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The Prosodic Variations in New Zealand English

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The Prosodic Variations in New Zealand English

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1. Reduced Secondary Stress in Polysyllabic Word

In New Zealand English, secondary stress tends to be less noticeable or less prominent than in Standard English.

For instance, the word "realized". In Standard English, it is usually spoken with clear stress on the first syllable and a

secondary stress on the second, /'riə,laIzd/. In contrast,

New Zealanders typically stick to just the primary stress

on the first syllable, /'riəlaIzd/.

2. Sentence-Level Stress Distribution

In New Zealand English,the stress tends to be shared more evenly across all parts of the sentence while Standard English places greater emphasis on certain key words within the sentence. For instance, "whole," "calm," and "beautiful things" might receive a louder stress in Standard English than New Zealand English.

3. Intonation

Take the sentence, "Wow, this book loooks so nice.". Words like "wow" and "nice" would usually have a rising pitch if they are pronounced in Standard English. New Zealand English on the other hand, use the High Rising Terminal (HRT) contour which involves a rising intonation at the end of a declarative sentence. This intonation pattern is sometimes mistaken for questioning by people from other areas, as it involves raising the pitch of the voice on a declarative statement. The HRT is often used to involve the listener in the conversation (Taonga, 2013).

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Welsh speaker reading Welsh English version

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Text:

A new book I bought yesterday, it looked so nice the cover did. Reading it I was, and just as beautiful as the cover the story was, it was. On my table she saw it, my sister did, and said, “Look you, this book, lovely it looks!” Together we sat, later on, and the sunset we watched—it was good to look at, it was, like the book, it was. Calm it felt, that evening did—full of lovely things it was.

Welsh English IPA

/a njuː bʊk aɪ bɔːt ˈjɛstədeɪ | ɪt lʊkt səʊ naɪs ðə ˈkʌvə dɪd/ˈɹiːdɪn ɪt aɪ wɒz | ænd dʒəst æz ˈbjuːtəfʊl æz ðə ˈkʌvə ðə ˈstɔːɹi wɒz | ɪt wɒz//ɒn maɪ ˈteɪbəl ʃiː sɔː ɪt | maɪ ˈsɪstə dɪd | ænd sɛd | lʊk juː | ðɪs bʊk | ˈlʌvli ɪt lʊks//təˈɡɛðə wiː sæt | ˈleɪtə ɒn | ænd ðə ˈsʌnsɛt wiː wɒʧt | ɪt wɒz ɡʊd tə lʊk æt | ɪt wɒz | laɪk ðə bʊk | ɪt wɒz//kɑːm ɪt fɛlt | ðæt ˈiːvnɪn dɪd | fʊl əv ˈlʌvli θɪŋz ɪt wɒz/

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Standard English Sentences Read by Rose, a New Zealander woman

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Text:

I bought a new book yesterday because the cover looked really good.

When I started reading it, I realized the story was just as beautiful as the outside.

My sister saw it on my table and said, “Wow, this book looks so nice!”

Later, we sat together and watched the sunset—it was so good to look at, just like the book.

That whole evening felt calm and full of beautiful things.

Standard New Zealand English IPA

/aɪ bɔt ə nu: bʊk ˈjɛstərdeɪ bɪˈkɔz ðə ˈkʌvə lʊkt ˈrɪli ɡʊd. wɛn aɪ ˈstɑrtɪd ˈrɪdɪŋ ɪt, aɪ ˈriəlaɪzd ðə ˈstɔri wəz dʒʌst əz ˈbjuːtɪfəl əz ði ˈaʊtsaɪd. maɪ ˈsɪstə sɔ ɪt ɑn maɪ ˈteɪbl ənd sɛd, waʊ, ðɪs bʊk lʊks soʊ naɪs. ˈleɪtər, wi sæt təˈɡɛðər ənd wɑtʃt ðə ˈsʌnˌsɛt. ɪt wəz soʊ ɡʊd tə lʊk æt, dʒʌst laɪk ðə bʊk. ðæt hoʊl ˈivnɪŋ fɛlt kɑm ənd fʊl əv ˈbjuːtɪfəl θɪŋz./

vs

Standard English IPA

/aɪ bɔt ə nju: bʊk ˈjɛstərˌdeɪ bɪˈkɔz ðə ˈkʌvər lʊkt ˈrɪli gʊd.

wɛn aɪ ˈstɑrtəd ˈridɪŋ ɪt, aɪ ˈriəˌlaɪzd ðə ˈstɔri wɑz ʤʌst æz ˈbjutəfəl æz ði ˈaʊtˈsaɪd.

maɪ ˈsɪstər sɔ ɪt ɔn maɪ ˈteɪbəl ænd sɛd, “waʊ, ðɪs bʊk lʊks soʊ naɪs!”

