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Common Names: Crawfish, Crayfish, Crawdad, Red swamp crayfish

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Common Names: Crawfish, Crayfish, Crawdad, Red swamp crayfish

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Scientific Name: Decapoda, Genus: Procambarus, Species: Procambarus clarkii                                       

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Scientific Name: Decapoda, Genus: Procambarus, Species: Procambarus clarkii                                       

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Living Conditions: Clean Flowing water (rivers, streams) and standing waters (Lakes, marshes, swamps), found in almost any wetland (including drainage ditches), wherever there is water

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Living Conditions: Clean Flowing water (rivers, streams) and standing waters (Lakes, marshes, swamps), found in almost any wetland (including drainage ditches), wherever there is water

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https://www.pubs.ext.vt.edu/content/dam/pubs_ext_vt_edu/420/420-524/CNRE-82.pdf
https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=97491#null
https://www.ecospark.ca/crayfish

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Food Chain: Crayfish are both predator and prey

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Food Chain: Crayfish are both predator and prey

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Crayfish are prey for different types of fish including trout and bass, for aquatic mammals, waterfowl and other birds.

When young, they may also be preyed upon by other invertebrates.

Crayfish are also eaten by humans! In France they are called Écrevisses and are cooked like lobsters.

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Region: Half of the known species occur in North America.They can be found in East Asia, Europe, New Zealand, and throughout the world.

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Region: Half of the known species occur in North America.They can be found in East Asia, Europe, New Zealand, and throughout the world.

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Common Minnow, Minnow, Eurasian Minnow

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_minnow
https://www.bioexplorer.net/what-do-minnows-eat.html/
https://www.google.com/search?q=Common+minnow+role+in+food+chain&bih=821&biw=1440&rlz=1C5CHFA_enUS974US980&hl=en-US&ei=9Tw2Y6LXKZypptQP5MikiAU&ved=0ahUKEwjipa_dpbv6AhWclIkEHWQkCVEQ4dUDCA4&uact=5&oq=Common+minnow+role+in+food+chain&gs_lcp=Cgxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAQAzIICCEQwwQQoAE6CggAEEcQ1gQQsAM6DQgAEEcQ1gQQsAMQyQM6BQgAEKIEOgcIABAeEKIEOgoIIRDDBBAKEKABSgQIQRgASgQIRhgAUKQUWLAfYKUiaAJwAXgAgAGOAYgBrweSAQMyLjaYAQCgAQHIAQjAAQE&sclient=gws-wiz-serp&safe=active&ssui=on

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The Eurasian minnow, minnow, or common minnow ( Phoxinus phoxinus) is a small species of freshwater fish in the carp family Cyprinidae. It is the type species of genus . It is ubiquitous throughout much of Eurasia, from Britain and Spain to eastern Siberia, predominantly in cool (12-20 °C (54-68 °F)) streams and well- oxygenated lakes and ponds. It is noted for being a gregarious species, shoaling in large numbers.

The common minnow is a small fish which reaches a maximum total length of 14 centimetres ( in), but is normally around 7 centimetres (3 in) in length. It has 3 spines and 6-8 soft rays in its dorsal fin with 3 spines and 6-8 soft rays in its anal fin. Its spine is made up of 38-40 vertebrae. It is distinguished from similar species which occur in Europe by having the lateral line normally extending beyond the nase of the anal fin, by a line of vertically elongated blotches along the lateral line each with a depth equivalent to 1/3-1/2 of the body's depth at same position, these blotches often fuse to form a midlateral stripe, caudal peduncle has a depth of 2.6-3.1 times its length. The scales on the breast are patchy and the patches of scales are separated by unscaled areas although they are rarely connected by 1-2 rows of scales. Its snout length is 29-34% of the head length and is 1.1-1.4 times the diameter of the eye. The anal fin has its origin in front of the base of the last dorsal ray. The caudal fin consists of 19 soft rays. The back is normally brownish-green, and is separated from the whitish-gray underside by the lateral stripe or blotches described above,

The common minnow is found in northern Eurasia from Ireland in the west and in the east to the Amur drainage and Korea. In Great Britain occurs to 58 °N and in Scandinavia and Russia occur up to the northernmost extremities. In western Europe the southern limit appears to be the Garonne and the upper Rhone. It has been recorded in the drainages of the Volga and the Ural, as well as in Lake Balkhash and the upper Syr-Darya drainage. Records else where require confirmation as this species is similar to a number of others. In Scotland it is regarded as an introduced non native species, and this is probably the case in Ireland. Introductions are likely to have occurred elsewhere, including Norway.

The common minnow is found in a wide variety of environments that have cold, well oxygenated water, often in syntopy with salmonids. These include small streams with fast currents, and, in the more northerly parts of its range, large lowland rivers. It also lives in still waters as varied as small mountain lakes to large, oligotrophic lakes. For spawning, it requires clean gravel areas in well oxygenated flowing water or where waves wash on lake shores. It also needs deep pools with low current to overwinter in, and these must have a coarse substrate among which the fish can hide.

Shoaling and schooling behavior of common minnows occur early in their development, as soon as they become capable of swimming. Shoaling behavior then increases and becomes dominant by three to four weeks after its emergence. This behavior generally benefits individual minnows by improving predator avoidance and foraging. However, there are also costs of living in groups such as increased competition for food and risk of infection. Shoaling behavior is modified depending on the situation such as presence of predators or resource availability.

Predator avoidance

The group formation of common minnows can be explained by the selfish herd effect proposed by W.D. Hamilton. According to the selfish herd theory, a group forms as individuals try to reduce their domain of danger by approaching others and continuously moving toward the center of the group where the risk of predation is the lowest. As the theory predicts, common minnows increase their shoaling behavior in response to increased predation pressure.

Common minnows can detect the predators' presence and communicate with their shoalmates by a chemical signal that is detected by olfactory nerves. The chemical, named Schreckstoff after a German word meaning "fear substance" by Karl von Frisch who first described it, is contained in specialized skin cells called alarm substance cells and is released from an injured or killed minnow. The shoalmates can detect the chemical and respond to the increased risk of predation.

The production and release of this alarm substance are altruistic because the sender of the signal, who does not directly benefit from the signal released upon its injury, has to pay the cost for the production and release of the chemical. In fact, the alarm substance cells decrease in number when the common minnows are in poor physical condition due to scarce food, indicating that there is metabolic cost for producing and maintaining the specialized cells. The apparent altruistic behavior is not clearly understood, because the likely explanation of kin selection is not supported by the shoal structure of common minnows in which shoalmates are not necessarily closely related.

When common minnows sense the alarm substance, they form tighter shoals as individuals move to be in the central position in their shoaling group. However, in an experiment where common minnows were habituated to the chemical by continuous exposure, common minnows did not react to the signal. Only the naïve common minnows reacted to the signal by relocating themselves to the central position in the group. In another experiment, researchers observed common minnows in semi-natural setting and found that common minnows' shoaling behavior varies depending on the habitat's complexity. Minnows tend to respond to increased predation risk by forming larger shoals in structurally simple habitats and by reducing their rate of movement in complex habitats.

When potential predators come near the shoal, some common minnows take the risk of approaching the predators in order to inspect the predator and assess the danger. Predator inspection behavior increases the risk of being attacked and eaten by the predator, but the behavior is beneficial to the inspectors as more alert minnows react more quickly to the attack of the predator. Common minnows are expected to recognize predators by their appearance. In an experiment, common minnows inspected a realistic-looking model of a pike, one of the major predators of minnows, and a simple cylinder model. Common minnows showed high level of alertness, such as low feeding rate and frequent skittering after their visit to the realistic model, but they became easily habituated to the simple model and resumed foraging even in proximity to the model.

