participate in this research.
- They were not debriefed after the study finished.
- They were deceived during the study.
- They might have suffered psychological distress as a result of the study, guilt at not helping or concern about the well-being of the victim.

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1- Good ecological validity as it was a field experiment using an independent measure design.
2- Participants were train passengers who were unaware of the study hence would have behaved naturally.
3- Around 4500 individuals participated; it was a mix of ethinicities and gender.
4- The large sample is likely to be representative and has greater validity.
5- Quantitative data ensured objective record.
6- The data was reliable due to the presence of two observers.
7- Qualitative data in form of remarks or comments made by the passengers were also recorded which helped the researchers to know about their thoughts and behaviours.

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- In a natural setting, many people would offer help to a stranger, even in a group situation.
- No evidence to support diffusion of responsibility hypothesis.
- Several other factors play a role in helping behaviour ;
- type of victim ( someone using a cane will be helped more than a drunk person)
- gender of the helper (men are more likely to help than a women)
- People may be more likely to help members of their own race if the victim is drunk.
- Longer an emergency, less likely it is that anyone will help and more likely it is they will find another way of coping with arousal.

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- In 20% of trials, passengers actually moved away from the critical area.
- Higher number of comments made during trials without helping.
- More comments made during trials with a drunk victim.
Piliavin proposed an alternative explanation for their finding's ; "COST-BENEFIT MODEL".
They suggest;
-Witnessing an emergency raises an indivduals arousal.
- Feelings can be of disgust and aversion, or even sympathy and courage.
- This heightened arousal prompts individuals to act, in order to reduce difficult feelings.
- Potential responses include helping directly (as seen in trials) or indirectly; leaving the critical area (seen in trials).
- Comments by passengers towards the drunk victim shows their feelings towards them and is the final response.

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- From the graph;
Hypothetical speed to respond for 7 person groups  is slower than for 3 person groups.
- Natural 7 person group was faster to respond than predicted and faster than the 3 person group.

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- Overall the frequency of helping in this study was much higher than had previously been reported in the laboratory.
- Majority of helpers were males.
- Nearly 80% helped before the model intervened or in a no-model condition.
- 60% of cases more than 1 person helped.
In terms of TYPE OF VICTIM ;
- The cane victim received help in 62/65 trials. Spontaneous helping occured.
- The drunk victim received help only 19/38 trials. No spontaneous helping.
In terms of RACE OF VICTIM;
- Both black and white cane victims were equally likely to recieve help.
- Some minor evidence of same-race helping in the drunk condition, hence participants were more willing to offer help to those of their own race.
- Drunk condition; black victim received less help overall.
- Early model intervention at 70 seconds was slightly more likely to result in helping behaviour than waiting until 150 seconds had passed.
- The hypothesis of 'diffusion of responsibility' was rejected as they did not find any eveidence to support it.
- Alternatively it was found when the number of passengers was high the rates of helping was also slightly higher.

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- 38/103 trials the victims smelled alcohol and carried a bottle of alcohol wrapped in a brown bag.
- In the remaining 65 trials they appeared sober and carried a black cane.
- They all behaved identically.
- Models were all white aged between 24-29years and all dressed informally.
- While helping, the model raised the victim to the sitting position and stayed with him until the train reached the next stop.
-Trials were split into :
- Critical/early: model stood in critical area and waited 70 sec. to help victim.
- Critical/late: model stood in critical area and waited 150 sec. to help victim.
- Adjacent/early : model stood in adjacent area and waited 70 sec. to help victim.
- Adjacent/late : model stood in adjacent area and waited 150 sec. to help victim.
- No model condition : the model did not help the victim until the trial was over and the train had reached the next stop.

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- 4 teams of student researchers carried out the study.
- On each trial, 2 males and 2 females boarded the trains..
- Female confederates sat in the area adjacent to the immediate'critical' area.
- The observed the passengers and recorded the data during each trial.
- Male confederates took the role of victim and model.
- The victim stood at the pole in the centre of the critical area.
- The model remained standing throughout the trial.
- Each trial used the same route, because it included a 7.5 minute gap between two stations.
- At 70 sec. into the journey, the 'victim' staggered forward and collapsed.
- He remained lying on the floor looking upward.
- If he received no help, the model would help him to his feet at the next stop.
- The victim was played by different males during the study but all were made to look similar; identically dressed, causal clothing.
- They were aged 26- 35years; 3 were white and 1 black.

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- Participants were passengers travelling on an underground service between Harlem and the Bronx weekdays
- Time between 11am and 3 pm.
- It was an opportunity sample as they were not deliberately selected for participation.
- Total estimated no. 4450 people.
- 45% black, 55% white.
- Mean number of passengers per carriage was 43.
- Mean number of people in critical area (where the incident took place) was 8.5.

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- FIELD EXPERIMENT
- Realistic environment ; the New York City Subway.
- INDEPENDENT GROUP DESIGN
- The trials were repeated on different days and involved different participants in each condition.
- 4 IV's :
- the type of victim : the levels were 'drunk' or 'ill' victim.
- the race of the victim : the levels were black or white victim.
- the behaviour of the 'model': the levels were a model who was either close to or distant from the victim helped, either early or late in the event.
the size of the group of bystanders; this level was the naturally occuring number of passengers present in the subway carriage.

- DV was the level of bystander helping.
- This was operationalised as quantitative data was collected by noting the time taken for the first passenger to help, as well as the total number of passengers who helped.
- The race, gender and location in the carriage of each helper were also recorded.
- Qualitative data was recorded in the form of verbal remarks made by passengers during each incident.

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- A key trigger for research into bystander behaviour was the murder of Kitty Genovese.
- Darley and Latane (1968) hypothesized this particular behaviour of not helping if they believed there are other individuals as the "diffusion of responsibility".
- Alternatively, if we witness those around assisting or 'modelling' helping behaviour, we may be more likely to imitate and engage in helping.
- People are more willing to help those who are perceived as similar.
- Schopler and Matthews,1965 suggested that bystander helping occurs more when victims are not seen as responsible for their circumstances.

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-To study bystander behaviour in a natural setting.
- To investigate the effect of four situational variables on helping behaviour or ' Good Samaritanism';
- the type of victim
- the race of the victim
- the behaviour of a 'model'
- the size of the group of bystannders.