ˈleɪtər, wi sæt təˈgɛðər ænd wɑʧt ðə ˈsʌnˌsɛt, ɪt wɑz soʊ gʊd tu lʊk æt, ʤʌst laɪk ðə bʊk.

ðæt hoʊl ˈivnɪŋ fɛlt kɑm ænd fʊl ʌv ˈbjutəfəl θɪŋz./

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Standard English sentences by Welsh Speaker

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Text:

I bought a new book yesterday because the cover looked really good.

When I started reading it, I realized the story was just as beautiful as the outside.

My sister saw it on my table and said, “Wow, this book looks so nice!”

Later, we sat together and watched the sunset—it was so good to look at, just like the book.

That whole evening felt calm and full of beautiful things.

Welsh English (Standard Sentence) IPA

aɪ bɔt ə nju bʊk ˈjɛstərˌdeɪ bɪˈkɔz ðə ˈkʌvə lʊkt ˈrɪli gʊd.

wɛn aɪ ˈstɑrtəd ɹiːdɪn ɪt, aɪ ˈriəˌlaɪzd ðə ˈstɔri wɑz ʤʌst æz ˈbjuːtəfʊl æz ˈaʊt.saɪd.

maɪ ˈsɪstə sɔ ɪt ɔn maɪ ˈteɪbəl ænd sɛd, “waʊ, ðɪs bʊk lʊks soʊ naɪs!”

ˈleɪtə, wi sæt təˈgɛðər ænd wɑʧt ðə ˈsʌnˌsɛt, ɪt wɑz soʊ gʊd tu lʊk æt, ʤʌst laɪk ðə bʊk.

ðæt hoʊl ˈivnɪŋ fɛlt kɑm ænd fʊl əv ˈbjutəfəl θɪŋz.

vs

Standard English IPA

aɪ bɔt ə nju bʊk ˈjɛstərˌdeɪ bɪˈkɔz ðə ˈkʌvər lʊkt ˈrɪli gʊd.

wɛn aɪ ˈstɑrtəd ˈridɪŋ ɪt, aɪ ˈriəˌlaɪzd ðə ˈstɔri wɑz ʤʌst æz ˈbjutəfəl æz ði ˈaʊtˈsaɪd.

maɪ ˈsɪstər sɔ ɪt ɔn maɪ ˈteɪbəl ænd sɛd, “waʊ, ðɪs bʊk lʊks soʊ naɪs!”

ˈleɪtər, wi sæt təˈgɛðər ænd wɑʧt ðə ˈsʌnˌsɛt, ɪt wɑz soʊ gʊd tu lʊk æt, ʤʌst laɪk ðə bʊk.

ðæt hoʊl ˈivnɪŋ fɛlt kɑm ænd fʊl ʌv ˈbjutəfəl θɪŋz.

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The demographics of the people in Wales

According to the Office for Nations Statistics (ONS), the Current Population of Wales (United Kingdom) is approximately 3.13 million as of 14 March 2024, with an average growth rate of 0.59%

.Wales’s population is 150 people per square kilometre (290 per square mile)

Ethnicity

White: 93.8%

White Welsh, English, Scottish, Northern Irish, or British: 90.6%

Other White (including Irish, Gypsy or Irish Traveller, and Other White): 3.2%

Asian: 2.9%

Black: 0.9%

Mixed/Multiple ethnic groups: 1.6%

Other ethnic group: 0.8%

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Welsh, a Celtic language from the Proto-Indo-European family, developed separately after Offa’s Dyke was built (778–796 C.E.) to mark the border. The Romans never reached far into the west.
(Williams 21–32)

English started to spread after the Acts of Union in 1536 and 1542, which made Wales part of England. People in cities, border towns, and coastal villages began using both languages, especially for business.
(Williams 32–34)

English became known as the language of success. By the mid-1700s, wealthy people had to speak English in court, and many factories and businesses were owned by the English.
(Williams 32–34)

Immigrants favored settling in economically active areas with English infrastructure and trade opportunities, while isolated rural communities remained Welsh-speaking. Meanwhile, people in the countryside still spoke Welsh, but many left, and not many English speakers moved in until the 1900s.
(Williams 32–34)

Since Wales mainly exported goods like wool and coal, small Welsh-speaking villages became even more isolated and lost more Welsh speakers.
(Williams 32–34)

English became dominant in Wales only recently, over the last few generations, and this change didn’t happen equally everywhere.