In addition to identifying predators by their appearance, common minnows can respond to the predators' motivation to attack. In an experiment, common minnows inspected a northern pike behind a clear partition at regular intervals until the pike tried to attack the minnows. Their responses differed depending on when their visit was made. Minnows that inspected the pike just before the pike attacked were more alarmed than those who inspected the pike long before the attack. The observation shows that common minnows can detect the predator's impending aggressiveness and motivation to attack.

Different populations of common minnows show varying degrees of anti-predatory activities. Common minnows from populations in high-predation areas usually show more intense predator inspection than those from low-predation areas. They tend to commence inspection sooner, form larger group of inspectors, inspect more frequently, and approach less to the predator.

Some components of anti-predator activities are inherited, as indicated in the early emergence of shoaling behavior in laboratory-raised immature minnows. The varying levels of predator inspection and shoaling behavior in response to predator's presence can arise in laboratory-raised minnows even though they do not have any experience of predators. Their anti-predatory behaviors are qualitatively and quantitatively similar to their wild-caught counterparts. Anti-predatory behaviors are modified by early experience of predators. Early exposure to predators increases the inspection rate and shoaling tendency.

Shoaling behavior improves foraging success, because the demand for anti-predatory activities per individual is reduced and because more individuals scanning for food leads to quicker detection. In general, a larger shoal of fish locates food faster, which was confirmed to be true in common minnows.

Common minnows do not randomly choose shoalmates to forage with. They tend to associate with familiar shoalmates and prefer to form shoals with poor competitors for food, which indicates that they can recognize individual conspecifics. It is more beneficial to shoal with poor competitors because while group foraging helps the search for food, it also leads to competition for food among the shoalmates. Common minnows tend to associate with familiar shoalmates, but new alliances can form when different groups encounter. In an experiment in which common minnows from different groups were introduced to a common environment and monitored, they associated significantly more frequently with familiar individuals than unfamiliar individuals. The preference lasted up to two weeks, but by the third week, new association patterns were observed.

The Eurasian minnow breeds well in cold fresh water aquariums, but it is rarely sold as an aquarium fish. They need a good supply of oxygen (some air bubblers do fine), a reasonable current (which is often provided by the bubblers if they are good strong ones), and a gravel bottom. It is not clear what size works best although smallish (0.5 centimetres ( in) each) works well. Clean water helps and so do plant life and general good quality aquarium conditions. Breeding begins around late May when the fish become noticeably more active, and the fish begin to change colour. The females don't change their colour so much, more the shape of their body; in fact the colours seem to fade if anything except for the fins which become slightly more red. Their body becomes more deep set toward the abdomen, which area also starts bulking out. Although the changes in the female are small, the changes in the male are huge. First of all, the difference in the shades of colour on the fish become stronger (dark gets darker, light gets lighter), and the fins, throat and some other areas redden. These colour changes strengthen as the fish gets closer to breeding. The body becomes much bulkier, and the gills become very pale with iridescent light blue patches towards the bottom and below. This contrasts with the now very dark body. Later the scales on the lower half of the body begin to stand out more and become slightly gold-lined. All these strengthen as time passes on. All the fins, especially the dorsal, start to stick out more; this happens in both sexes. The males begin to chase females around, rubbing their sides against them, and this becomes very frenzied and aggressive towards the mating. Mating happens when this behaviour reaches its climax where the female releases the eggs and the male fertilizes them.[citation needed ]

Fertilised eggs promptly sink to the bottom and into the gravel. The other fish will start eating the eggs and picking at the gravel to find them. The male will then ferociously guard them for a period of time. A few days later the eggs will hatch and the fry will emerge. It is very important to have much plant cover for the fry to hide in as the adult fish will try to eat them especially if underfed and if not much other live food is given. The baby fry feed on small organisms called infusoria and algae. To grow infusoria for feeding just get a jam jar of pond water and run it through some cotton wool or muslin to get out any larger predatory organisms like daphnia which will eat the infusoria and add hay to the water. Leave it for a few days in a dimly lit room at about room temp. There will be many tiny white dots in the water which, if looked at under a microscope reveal to be many types of infusoria in their millions. These can be fed to the fry by adding them to the tank. To get more just add some of the old water containing the infusoria to cooled, boiled tap water with hay and repeat the other procedures. As the fry grow their diet changes. When they reach about inch (13 mm) they can be fed small organisms like daphnia or cyclops. These can be obtained by dragging a net through water where they can be seen or they can be purchased from aquarium dealers. Soon the fish will eat the same food as the adults and will quickly grow.[citation needed ]

Skin color changes are controlled by photoreceptors deep in the brain. This has contributed greatly to understanding of photoactivation of various processes across vertebrates - including for example, seasonality.

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The Eurasian minnow, minnow, or common minnow ( Phoxinus phoxinus) is a small species of freshwater fish in the carp family Cyprinidae. It is the type species of genus . It is ubiquitous throughout much of Eurasia, from Britain and Spain to eastern Siberia, predominantly in cool (12-20 °C (54-68 °F)) streams and well- oxygenated lakes and ponds.

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Scientific name: Phoxinus phoxinus, Genus: Phoxinus Species: P. phoxinus

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Scientific name: Phoxinus phoxinus, Genus: Phoxinus Species: P. phoxinus

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Living Conditions: The common minnow is found in a wide variety of environments that have cold, well oxygenated water, often in syntopy with salmonids. These include small streams with fast currents, and, in the more northerly parts of its range, large lowland rivers. It also lives in still waters as varied as small mountain lakes to large, oligotrophic lakes. For spawning, it requires clean gravel areas in well oxygenated flowing water or where waves wash on lake shores. It also needs deep pools with low current to overwinter in, and these must have a coarse substrate among which the fish can hide.

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Living Conditions: The common minnow is found in a wide variety of environments that have cold, well oxygenated water, often in syntopy with salmonids. These include small streams with fast currents, and, in the more northerly parts of its range, large lowland rivers. It also lives in still waters as varied as small mountain lakes to large, oligotrophic lakes. For spawning, it requires clean gravel areas in well oxygenated flowing water or where waves wash on lake shores. It also needs deep pools with low current to overwinter in, and these must have a coarse substrate among which the fish can hide.

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Regions: It is ubiquitous throughout much of Eurasia, from Britain and Spain to eastern Siberia, predominantly in cool (12–20 °C (54–68 °F)) streams and well-oxygenated lakes and ponds. It is noted for being a gregarious species, shoaling in large numbers. They are found in northern Eurasia from Ireland in the west and in the east to the Amur drainage and Korea. In Great Britain occurs to 58 °N and in Scandinavia and Russia occur up to the northernmost extremities. In western Europe the southern limit appears to be the Garonne and the upper Rhone. It has been recorded in the drainages of the Volga and the Ural, as well as in Lake Balkhash and the upper Syr-Darya drainage. Records else where require confirmation as this species is similar to a number of others. In Scotland it is regarded as an introduced non native species, and this is probably the case in Ireland. Introductions are likely to have occurred elsewhere, including Norway.

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Regions: It is ubiquitous throughout much of Eurasia, from Britain and Spain to eastern Siberia, predominantly in cool (12–20 °C (54–68 °F)) streams and well-oxygenated lakes and ponds. It is noted for being a gregarious species, shoaling in large numbers. They are found in northern Eurasia from Ireland in the west and in the east to the Amur drainage and Korea. In Great Britain occurs to 58 °N and in Scandinavia and Russia occur up to the northernmost extremities. In western Europe the southern limit appears to be the Garonne and the upper Rhone. It has been recorded in the drainages of the Volga and the Ural, as well as in Lake Balkhash and the upper Syr-Darya drainage. Records else where require confirmation as this species is similar to a number of others. In Scotland it is regarded as an introduced non native species, and this is probably the case in Ireland. Introductions are likely to have occurred elsewhere, including Norway.

