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Red/Orange sections note two opposing arguments.

Purple sections hold key elements of Allen's argument.

Green sections contain evidence to the claims made in the purple sections

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Therefore, a civic approach to education is necessary to ensure equality.

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Therefore, a civic approach to education is necessary to ensure equality.

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Consequences of an education oriented towards the humanities.

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Consequences of an education oriented towards the humanities.

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Allen presents data from political scientist Sunshine Hillygus, who conducted a study on the correlation between SAT scores and an increased chances of political engagement. She makes it clear that even though both math and language scores are boosted because of socioeconomic effects, the difference in their impact on political participation suggests that there may be a connection between verbal skills and participatory readiness.

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Allen introduces the idea that a liberal arts education is necessary through a rhetorical question, acknowledging the odd connection between the liberal arts and civic agency. She makes it clear that the liberal arts embody the necessary aspects to promote civic agency by bringing together various fields within the humanities to “cultivate capacities for social diagnosis, ethical reasoning, cause-and-effect analysis, and persuasive argumentation” (Allen 13).

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Allen emphasizes that these three components of civic agency, "do not in themselves determine the content of any given historical moment’s conception of citizenship," (Allen 12) but instead these components can be separated and embodied by different people. In other words, there isn't a definition of being a citizen that remains constant as society changes even with three fundamental tasks that have been prevalent throughout history.

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Participatory readiness and the three aspects of civic agency.

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Participatory readiness and the three aspects of civic agency.

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Allen elucidates on the aspects that compose civic agency which have been prevalent throughout history. She notes "Athenian citizens gathered in the assembly, the town halls of colonial New Hampshire, and public representatives behaving reasonably in the halls of a legislature," (Allen 11) to describe disinterested deliberation as the engagement in discussions about public issues. Additionally, she reminds her audience of historical figures and their powerful rhetoric that brought about change to society or "frame shifted" the public eye. Finally, Allen defines "fair fighting" as the determined pursuit of solutions while remaining transparent.

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Allen acknowledges the fact that policies regarding education primarily ensure, "young people, and society generally, can compete in a global economy," (Allen 9) through their STEM or other form of vocational skill set. This information helps draw a connection between education and equality.

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Allen foreshadows her argument by initially implying that education is meant to prepare people. She begins by noting historical views on education, particularly a court case in New York that concluded that an acceptable "level of verbal and math skills and similarly advanced competence in social studies and economics," (Allen 9) were necessary for meaningful civic participation and advanced employment opportunities.

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The incomplete nature of a vocational education.

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The incomplete nature of a vocational education.

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Allen shows how a vocational education is believed to alleviate inequality by explaining that economic policies focus on the "dissemination of skills as a way to reduce inequality in a technology-dependent economy," (Allen 9). She explores the argument in favor of a vocational approach by explaining that the spread of vocational skills would "drive down the wage premium on expertise" (Allen 10) and consequently promote income equality. However, Allen references observations made by French economist, Thomas Piketty, to describe the limits of a vocational education as a force to reduce inequality. Piketty explains that society has accepted political ideologies that tolerate outrageously high wages or “hypermeritocrasy". This information contributes to Allen's argument by describing one way in which a vocational education cannot combat a form of inequality that's facilitated by political ideologies. In short, vocational schooling has limits in the fight against inequality.

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Allen explores the forces behind inequality by referencing economist, Dani Rodrick, to explain that "gross economic inequalities do not result from an inexorable forward march of technology or globalization or from the nature of markets," (Allen 9). She reaches the conclusion that equal and fair outcomes for all can only be achieved by, "different political choices and economic policies," (Allen 9).

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A civic approach to education can alleviate political inequality and therefore reduce all other forms of equality that stem from politics. Allen references economists Edward L. Glaeser, Giacomo Ponzetto, and Andrei Shleifer, to note that education's significance stems from it's foundation within democracy. Allen elucidates on the idea that a civic education can promote "participatory readiness" or the ability for people to capably engage in politics. This makes it clear that if everyone develops reading, writing, and speaking skills there would be proper representation of all people, rendering beneficial economic policies.