(Thomas 101; Williams 36)

Historically, Welsh was used in the home and chapel, while English was tied to commerce.  But as chapels lost the influence, and parents wanted their children to learn English for better opportunities, many stopped speaking Welsh at home.
(Thomas 101; Williams 36)

Consequently, the home and chapel, once strongholds of the Welsh language, lost their role in preserving it.
(Thomas 101; Williams 36)

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Religion

No religion: 46.5%

Christian: 43.6%

Muslim: 2.2%

Other religions (Hindu, Sikh, Jewish, Buddhist, etc.): Less than 1% each

Not stated: ~6.9%

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Language

Welsh speakers: ~17.8% of the population (declining slightly from 19% in 2011)

English: Universally spoken

Other languages: Some communities speak Polish, Arabic, Bengali, Urdu, and Somali

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The Demographic of New Zealand

According to the 2023 Census of Population and Dwellings, there were 4,993,923 people living in New Zealand.

Auckland remains New Zealand's most populous city, with approximately one-third (33.2%) of the country's population as of 2023.

Ethnicity

Māori are New Zealand's indigenous people, known as Tangata Whenua which means people of the land. However, the country is ethnically diverse with over a quarter of its population born everseas.

As of 2023, New Zealand's population was composed of 67.8% European, 17.8% Māori, 17.3% Asian, 8.9% Pasific people and 1.9% Middle Eastern, Latin, American and African groups.

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The Phonemic Variations in Welsh English

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The Phonemic Variations in Welsh English

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1. Rhoticity

In North Wales (more Welsh-speaking), people often pronounce the 'r' at the end of words (called rhotic), while the south of Wales is non-rhotic, where English Welsh is the common tongue.

Standard English: /ˈjɛstərˌdeɪ/

/ðə ˈkʌvər/

/ˈsɪstər/

English Wales: /ˈjɛstədeɪ/,

/ðə ˈkʌvə/

/ˈsɪstə/

2. Vowels

Welsh speakers often pronounce vowels further forward in the mouth.

Standard English: /bʊk/ (with /ʊ/ a high back rounded vowel)

/ɡʊd/

Welsh English: /bɪk/ or /bʊk/ (but with a fronted /ʊ/ or even near /ɪ/ in some areas)

/ɡɪd/ or fronted /ʊ/ approaching /ɪ/ with a tighter, more fronted vowel than standard English.

3. Consonant

Strongly aspirate to plosive sounds like p, t, k.

't' like /ˈteɪbəl/ or t/ retention in phrases like /bɔːt/, /ɡʊd tə lʊk æt/. This means less flapping or glottalizing than in Standard English.

Trilled or tapped /r/

Standard English: /ˈrɪli/

Welsh English: usually non-rhotic too, but in some areas, especially North Wales, /r/ may be trilled like

/ˈrɪli/ with a more distinct /r/

3. Diphthong

Welsh has simple, steady vowels. Welsh English avoids complex vowel sounds (like diphthongs).

Standard English: /'aʊtsaɪd/

Welsh English: Syllable breaks may be slightly more separated, so "outside" could sound like two distinct beats:
/ˈaʊt.saɪd/, not blurred together.

Bonus

Unique pronunciation of sounds

Welsh English sometimes turns voiced sounds like /z/ (as in zinc) and /dʒ/ (as in joke) into voiceless sounds like /s/ and /tʃ/ (as in sink and choke). So, joke and choke might sound the same.

This is because these voiced sounds don’t exist in Welsh, so Welsh speakers substitute them with the closest Welsh sounds

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Did you know….?

There are four times the amount of sheep than there are people in Wales.