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Minnows play an instrumental role in the animal food chain. These fishes feed on ostracods, aquatic insects, and zooplankton, thus influencing their population. In performing the above role, minnows help maintain a balance in the population of the organisms they consume. Minnows of various sizes are eaten by the more popular game fish (and fish-eating birds); thus, they provide an important link in the food chain by converting certain small aquatic plants and animals (algae, insects, fish, etc.) into protein available to larger fish.

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Scientific Name: Junonia coenia Species: J. coenia Genus: Junonia

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Scientific Name: Junonia coenia Species: J. coenia Genus: Junonia

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Its habitat is open areas with low vegetation and some bare ground. Its original ancestry has been traced to Africa, which then experiences divergence in Asia.

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Regions: It is found in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains and in Mexico. Common buckeyes move to the south along with tailwinds directed to the north or northwest after the cold fronts from September or October. They are sensitive to the cold and cannot spend the winter in northern regions that will experience extreme cold temperatures. However, they will migrate back from the south during the spring. It was spotted in California in late summer, early fall of 2022.

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Regions: It is found in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains and in Mexico. Common buckeyes move to the south along with tailwinds directed to the north or northwest after the cold fronts from September or October. They are sensitive to the cold and cannot spend the winter in northern regions that will experience extreme cold temperatures. However, they will migrate back from the south during the spring. It was spotted in California in late summer, early fall of 2022.

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Food Chain: Predators for these organisms include ants, wasps, birds, and small animals. Caterpillars feed on a variety of plants including the narrowleaf plantain (Plantago lanceolata), the common greater plantain (Plantago major), blue toadflax, false foxglove, Mexican petunia (Ruellia species), the firecracker plant, and Cudweed.

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Food Chain: Predators for these organisms include ants, wasps, birds, and small animals. Caterpillars feed on a variety of plants including the narrowleaf plantain (Plantago lanceolata), the common greater plantain (Plantago major), blue toadflax, false foxglove, Mexican petunia (Ruellia species), the firecracker plant, and Cudweed.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junonia_coenia

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Junonia coenia, known as the common buckeye or buckeye, is a butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is found in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains and in Mexico. Its habitat is open areas with low vegetation and some bare ground. Its original ancestry has been traced to Africa, which then experiences divergence in Asia. The species Junonia grisea, the gray buckeye, is found west of the Rocky Mountains and was formerly a subspecies of Junonia coenia.

Caterpillars of these butterflies appear to prefer plants that produce iridoid glycosides, which are bitter compounds that release a hormone called gastrin that activates the digestive system (i.e. hunger); therefore, iridoid glycoside producing plants stimulate and attract their appetites particularly when found in plants like Plantago lanceolata. In fact, the presence of these metabolites may trigger oviposition behaviors in female butterflies so that descendant larval bodies may better incorporate iridoid glycosides. Iridoid glycolyside metabolites appear to have a growth-stimulating effect on caterpillars but a growth-reducing effect on predators. Predators like ants, wasps, birds, and small animals prefer to feed on iridoid glycoside poor caterpillars rather than iridoid glycoside rich larvae, potentially due to these effects. Therefore, immunity of J. coenia larvae to predators like ants appears to be strongly related to the concentration of iridoid glycosides sequestered in their bodies. However, too much iridoid glycosides in the diet can negatively affect the immune response of these larvae and lead to increased susceptibility to parasitism.

Adult butterflies feed on flowers with certain pollinator cues: yellow flowers that are 'pre-change', or flowers whose color has not been changed due to insect visitation or other factors. Common buckeye caterpillars feed in isolation rather than relying upon grouping behaviors. Vulnerability to the Junonia coenia densovirus is another concern for survivorship of common buckeye larvae.

Common buckeye butterflies are colored mostly brown with some orange, black, white, blue, and magenta. The forewing features two proximal orange bars and a postmedian white band, which surrounds a prominent black eyespot and borders a smaller, more distal eyespot; both eyespots have a bluish center and each border a distal orange mark. The hindwing is mostly brown with an orange band towards the edge and a brown and white margin. It also has two eyespots, one larger and one smaller, each with a black and white outline, and a center consisting of black, blue, magenta, and orange. They also exhibit blue-green overtones on their front and sometimes hind wings. Their wingspan is typically between 2 and 2.5 inches (5 - 6.5 cm).

These caterpillars have a beautiful and complex color pattern. Their backs are mostly black with light-colored markings (white, gray, beige, or brownish, varying among individuals-see picture below), their sides have white markings and red-orange spots, and they have a brown underside. They have a mostly red-orange head with black markings on the face. They have spines running lengthwise along their back and sides, as many as 7 per segment. There is also a pair of small spines on the top of their head. These spines branch out (have smaller spines coming out of them) and appear a bit shiny-blue at the base. They also have 2 pairs of tiny white spines on each segment, near the bottom. The color patterns and spine forms are less pronounced in earlier instars. There are several other species that resemble these caterpillars in appearance, such as the painted lady, the Glanville fritillary, and the red admiral, which can be easily confused by an untrained observer. They can reach 4 cm (1 5/8 inches) in length.

Pupa (chrysalis)

Like the more familiar monarchs, these caterpillars pupate by spinning a silk pad on a downward facing horizontal surface, attaching themselves with their rear end, and hanging in the form of the letter J for a day or so before shedding their skin to reveal the chrysalis. The chrysalis is mostly brown with beige markings, and has a prickly texture. It has a beige band near the top, another one at the "waist" (border between thorax and abdomen), and 4 pairs of beige dots running down its dorsal side. It is 18 mm long and 8 mm wide. When touched or handled excessively, it has a habit of wiggling its abdomen.

Junio probably arose from one African colonizing ancestor. In Asia, this diverged into J. atlites, J. iphita, and J. hedonia that resembled the African ancestor. These species then diverged into J. almanac, J. lemonias, and J. villida that began to differ morphologically from African ancestors. The Taxon Pulse Hypothesis is invoked to explain the vicariance as well as dispersal exhibited by this species where there is dispersal as the species expands until they find appropriate habitats. This then allows for speciation to occur in several isolated habitats. In Junonia the species may have expanded from Africa into Asia and then from Asia throughout "Australasia, Africa, and South America." In the 1930s established populations were recognized in Cuba and the Florida Keys. In the 1940s populations migrated inland from the coast of Florida and further into the southern United States.

Caterpillars feed on a variety of plants including the narrowleaf plantain (Plantago lanceolata), the common greater plantain (Plantago major), blue toadflax, false foxglove, Mexican petunia ( Ruellia species), the firecracker plant, and Cudweed.

Host plant preferences

Iridoid glycosides trigger feeding behaviors of J. coenia larvae in northern California, serving as attractants and as stimulants. It also allows for higher growth and survival rates that appear to be best promoted in the plant Plantago lanceolata, an invasive plant in California. In fact, leaves from this plant were preferred over artificial diets with just the iridoid glycosides, indicating the presence of additional sources in P. lanceolata that might play a role in food preferences. Naturally, J. coenia consider iridoid glycosides in the host plant selection for larvae. This inclination for iridoid glycosides may also reflect its role in oviposition and microhabitat selection. Aucubin and catalpol are two other chemicals that can be stimulants and attractants for larval feeding behaviors.

In the case of Lantana camara flowers, J. coenia preferentially feed on flowers in the yellow stage at a significantly higher rate that suggests associative learning. During early life stages, the butterfly feeds upon yellow and red flowers almost equally but over time focuses only on those flowers that are yellow and 'pre-change.' This is especially advantageous because the flower's color can be linked to its viability as well as the nectar reward that it can provide the pollinator. With this signal the pollinator can visit the right plant at the right time maximizing both its reproductive advantage as well as that of the flower. Moreover, the amount of nectar found within the flower can also influence the duration of a pollinator's visit to the plant.

In the process of oviposition, contact chemoreception is an important sense used to detect allelochemicals on individual leaves that promote or discourage oviposition. Females detect iridoid glycosides found in plants like P. lanceolata as oviposition cues. Similarly, a mix of catalpol and aucubin, as well as catalpol alone, also promotes oviposition. In addition, the quantity of catalpol also seems to play a role in oviposition because females choose to lay eggs in regions that are most concentrated with catalpol. Just one iridoid glycoside molecule is enough to promote oviposition to the same degree that would be seen on a hostplant leaf. However, with that said, females did prefer plants with more iridoid glycosides. Larvae concentrate large amounts of iridoid glycosides, and theoretical explanations for this include protection from predators. Therefore, evolution would favor female J. coenia that can detect more iridoid glycosides on host plants so that larvae can incorporate that into their diet and thus gain better protective mechanisms for survival.

Caterpillars tend to feed individually and in isolation. For example, even in the case that multiple caterpillars are feeding upon the same plant, they will not be doing so cooperatively or based in a group dynamic. Caterpillars are generally not aggressive: they do not mind each other's presence and tend to abstain from fighting when running into one another.

Common buckeyes move to the south along with tailwinds directed to the north or northwest after the cold fronts from September or October. They are sensitive to the cold and cannot spend the winter in northern regions that will experience extreme cold temperatures. However, they will migrate back from the south during the spring. It was spotted in California in late summer, early fall of 2022.

J. coenia appears to readily migrate on a local scale between patches that are connected by corridors over those that are not connected by corridors. They could also affect large scale immigration by making patches more accessible to immigrating butterflies if they are connected by corridors as opposed to if they are unconnected. As a result, this would play a role in increasing the population densities of these habitats, which would then affect resource availability for affected individuals.

Predators for these organisms include ants, wasps, birds, and small animals. Predators appear to select larvae that feed on artificial diets deprived of iridoid glycoside (iridoid glycoside poor) rather than those that consume organic leaf material (iridoid glycoside rich larvae), which may indicate the role of iridoid glycoside consumption. This selection then favors larvae that have diets including iridoid glycosides as well as females who oviposition on those sites by providing offspring with necessary defense mechanisms.

Defense effect on predators

Prey which contain iridoid glycosides can affect invertebrate predators differently. Chemical differences as a result of leaf age can affect the development of these butterflies, which can then affect the quality of these butterflies as food sources for spiders. One such observation indicated that iridoid glycosides may diminish growth of predators so that predators select for caterpillars that do not feed on iridoid glycoside-rich substrates. Iridoid glycosides have been shown to stimulate growth in prey while decreasing growth in predators, which may then be responsible for its role in providing chemical protection to butterflies.

The densovirus Junonia coenia infects the common buckeye larvae by focusing on targeting dividing cells in order to propagate. It consists of single stranded DNA genomes with a smooth, sphere-shaped capsid. It is from the family Parvoviridae and has been considered a potential insecticide, as is hypothesized for other one-species densoviruses. The Junonia coenia densovirus is unique in its separation of DNA strands for structural proteins versus nonstructural proteins.

High intake of iridoid glycosides by J. coenia can have a negative effect on their immune response. This can then lead to higher susceptibility to parasitoids as well as a decreased ability to resist parasitism. Therefore, it is necessary to balance the chemical defense provided by these secondary metabolites with their immunological cost that correlates with increased risk of parasitism. Specifically, secondary metabolites may be hindering the immune response by operating through decreased melanization. This becomes even more problematic since parasitism is a prominent cause of mortality for caterpillars. This relationship exemplifies the vulnerable host hypothesis.

Common predators of J. coenia larvae are ants, and chemical defense appears to be a strong survival mechanism for these organisms against predation. The concentration of iridoid glycoside sequestered by larvae seems to be a strong predictor for the decreased likelihood that they will be predated.

Gustation (taste)

In order to find a host plant for oviposition, females search for appropriate concentrations of catalpol or iridoid glycosides. Therefore, they practice drumming, which allows them to pierce the plant exterior and 'taste' the variety of allelochemicals that are present within its structure. This can be detected through the female J. coenia foretarsal chemoreceptors.

Larvae also appear to weakly adopt automimicry as a survival strategy. In the presence of caterpillars that have sequestered iridoids (making them unpalatable to predators) and those that have not sequestered iridoids (making them palatable to predators), unpalatable caterpillars are able to escape predation. However, this trend is a weak example because it also may be the consequence of predators entirely avoiding this species of caterpillars rather than predators rejecting caterpillars.

The common buckeye was featured on the 2006 United States Postal Service 24-cent postage stamp.

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Junonia coenia , known as the common buckeye or buckeye, is a butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is found in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains and in Mexico. Its habitat is open areas with low vegetation and some bare ground.

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Common Names: Scorpion Grasses, Alpine Forget-Me-Nots

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Common Names: Scorpion Grasses, Alpine Forget-Me-Nots

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Scientific Name: Myosotis alpestris Genus: Myosotis, Species: M. alpestris

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Scientific Name: Myosotis alpestris Genus: Myosotis, Species: M. alpestris

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Native habitats include moist mountainous areas on wooded slopes and grassy meadows. part shade, sun; moist to wet; shallow water, streams, seeps, lakeshores, wet ditches

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Region: The alpine forget-me-not is the county flower of Westmorland in the United Kingdom and the state flower of Alaska in the United States. It grows well throughout Alaska in open, rocky places high in the mountains, flowering in midsummer. It is also found throughout the Himalaya range at elevations of 3,000–4,300 metres (9,800–14,100 ft).

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Region: The alpine forget-me-not is the county flower of Westmorland in the United Kingdom and the state flower of Alaska in the United States. It grows well throughout Alaska in open, rocky places high in the mountains, flowering in midsummer. It is also found throughout the Himalaya range at elevations of 3,000–4,300 metres (9,800–14,100 ft).

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Invasive Species. Poisonous to deer and other wildlife. Potato flea beetles, Epitrix cucumeris, are tiny black beetles that attack forget-me-nots. They feed on the lower surfaces of leaves and leave the upper portions intact, but the sections where they feed eventually die, leaving holes in the leaves.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myosotis_alpestris

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Horsetail weed, Field Horsetail, Scouring Rush

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Scientific Name: Equisetum arvense, Genus: Equisetum, Species: E. arvense

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Scientific Name: Equisetum arvense, Genus: Equisetum, Species: E. arvense

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Living Conditions: It commonly occurs in damp and open woodlands, pastures, arable lands, roadsides, disturbed areas, and near the edge of streams. It prefers neutral or slightly basic clay loams that are sandy or silty, especially where the water table is high, though it can occur occasionally on slightly acid soils.

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Living Conditions: It commonly occurs in damp and open woodlands, pastures, arable lands, roadsides, disturbed areas, and near the edge of streams. It prefers neutral or slightly basic clay loams that are sandy or silty, especially where the water table is high, though it can occur occasionally on slightly acid soils.

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Region: The plant is widespread in the northern hemisphere, growing as far as 83° North in North America and 71° North in Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia and as far south as Texas, India and Iran. It is less widespread in the southern hemisphere, but it occurs in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Madagascar, Indonesia, Australia and New Zealand.