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Religion Percentages in New Zealand based on the 2023 Census (Campbell,2024) :

No religion: 51.6%

Christianity: 32.3%

Hinduism: 2.9%

Islam: 1.5%

Other religions (including Māori, Buddhism, Sikhism, etc.): ~5.7%

Not stated: 6.9%

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1. Emphasis by moving words

Welsh speakers often move important words to the front of a sentence for emphasis:

Standard English: When I started reading it, I realized the story was just as beautiful as the outside.

Welsh English: Reading it I was, and just as beautiful as the cover the story was, it was."

2. Common expressions reflect Welsh word order

Welsh English might use phrases like look you or mind you, similar to how verbs come first in Welsh.

Standard English: “Wow, this book looks so nice!”

Welsh English: Look you, this book, lovely it looks!”

3. Unique use of “be” verbs

In Welsh, the sentence He goes to the cinema would literally translate as He in go to the cinema.

Standard English: My sister saw it on my table

Welsh English: On my table she saw it, my sister did"

4. Saying a lot of "it was..." is not only common but also a natural, rhythmical, and emphatic pattern in Welsh English.

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The Māori Language became an official language in 1987. Despite its official status, the language continues to struggle against being lost (New Zealand Immigration Concepts, n.d.).

English is the most widely spoken language in New Zealand, with over 95% of the population using it in their daily life.

Languages Percentage Used in New Zealand :

English : 95%

Māori: 4.1%

New Zealand Sign Language: 0.5%

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In Welsh English, prosody is heavily influenced by the Welsh language, creating a distinctive "singsong" quality.

'Singsong' intonation

Welsh English has a musical tone because:

Welsh intonation depends on emotion and stress, not grammar rules.

Whole words often carry a rising or falling pitch.

Long vowels are stretched out in stressed words, giving it a "singing" sound.

“A new book I bought yesterday, it looked so nice the cover did.”

Fronting: “A new book I bought…” brings focus and rhythm.

Repetition: “...the cover did” adds a tag-like structure for emphasis.

Prosody: Rising tone on "book I bought yesterday", falling on "the cover did."

On my table she saw it, my sister did, and said, ‘Look you, this book, lovely it looks!’”

“Look you” adds expressive Celtic-style interjection.

Stress: “Lovely it looks” would have strong pitch on looks

Together we sat, later on, and the sunset we watched—it was good to look at, it was, like the book, it was.

Repetition (“it was”) gives a rhythmic, almost choral feel

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Taron Egerton is a long name of a town in Wales #shorts #taronegerton

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The Kiwi Is Not Only A Fruit

The term "kiwi" has three different connotations in Aotearoa, New Zealand, thus people need to take caution while using it there (Civitatis, 2024).

A dry kiwi is a person who was born in New Zealand.

A kiwi bird is a bird that is also used as a national symbol.

The kiwi fruit to refer to the delicious fruit.

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1. Not many Welsh words in English

Even though Welsh was widely spoken, very few Welsh words made it into English. One of the few is pengwin (penguin), (Thomas 142; McArthur 112) some emotional or cultural words like bach (dear/little one), del (pretty), and hwyl (fun, spirit).

So instead of "I realized the story was just as beautiful as the outside", English Welsh speakers could also use "I realized the story was just as del as the outside"

Standard English sentence version: That whole evening felt calm and full of beautiful things.

English Welsh Sentence version: Calm it felt, that evening did—full of lovely things it was.

Bonus:

words related to Welsh culture, such as

eisteddfod (a cultural festival),

cymanfa (a chapel singing event),

penillion (a singing style).

(Thomas 142; McArthur 112)

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History of English Language in New Zealand

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History of English Language in New Zealand

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This history of English Language in New Zealand according to Oxford English Dictionary, (2023).

Early Settlement and English Arrival

The indigenous people of New Zealand, known as the Māori, first arrived over 1,000 years ago.

In 1840, the Treaty of Waitangi was signed, marking the beginning of British settlement and the introduction of the English language in New Zealand.

Early Devolopment of New Zealand

English in New Zealand started to form after 1840.

People born in the 1850s and '60 still had the accents of their immigrant parents (Scottish/Irish).

By the 1880s, kids all over New Zealand were speaking with their own distinct accents, regardless of their parents' origins

This New Zealand accent had spread throughout the country within 20 to 30 years.

Internal Formation of a New Dialect

It is likely that New Zealand English formed within the country due to the mixing of different dialects brought by settlers.

In 1877, compulsory education was introduced, leading to peer pressure that encouraged language unification.