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Region: The plant is widespread in the northern hemisphere, growing as far as 83° North in North America and 71° North in Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia and as far south as Texas, India and Iran. It is less widespread in the southern hemisphere, but it occurs in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Madagascar, Indonesia, Australia and New Zealand.

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Horsetail is eaten by caribou, moose, sheep and bears and, when young, can be eaten by humans too.

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https://crops.extension.iastate.edu/encyclopedia/equisetum-biology-and-management#:~:text=Horsetails%20are%20members%20of%20the,most%20common%20species%20in%20Iowa.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equisetum_arvense

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Horsetails are members of the genus Equisetum, the only genus in the family Equisetaceae. There are 15 species of equisetum found worldwide; field horsetail (Equisetum arvense) and scouring rush (Equisetum hyemale) are the most common species in Iowa. The plant has numerous common names, including snakeweed, skeletonweed and others (the common names for the two species mentioned above are used interchangeably by many). They are considered living fossils since they are relics of the Carboniferous geological period (325 million years ago). The remains of their ancient ancestors became the vast deposits of coal found throughout the world.

Biology: In the plant world, equisetum is most closely related to ferns. Like the ferns, they do not produce seed, but rather reproduce sexually through the formation of spores. Spores are relatively unimportant in the spread of equisetum. Equisetum produces an extensive underground rhizome system that can reach depths of four feet or more. Patches of equisetum expand radially as the rhizomes extend outward from the patch center. In the absence of soil disturbance that moves rhizome pieces, lateral spread of horsetail is relatively slow. Researchers in Canada found an expansion rate of approximately 20 inches per growing season.

Scouring rush produces unbranched, jointed stems that can reach heights of 4 ft. Leaves are reduced to small scales at the joints. The stems are perennial in that they survive more than one year, and each stem is topped by a spore-producing cone.

Scouring rush in soybean.

Field horsetail produces two distinct types of shoots. Fertile shoots are short-lived and produced in the spring. They are whitish to light brown, 6 to 12 inches tall and topped with the spore producing cone. The sterile shoots are produced after the fertile shoots and resemble miniature pine trees. They can reach heights of 10 to 20 inches.

Field horsetail in corn.

The hollow, jointed, stems of equisetum are the plant structure familiar to most people. Equisetum species found in other continents have similar growth habits that reach heights of 25 feet. The stems of equisetum contain high concentrations of silica and were once used to scour and clean various surfaces - hence the name scouring rush.

Horsetail and scouring rush are most commonly found in poorly drained areas, such as roadsides, wetlands and drainage ditches. The preference for wet areas is due to the requirement for a moist environment during establishment with spores. However, the plants may move into well-drained areas through vegetative reproduction. As tillage has been reduced for corn and soybean production, equisetum may slowly encroach into crop fields from established patches in road rightof-ways.

Management: In today's world where we have relatively quick fixes for most weed problems, horsetail is a plant for which an easy answer has yet to be found. Controlling an established equisetum patch cannot be accomplished with any single tactic, whether it is tillage, mowing or herbicide application. There has been little recent research on equisetum management, thus the information provided below should not be viewed as recommendations by Iowa State University. Many of the products mentioned below do not specifically mention horsetail or scouring rush on the label. While it is legal to use the herbicide to control a pest not specified on the label (as long as the weed is located in a labeled site), the manufacturer is not responsible for the performance of the product.

Non-cropland Repeated mowing or tillage can be used to control equisetum; however, no information is available on the optimum frequency and duration of disturbance. Studies with other creeping perennial weeds possessing deep reproductive structures suggest that at least two years of repeated disturbance would be required to eliminate an established patch. Regrowth should be eliminated before it has an opportunity to replenish root energy reserves, thus remove new growth before it exceeds a height of 8 to 10 inches.

Few of the herbicides commonly used in Iowa agriculture have much activity on equisetum. Care must be taken not to apply herbicides directly to standing water in ditches unless described on the product label. MCPA, a phenoxy herbicide similar in activity to 2,4-D, is reported to provide suppression of horsetail, although horsetail is not listed on most MCPA labels. MCPA is cleared for use in grasslands and noncrop areas. Repeat applications of 2-3 pt/A are suggested to suppress horsetail. Casoron 4G (dichlobenil) is cleared for use in non-crop areas and specifies horsetail on its label. The label states to apply at 150 to 200 lbs/A in the late fall or early spring. Triclopyr (Garlon, Remedy, etc.) is reported to have activity on scouring rush.

Telar (chlorsulfuron) is a sulfonylurea herbicide in the same family as Accent and Classic. The label recommends 1 to 3 oz/A for controlling scouring rush. Telar is cleared for use in non-crop areas such as roadsides, fencerows, etc. At the higher rates it may cause significant injury to grasses present in these areas. Chlorsulfuron is a fairly persistent product, especially in high pH soils. Recent research by the University of Nebraska found Telar had the best activity of the herbicides evaluated on scouring rush.

SedgeHammer contains halosulfuron, another sulfonylurea herbicide. It is labeled for field horsetail control at rates of 2.7 oz/A. SedgeHammer is cleared for use on turf and non-crop areas.

Cropland The encroachment of equisetum into corn and soybean fields has become more common as roadside management has become less intensive and with the increased use of conservation tillage. Eliminating equisetum from areas adjacent to the production field is probably the best control option, but this is easier said than done. Once the weed has become established in a field, tillage is unlikely to have much impact on the weed due to the depth of the rhizome system. Tillage may actually increase the problem by spreading rhizome pieces throughout the field.

Researchers in Canada have reported that products containing flumetsulam (Python, Hornet) have fair to good activity on horsetail. Python is labeled for both corn and soybean, whereas Hornet is registered for use in corn. Permit contains halosulfuron, the same ingredient in Sedgehammer. The label specifies postemergence control of horsetail in corn, however, the maximum use rate in corn is 1.3 oz compared to the 2.6 oz recommended for Sedgehammer. Yukon is a combination of halosulfuron and dicamba registered for use on corn.

Although horsetail is slow-spreading and relatively noncompetitive with crops, over time it can increase in density to the point of having negative impacts. There is no simple solution to eliminating a stand of horsetail once it gets established. Reacting soon after new stands of horsetail are observed will greatly simplify their management. When dealing with a well established stand, persistence will be required to bring it under control. It seems only fitting that a plant possessing traits allowing it to survive millions of years will not succumb easily to our management strategies.

Chloutier, D. and A.K. Watson. 1985. Growth and regeneration of field horsetail. Weed Sci. 33:358-365.

Prepared by Bob Hartzler.

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Horsetails are members of the genus Equisetum, the only genus in the family Equisetaceae. There are 15 species of equisetum found worldwide; field horsetail (Equisetum arvense) and scouring rush (Equisetum hyemale) are the most common species in Iowa.

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Scientific Name: Quercus rubra, Genus: Quercus, Species: Q. rubra

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Scientific Name: Quercus rubra, Genus: Quercus, Species: Q. rubra

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Food Chain: Acorns play an important role in forest ecology when oaks are the dominant species or are plentiful. The volume of the acorn crop may vary widely, creating great abundance or great stress on the many animals dependent on acorns and the predators of those animals. Acorns, along with other nuts, are termed mast. wildlife that consume acorns as an important part of their diets include birds, such as jays, pigeons, some ducks, and several species of woodpeckers. Small mammals that feed on acorns include mice, squirrels and several other rodents. Acorns have a large influence on small rodents in their habitats, as large acorn yields help rodent populations to grow.

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Food Chain: Acorns play an important role in forest ecology when oaks are the dominant species or are plentiful. The volume of the acorn crop may vary widely, creating great abundance or great stress on the many animals dependent on acorns and the predators of those animals. Acorns, along with other nuts, are termed mast. wildlife that consume acorns as an important part of their diets include birds, such as jays, pigeons, some ducks, and several species of woodpeckers. Small mammals that feed on acorns include mice, squirrels and several other rodents. Acorns have a large influence on small rodents in their habitats, as large acorn yields help rodent populations to grow.

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Living Conditions: Grows in loose and moist and nutrient-rich soil in a location that gets plenty of sunlight and rainfall. 

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Living Conditions: Grows in loose and moist and nutrient-rich soil in a location that gets plenty of sunlight and rainfall. 

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https://www.google.com/search?q=where+are+oak+trees+located&bih=821&biw=1440&rlz=1C5CHFA_enUS974US980&hl=en-US&ei=AFw2Y7z5GYKeptQPkvSkqAM&oq=where+are+oak+&gs_lcp=Cgxnd3Mtd2l6LXNlcnAQARgBMggIABDJAxCRAjIFCAAQkQIyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDoOCAAQjwEQ6gIQjAMQ5QI6DgguEI8BEOoCEIwDEOUCOgQIABBDOgsIABCABBCxAxCDAToLCC4QgAQQsQMQgwE6BQguEIAEOhEILhCABBCxAxCDARDHARDRAzoUCC4QgAQQsQMQgwEQxwEQ0QMQ1AI6CgguEMcBENEDEEM6BAgAEAM6CwguEIAEELEDENQCOggIABCABBCxAzoICAAQsQMQgwE6CAguELEDEIMBSgQIQRgASgQIRhgAUPcDWPQXYO0haAFwAXgAgAF8iAGNCpIBBDEwLjSYAQCgAQGwAQrAAQE&sclient=gws-wiz-serp&safe=active&ssui=on

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Region: Oak trees/Acorns can grow throughout the world, but they are native to North America, Asia, Europe, and Africa. North America has nearly 300 native species, more than any other continent. Oak trees/ Acorn grow in nearly every state in the US.

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Region: Oak trees/Acorns can grow throughout the world, but they are native to North America, Asia, Europe, and Africa. North America has nearly 300 native species, more than any other continent. Oak trees/ Acorn grow in nearly every state in the US.

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Common Name: Knotweed, Pennsylvania smart weed, Smart weed, knotgrass

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Common Name: Knotweed, Pennsylvania smart weed, Smart weed, knotgrass

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Scientific Name: Persicaria longiseta, Genus: Persicaria, Species: longiseta

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Scientific Name: Persicaria longiseta, Genus: Persicaria, Species: longiseta

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living conditions: Smartweeds require wet soil conditions to germinate; hot, dry soil conditions cause seed dormancy. Fresh seeds are always dormant and require a cold period (winter) before being able to germinate the following spring. 

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living conditions: Smartweeds require wet soil conditions to germinate; hot, dry soil conditions cause seed dormancy. Fresh seeds are always dormant and require a cold period (winter) before being able to germinate the following spring. 

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Region: It is native to parts of North America, where it is widespread in Canada and the United States. It has also been noted as an introduced species in parts of Europe and South America. Common names include Pennsylvania smartweed and pinkweed.

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Region: It is native to parts of North America, where it is widespread in Canada and the United States. It has also been noted as an introduced species in parts of Europe and South America. Common names include Pennsylvania smartweed and pinkweed.

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https://plants.usda.gov/DocumentLibrary/factsheet/pdf/fs_pope2.pdf
https://www.arborday.org/trees/treeguide/treedetail.cfm?itemID=877

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Attributes

This tree:

Grows more than two feet per year for 10 years.

Provides great fall color, with leaves turning russet-red to bright red.

Is easier than most to transplant.

Features alternating leaves that are 4-8" long and have 7-11 waxy, spine-tipped lobes.

Produces pale yellow-green catkins that appear at about the same time new foliage is expanding, typically April-May.

Yields acorns that are round and ¾-1" long with a flat, thick, saucer-like cap.

Offers great shade due to a dense crown.

Tolerates pollution and compacted soil.

Grows in a rounded shape.

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Northern Red Oak Tree on the Tree Guide at arborday.org

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This tree: Grows more than two feet per year for 10 years. Provides great fall color, with leaves turning russet-red to bright red. Is easier than most to transplant. Features alternating leaves that are 4-8" long and have 7-11 waxy, spine-tipped lobes.

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Food Chain: This plant is an excellent wildlife food plant, especially for waterfowl. Twenty species of ducks, geese, bobwhites, mourning doves, ring-necked pheasants, and four species of rails, as well as 30 nongame birds, eat the seeds. Dense stands provide cover for young waterfowl, marsh birds, and wintering pheasants.

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Food Chain: This plant is an excellent wildlife food plant, especially for waterfowl. Twenty species of ducks, geese, bobwhites, mourning doves, ring-necked pheasants, and four species of rails, as well as 30 nongame birds, eat the seeds. Dense stands provide cover for young waterfowl, marsh birds, and wintering pheasants.

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Common Name: Common Dandelion, dandelion

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Common Name: Common Dandelion, dandelion

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Scientific Name: Taraxacum officinale, Genus: Taraxacum, Species: T. officinale

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Scientific Name: Taraxacum officinale, Genus: Taraxacum, Species: T. officinale

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Living conditions: Dandelion is a short-lived perennial that will grow just about anywhere, regardless of soil conditions, but rich soil will improve its growth. They withstand frost and freezes and tolerate crowding. Heat and insufficient moisture will cause the leaves to get bitter, but it won't kill the plant.

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Living conditions: Dandelion is a short-lived perennial that will grow just about anywhere, regardless of soil conditions, but rich soil will improve its growth. They withstand frost and freezes and tolerate crowding. Heat and insufficient moisture will cause the leaves to get bitter, but it won't kill the plant.

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http://www.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/danoff-burg/invasion_bio/inv_spp_summ/Taraxum_officinale.htm#:~:text=Dandelions%20are%20perennial%2C%20herbaceous%20plants,of%20the%20northern%20temperate%20zone.
https://www.gardenguides.com/12554214-what-eats-dandelions.html

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Photos.com/Photos.com/Getty Images

If you have a lawn in North America, it's likely that you either have dandelions or have spent considerable time getting rid of them. This common weed is known for its yellow flowers and white, furry seed pods, but it's also a source of food for many types of animals, including humans.

Insects

Dandelions are a vitally important element of the diets of many flying and ground insects. Many types of bee and wasp, including the honeybee, bumblebee and bald-faced hornet, use dandelions as a food source. Other insects that eat dandelions include grasshoppers, mites, fireflies and butterflies.

Mammals

If you have dandelions in your yard, it's not uncommon to see rabbits feasting on them. Dandelions are an integral part of the diet of many breeds of rabbit, including the eastern cottontail. White-tailed deer are also consumers of dandelions.

Birds

While dandelion flowers are a food source for insects and mammals, the seeds are eaten by many species of bird. In North America, birds such as the American goldfinch, northern bobwhite, wild turkey and white-throated sparrow make dandelion seeds a regular part of their diets.

Humans

You may see dandelions as a nuisance, but they can be a food source to humans, too. You can buy dandelion greens at grocery stores for an addition to salads, or you can simply pick them in your own yard, wash them and use them in the kitchen. Dandelions have a bitter taste, which is ideally offset in a salad containing traditional lettuce, onions and fruit slices. They have considerable nutritional value, mostly as an antibacterial substance.

Make Dandelions Die

Remove dandelions manually. Use a weeding tool specifically designed to remove dandelions. Typically, you insert the tool into the soil at the base of the dandelion and pull up. This is easiest after a rain. A nonselective herbicide, such as glyphosate, also eradicates them. Carefully spray the dandelions, not the surrounding grass and plants, especially if the herbicide in not safe for them. Reapply every spring and fall to keep the dandelion population under control. Encourage other plants and grasses to grow so the dandelions are crowded out and die. Space them close together to fill in the space.