By 1881, approximately 45% of immigrants were from England, especially from the South and South East regions. This helps explain why New Zealand English often sounds like a southeastern British dialect with some influences.

Today's English in New Zealand

New Zealand English has developed into a distinct variety with regional variations.

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The Phonemic Variations in New Zealand English

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The Phonemic Variations in New Zealand English

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1. Non-Rhoticity (word-final /r/ is dropped)

In New Zealand English, when /r/ appears after a vowel in word or if it is at the very end of a word or a syllable, speakers typically do not pronounce it (Oxford English Dictionary, 2021). This means that in many cases, the /r/ is silent in such positions. For instance, "sister" and "cover" are pronounced as ,

/ˈsɪstə/ and /ˈkʌvə/ instead of /ˈsɪstər/ and /ˈkʌvər/ in Standard English.

2. Vowel Shifts in the Word "new"

In New Zealand English, the pronunciation of the word "new" is represented phonetically as /nu:/ which similar to the one in "zoo" or "blue". This contradicts Standard English, which tends to pronounce "new" as /nju:/ with a "y" glide sound.

3. Vowel Shifts in the Word "started" and "beautiful"

In New Zealand English, the second vowel in "started"

/ˈstɑrtɪd/ and "beautiful" as /ˈbjuːtɪfəl/ is pronounced with a short /I/ sound, which is the same sound used in words like "bit" or "sit". In contrast, Standard English speakers, where they pronounce the second vowel in "started" and "beautiful" as a schwa (/ə/).

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How to Speak WELSH ENGLISH: The Accent the Vocabulary and the History

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New Zealand English Sentences Read by Rose,  a New Zealander woman

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I got this new book yesterday – the cover looked really nice, eh. When I started reading it, and turns out the story was just as lovely as the outside, y’know. My sister saw it sittin’ on the table and goes, “Oi, this book’s real nice!”Later on, we sat and watched the sunset – looked choice, just like the book. The whole arvo felt chill, full of really lovely stuff, eh.

New Zealand English IPA

/aɪ ɡɒt ðɘs nʉː bʊk ˈjɪstədeɪ – ðɘ ˈkɐvɘ lʊkt ˈɹɪəli naɪs, eɪ.

wɛn aɪ ˈstaːtəd ˈɹiːdɘn ət, ənd tɜːnz aʉt ðɘ ˈstɒɹi wɘz dʒəst ɘz ˈlɐvli ɘz ði ˈaʉtsaɪd, jəˈnɐʉ. maɪ ˈsɘstə sɔː ət ˈsɘtn‌ ɒn ðɘ ˈteɪbɘl ənd ɡɐʉz, “ɔɪ, ðɘs bʊks ɹɪəl naɪs!” ˈlæɪtɘ ɹɒn, wɘ sæt ənd wɒtʃt ðɘ ˈsɐnsɪt – lʊkt tʃɔɪs, dʒəst læɪk ðɘ bʊk. ðɘ hɐʉl ˈaːvəʉ fɘlt tʃɘl, fʊl ɘv ˈɹɪəli ˈlɐvli stɐf, eɪ/

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The Lexical Variations in New Zealand English

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The Lexical Variations in New Zealand English

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1. The Use of "eh" as a Discourse Tag

The colloquial interjection "eh" in New Zealand English serves as a distinctive discourse tag. It is a feature of New Zealand English, akin to "right?" in Standard English, which conveys a sense of shared understanding and inclusiveness. (Robinson & New, 2025). As from the audio, for the New Zealand speaker says "The cover looked really nice, eh." instead of "The cover looked really nice, right?" in Standard English.

2. Lexical Intensifier "real" Instead Of "really"

New Zealand speakers often simplifies the use of adverbial intensifiers by replacing "really" with "real" according to the speaker. For instance, in the audio, the speaker says "This book's real nice!" instead of "This book is really nice!". This reflects a broader trend toward casual and informal speech patterns in New Zealand English. On the other hand, in Standard English, such usage would treat as non-standard and potentially incorrect from a grammatical standpoint.

3. The Use of "choice" as Compliment

The word "choice" holds a unique place in Kiwi speech, which serves as a term of complimentary praise for items or events (Oakes, 2021). The positive connotation of the word contributes to its popularity within the local vernacular. To illustrate, in the audio, the speaker says "Looked choice, just like the book." In contrast, Standard English speakers would say "Looked beautiful, just like the book." as they may not be familiar with this usage of "choice" in that way as it is not commonly used outside from New Zealand.

4. Colloquial Abbreviation "arvo" for "afternoon"

The term "arvo" is a colloquial variant of "afternoon", borrowed from Australian English and commonly used in New Zealand. Thus, they would say "The whole arvo..." instead of "The whole afternoon...". In contrast with Standard English, where the full term "afternoon" is retained for clarity and formality.

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Campbell, G. (2024, October 3). Census data NZ: More than half of the population has no religion. NZ Herald. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/census-data-nz-more-than-half-of-the-population-has-no-religion/YT2KJBSTQNBDTPVDHJYHNALIZA/

Civitatis. (2024, March 21). 10 facts about New Zealand. https://www.civitatis.com/blog/en/facts-about-new-zealand/#10-it-was-the-last-country-in-the-world-to-be-inhabited-by-humans

Exford English Dictionary. (2021). New Zealand English. OED.com. https://www.oed.com/information/understanding-entries/pronunciation/world-englishes/new-zealand-english/

Gordon, E. (2022). Introduction to New Zealand English. OED.com. https://www.oed.com/discover/introduction-to-new-zealand-english/?tl=true

New Zealand Immigration Concepts. (n.d.). English and the official languages of New Zealand. https://www.new-zealand-immigration.com/blogs/english-and-the-official-languages-of-new-zealand

Oakes, H. (2021, September). Choice – when you are happy about something. Helen.co.nz. https://www.helen.co.nz/digital-prints/kiwi-slang-choice/

Oxford English Dictionary. (2024). Introduction to New Zealand English. OED.com. https://www.oed.com/discover/introduction-to-new-zealand-english

Robinson, P. (2025). Eh. Govt.nz / Te Ara Encyclopedia. https://teara.govt.nz/en/speech/40143/eh

Taonga, N. Z. M. for Culture and Heritage. (2013). Features of the New Zealand accent. Te Ara - The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. https://teara.govt.nz/en/speech-and-accent/page-3

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This project offered an interesting dive into the nuances between New Zealand English, Welsh English, and Standard English. Our exploration revealed that regional language variations, through phonetics, prosody, vocabulary, and grammar, can deeply trace the historical, cultural, and identity markers unique to their specific locality. These differences between regional varieties of English are not random. They are deeply rooted in the historical, geographical, and sociocultural contexts of their respective regions (Degani & Onysko, 2024).

Working on this project enhanced not only our academic knowledge but also our teamwork and research abilities. Listening to audio records, transcribing IPA, and analyzing pitch and rhythm required patience and attention to detail. We also had to consider sociolinguistic elements, like how colonization or media might shape dialect evolution. As we worked on this project in pairs, we believe that we have managed to collect, dissect, and present our discoveries in a meaningful way.

Additionally, during our study of Welsh English and New Zealand English, we noticed some differences and variations of English. To illustrate, New Zealand English was marked by relaxed vocabulary like 'arvo' and 'eh' used as discourse tags, while Welsh English leaned on repetition for emphasis and exhibited a musical rhythm influenced by Welsh language. The results of this study align with findings from previous research conducted by Mayr, Roverts and Morris (2020), where their findings suggest that accents and the words people choose can strongly indicate cultural and national identity. In summary, these dialects reflect more than just speech styles. They are cultural tools that convey identity, community values, and even reflect shifts in language use.

In conclusion, this case study has brought to light the global diversity of the English language, which reminds us that language  is inherently dynamic and that each variety reflects the distinctive characteristics of its speakers. On a personal note, we found the project interesting as it allows us to deepen our appreciation for the varieties of English worldwide. Therefore, we consider that we are able to reinforce our belief in the importance of valuing and respecting linguistic differences, especially when they arise from native speakers who may not conform to the "standard" but still possess valid expressions and accents.

References:

Degani, M., & Onysko, A. (2024). Cultural variation in New Zealand English stories about the place. World Englishes, 43(3), 399–413. https://doi.org/10.1111/weng.12659

Mayr, R., Roberts, L., & Morris, J. (2020). Can you tell by their English if they can speak Welsh? Accent perception in a language contact situation. International Journal of Bilingualism, 24(4), 255–284. https://doi.org/10.1177/1367006919883035

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