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If you have a lawn in North America, it's likely that you either have dandelions or have spent considerable time getting rid of them. This common weed is known for its yellow flowers and white, furry seed pods, but it's also a source of food for many types of animals, including humans.

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Region: Dandelions are perennial, herbaceous plants that grow best in moist, sunny areas found in all parts of the northern temperate zone. Dandelions have been established in the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand amongst many other temperate regions such as Austria, Italy, Poland, and Turkey and throughout the United States. 

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Region: Dandelions are perennial, herbaceous plants that grow best in moist, sunny areas found in all parts of the northern temperate zone. Dandelions have been established in the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand amongst many other temperate regions such as Austria, Italy, Poland, and Turkey and throughout the United States. 

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Food Chain: Dandelions are a vitally important element of the diets of many flying and ground insects. Many types of bee and wasp, including the honeybee, bumblebee and bald-faced hornet, use dandelions as a food source. Other insects that eat dandelions include grasshoppers, mites, fireflies and butterflies.

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Food Chain: Dandelions are a vitally important element of the diets of many flying and ground insects. Many types of bee and wasp, including the honeybee, bumblebee and bald-faced hornet, use dandelions as a food source. Other insects that eat dandelions include grasshoppers, mites, fireflies and butterflies.

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Scientific Name: Bombus borealis, Genus: Bombus, Species: B. Borealis

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Scientific Name: Bombus borealis, Genus: Bombus, Species: B. Borealis

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Living Conditions: Honey bees can thrive in natural or domesticated environments, though they prefer to live in gardens, woodlands, orchards, meadows and other areas where flowering plants are abundant. Within their natural habitat, honey bees build nests inside tree cavities and under edges of objects to hide themselves from predators.

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Living Conditions: Honey bees can thrive in natural or domesticated environments, though they prefer to live in gardens, woodlands, orchards, meadows and other areas where flowering plants are abundant. Within their natural habitat, honey bees build nests inside tree cavities and under edges of objects to hide themselves from predators.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey_bee
https://honeystinger.com/blogs/blog/the-honey-bee-the-anchor-in-our-food-supply

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Honey Bee Habitat Information

Researchers believe that the original habitats of the honey bee are tropical climates and heavily forested areas. Honey bees can thrive in natural or domesticated environments, though they prefer to live in gardens, woodlands, orchards, meadows and other areas where flowering plants are abundant. Within their natural habitat, honey bees build nests inside tree cavities and under edges of objects to hide themselves from predators.

Many people believe that honey bees originated in Africa and spread to northern Europe, eastern India, China and the Americas. However, because honey bees have been domesticated to produce honey for human consumption, they are now found all over the world in different habitats.

Honey bees in temperate climates, such as European honey bees, store larger amounts of honey than other subspecies, as they need to maintain a certain temperature inside the nest to survive during winter. Bees living in these climates adapt well to their environment only when workers have created a large nest with well-insulated interiors. To collect enough honey for the next winter, foragers swarm early in the spring.

Because honey bees in tropical habitats, such as African honey bees, do not experience long weeks of cold weather, they do not need to build large and well-insulated nests, produce thousands of workers or store large amounts of honey. For a honey bee in a tropical habitat, swarming depends largely on the abundance of food sources, rather than seasonal factors. However, regardless of living in tropical or temperate climates, honey bees maintain their hives with a constant temperature of 90 to 95 degrees Fahrenheit.

During winter, honey bees consume honey and use their metabolic heat to provide warmth to all individuals of a colony. On the contrary, honey bees use the liquid from stored nectar as an evaporative coolant during warmer seasons. These methods ensure that seasonal changes do not affect their interior habitats.

More Information
Honey Bees Overview Honey Bee Hives Honeybee Colony

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What is the Habitat of a Honey Bee? | Honey Bee Colonies | Orkin

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Honey bees can be found across the world in various different habitats. To learn more about honey bees and where their hives thrive, call Orkin today.

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Regions: native to Afro-Eurasia. After bees spread naturally throughout Africa and Eurasia, humans became responsible for the current cosmopolitan distribution of honey bees, introducing multiple subspecies into South America (early 16th century), North America (early 17th century), and Australia (early 19th century).

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Regions: native to Afro-Eurasia. After bees spread naturally throughout Africa and Eurasia, humans became responsible for the current cosmopolitan distribution of honey bees, introducing multiple subspecies into South America (early 16th century), North America (early 17th century), and Australia (early 19th century).

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Food Chain: Of the pollinators, and how they relate to our food supply, most coaches would consider the honey bee the anchor. They are the final link in the chain for the plant to produce the food we eat through pollination.The most common predators faced by honey bees are skunks, bears and hive beetles. Skunks are insectivores, and when they discover a hive, they often return every night to attack the hive and eat large quantities of bees.

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Food Chain: Of the pollinators, and how they relate to our food supply, most coaches would consider the honey bee the anchor. They are the final link in the chain for the plant to produce the food we eat through pollination.The most common predators faced by honey bees are skunks, bears and hive beetles. Skunks are insectivores, and when they discover a hive, they often return every night to attack the hive and eat large quantities of bees.

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Common Name: American Herring Gull, Herring Gull, Gull

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Common Name: American Herring Gull, Herring Gull, Gull

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Scientific Name: Larus argentatus, Genus: Larus, Species: argentatus

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Scientific Name: Larus argentatus, Genus: Larus, Species: argentatus

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Living Conditions: Herring Gulls' scavenging habits take them to open water, intertidal pools and shallows, mud flats, landfills, newly plowed fields, picnic grounds, and fish-processing plants. They roost and loaf, often in large mixed species groups, in open areas with good visibility for spotting predators, including agricultural and athletic fields, beaches, parking lots, airport runways, and garbage dumps. They breed near lakes in northern forests across Canada to Alaska and in some coastal areas.

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Living Conditions: Herring Gulls' scavenging habits take them to open water, intertidal pools and shallows, mud flats, landfills, newly plowed fields, picnic grounds, and fish-processing plants. They roost and loaf, often in large mixed species groups, in open areas with good visibility for spotting predators, including agricultural and athletic fields, beaches, parking lots, airport runways, and garbage dumps. They breed near lakes in northern forests across Canada to Alaska and in some coastal areas.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_herring_gull

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Habitat

Herring Gulls' scavenging habits take them to open water, intertidal pools and shallows, mud flats, landfills, newly plowed fields, picnic grounds, and fish-processing plants. They roost and loaf, often in large mixed species groups, in open areas with good visibility for spotting predators, including agricultural and athletic fields, beaches, parking lots, airport runways, and garbage dumps. They breed near lakes in northern forests across Canada to Alaska and in some coastal areas. Colonies often form on isolated islands, barrier beaches, and marshy hummocks, which are safe from terrestrial predators (though aerial predators can still be a danger). City rooftops, for example, serve the same purpose. Back to top

Food

Herring Gulls prey on marine invertebrates, fish, insects, smaller seabirds, and even on adults, young, and eggs of other gulls. Along rocky shores, they take mussels, crabs, sea urchins, and crayfish. On mudflats, they seek worms, small clams, and mussels. In open water, they follow large predators (including fishing boats) that bring small fish, squid, and zooplankton to the surface. Newly plowed fields provide ready supplies of earthworms and other invertebrate prey. Herring Gulls are opportunistic scavengers on fish, carrion, and trash. Individual gulls often specialize on a food type. Most choose marine invertebrates like crabs, sea urchins, or clams, even though fresh-caught fish make their most calorie-, protein-, and fat-rich meals by far. In spite of this apparently poor choice, these gulls have the largest, heaviest eggs and the highest hatching success rates. The opportunism of gulls extends to raiding nests of other seabirds, and one or two males per large breeding colony may even specialize in cannibalizing chicks of others in the colony. Back to top

Nesting

Nest Placement

Herring Gull pairs pick nesting sites together in the soft soil, sand, or short vegetation of their territory. To protect the nest from prevailing winds and hide it from predators, it is usually placed next to a rock, log, or bush. This also hides it from the nearest neighbors. Crevices may be used as nest sites in rocky areas.

Nest Description

Several days before egg-laying, pairs hollow out up to four depressions 10-15 inches across with central depressions 4-8 inches wide and about the depth of an egg. They line the scrapes with vegetation, feathers, plastic, rope, or other materials. The pair chooses the final nest from these alternates. After the female lays her eggs, the pair continues to add vegetation to this nest throughout the monthlong incubation. Sand nests are sometimes left unlined or only sparsely lined.

Nesting Facts

Clutch Size:

1-3 eggs

Number of Broods:

1 brood

Egg Length:

2.6-3.0 in (6.5-7.6 cm)

Egg Width:

1.9-2.1 in (4.8-5.3 cm)

Incubation Period:

31-32 days

Nestling Period:

45-50 days

Egg Description:

Light olive, buff, or greenish with darker splotches or speckling.

Condition at Hatching:

Eyes open, covered in thick gray down with black spots; able to move around nesting area after several hours.

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Behavior

Herring Gulls patrol shorelines and open ocean in widely scattered groups, soaring raptor-like and spiraling down to pick scraps off the surface. Individuals plunge-dive from near the surface and dip while paddling to take shallow prey. Rallying around fishing boats or refuse dumps, they are raucous and competitive, threatening and stealing from other birds. They'll prowl tide flats seeking out invertebrates, gobbling small items whole, picking apart larger prey, and dropping shellfish onto rocks to break them open. Tighter groups follow foraging whales, groups of dolphins, or schools of large fish in open water, hovering to nab small prey driven to the surface. Their opportunistic scavenging punctuates hours of bathing, preening, and "loafing" near food sources. ("Loafing" is a term behaviorists use to describe a bird that isn't doing much of anything; many seabirds spend long hours this way.) Males establish breeding territories and both members of a bonded pair defend it with threatening postures, warning calls, and chase-attacks in air and on ground. Courtship rituals include mate-feeding, and pairs remain bonded as long as both live. They return to the same territories each breeding season and share the work through a month of incubation and three months of chick-raising. One parent is always at the nest until the chicks are at least a month old. Back to top

Conservation

Herring Gull populations declined by approximately 2.7% per year between 1966 and 2019, resulting in a cumulative decline of about 76% according to the North American Breeding Bird Survey. Partners in Flight estimates a global breeding population of about 3.9 million and rates them 11 out of 20 on the Continental Concern Score, indicating a species of relatively low conservation concern. However, it is listed as Common Bird in Steep Decline for species that are too numerous or widely distributed to warrant Watch-List status but have been experiencing troubling long-term declines. Human activities are the main threats to local populations. For example, Atlantic Coast populations were nearly wiped out in the late 1880s by hunters seeking feathers and eggs. But by the 1980s, their numbers had increased tenfold to more than 100,000 pairs. Conservation movements ended exploitation in many areas, though numbers had shrunk so far that hunting became unprofitable anyway. Other changes inadvertently aided recovering populations. Increasing numbers of coastal fishing boats in the 1930s dumped "garbage fish" and waste, providing a rich new food source. The growing number of onshore refuse dumps also attracted gulls but probably had mixed effects, since chicks fed human refuse show poorer survival rates. Whaling, the destruction of dolphin and porpoise populations, and intensive fishing of larger fish like cod and salmon decreased competition for the smaller fish that gulls favor. More recently, however, continued overfishing has made even these smaller fish less numerous. And changing fishing practices have meant less waste from fishing boats. Oil pollution, pesticide contamination, and deliberate control measures have threatened some Herring Gull populations.
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Credits

Knudsen, B. and R. M. Evans. (1986). Parent-young recognition in Herring Gulls (Larus argentatus). Animal Behaviour 34:77-80.

Kushlan, J. A., M. J. Steinkamp, K. C. Parsons, J. Capp, M. A. Cruz, M. Coulter, I. Davidson, L. Dickson, N. Edelson, R. Elliott, R. M. Erwin, S. Hatch, S. Kress, R. Milko, S. Miller, K. Mills, R. Paul, R. Phillips, J. E. Saliva, W. Sydeman, J. Trapp, J. Wheeler and K. Wohl (2002). Waterbird conservation for the Americas: The North American waterbird conservation plan, version 1. Washington, DC, USA.

Lutmerding, J. A. and A. S. Love. (2020). Longevity records of North American birds. Version 2020. Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Bird Banding Laboratory 2020.

Nisbet, Ian C. T., D. V. Weseloh, Craig E. Hebert, Mark L. Mallory, Alan F. Poole, Julie C. Ellis, Peter Pyle and Michael A. Patten. (2017). Herring Gull ( Larus argentatus), version 3.0. In The Birds of North America (P. G. Rodewald, editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, New York, USA.

Partners in Flight (2019). Avian Conservation Assessment Database, version 2019.

Rosenberg, K. V., J. A. Kennedy, R. Dettmers, R. P. Ford, D. Reynolds, J. D. Alexander, C. J. Beardmore, P. J. Blancher, R. E. Bogart, G. S. Butcher, A. F. Camfield, A. Couturier, D. W. Demarest, W. E. Easton, J. J. Giocomo, R. H. Keller, A. E. Mini, A. O. Panjabi, D. N. Pashley, T. D. Rich, J. M. Ruth, H. Stabins, J. Stanton, and T. Will (2016). Partners in Flight Landbird Conservation Plan: 2016 Revision for Canada and Continental United States. Partners in Flight Science Committee.

Sauer, J. R., D. K. Niven, J. E. Hines, D. J. Ziolkowski Jr., K. L. Pardieck, J. E. Fallon, and W. A. Link (2019). The North American Breeding Bird Survey, Results and Analysis 1966-2019. Version 2.07.2019. USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, MD, USA.

Sibley, D. A. (2014). The Sibley Guide to Birds, second edition. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, NY, USA.

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Herring Gull Life History, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology

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Spiraling above a fishing boat or squabbling at a dock or parking lot, Herring Gulls are the quintessential gray-and-white, pink-legged "seagulls." They're the most familiar gulls of the North Atlantic and can be found across much of coastal North America in winter.

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Regions: One of the best-known of all gulls along the shores of Western Europe, it was once abundant. It breeds across Northern Europe, Western Europe, Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, and the Baltic states.

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Regions: One of the best-known of all gulls along the shores of Western Europe, it was once abundant. It breeds across Northern Europe, Western Europe, Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, and the Baltic states.

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Food Chain: As Herring Gulls are typically at the end of the marine food chain they are so-called apex predators. In recent decades, there has been a shift in many Herring Gull populations from a typically marine, intertidal diet to a more terrestrial diet. Herring Gulls are opportunists and will eat most things: fish, crabs, insects, eggs, young birds, small mammals and garbage.

# data[].attributes.subject
Food Chain: As Herring Gulls are typically at the end of the marine food chain they are so-called apex predators. In recent decades, there has been a shift in many Herring Gull populations from a typically marine, intertidal diet to a more terrestrial diet. Herring Gulls are opportunists and will eat most things: fish, crabs, insects, eggs, young birds, small mammals and garbage.