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Balter, L. J. T., & Raymond, J. E. (2023). Working memory load impairs transfer learning in human adults. Psychological Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-023-01795-y

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Buzsáki, G., McKenzie, S., & Davachi, L. (2022). Neurophysiology of Remembering. Annual Review of Psychology, 73, 187–215. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-021721-110002

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During trauma, the brain activates its fight, flight, or freeze response. The amygdala, which detects threat, becomes highly active, while the prefrontal cortex, responsible for reasoning and decision-making, becomes less active. The hippocampus, which organizes and encodes memories, may also be affected, leading to fragmented or incomplete memory formation.

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Long-term memory is a vast, durable storehouse for knowledge, skills, and experiences that can last a lifetime. It includes explicit memory (facts and events) and implicit memory (skills and habits). Learning strategies such as repetition, practice, and connecting new ideas to prior knowledge help transfer information from short-term to long-term memory.

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Holmes, A., Brenner, K., & Gao, J. (Eds.). (2025). Transforming Undergraduate STEM Education. https://doi.org/10.17226/28268

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Short-term memory stores small amounts of information for immediate use, typically lasting between 15 and 30 seconds. It’s what allows you to remember a phone number just long enough to dial it. When this system is used to manipulate or work with information, such as solving a math problem, it’s called working memory, which is essential for learning and multitasking.

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Sensory memory quickly holds information from our surroundings, like sights and sounds, for a short time. This helps our brain figure out what is important to focus on. For instance, visual information is stored for less than a second (iconic memory), while sounds are kept for a few seconds (echoic memory).

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When we learn, the brain first encodes information, then stores it by strengthening neural connections through a process called long-term potentiation. The hippocampus plays a key role in organizing these memories. Later, retrieval reactivates these neural networks, allowing us to recall what we’ve learned (Buzsáki & Davachi, 2022).

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Understanding memory helps us improve our learning and teaching abilities. Repetition and active engagement strengthen memory, while organization and rest help consolidate it. In classrooms and workplaces, applying memory-friendly techniques such as practice, association, and reflection can make learning more effective and lasting.

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Retention refers to the ability to store and recall information that has been learned. It depends on how deeply information is processed and how often it’s reviewed. The stronger and more meaningful the memory connections, the longer the data can be retained. Strategies such as repetition, practice, and connecting new ideas to prior knowledge significantly enhance retention.

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Under intense stress, the brain releases stress hormones, such as cortisol and adrenaline. While these can heighten alertness, they can also interfere with the hippocampus’s ability to form coherent, detailed memories. As a result, traumatic memories may be stored as disconnected sensory impressions such as sounds, images, or emotions rather than a clear narrative.

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Traumatic memories can be recalled differently from ordinary ones. Some people may experience intrusive memories or flashbacks, where the traumatic event feels as if it is happening again. Others may experience memory gaps or dissociation, where parts of the event are missing or difficult to access. Both reactions are ways the brain tries to protect itself.

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Transfer happens when knowledge or skills learned in one situation are applied to another. It demonstrates that learning has progressed beyond mere memorization to genuine comprehension. For example, using math skills learned in class to manage a budget demonstrates positive transfer. When prior learning interferes with new tasks, it’s called negative transfer.

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Strong retention ensures that learning is lasting, while transfer makes it practical and adaptable. In both education and the workplace, promoting these skills fosters a more profound understanding, innovation, and effective problem-solving. Techniques such as active learning, reflection, and real-world practice enhance both retention and transfer, leading to lifelong learning success (Balter & Raymond, 2023).

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Chronic trauma or repeated stress can lead to long-term changes in brain structure and function. The amygdala may remain overactive, the hippocampus may shrink, and communication between brain regions may weaken. These changes can contribute to difficulties with concentration, emotional regulation, and forming new memories.

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Engage learners through discussion, self-quizzing, and teaching others. Actively recalling information strengthens brain connections and boosts long-term memory. Practice and participation turn learning into action, improving recall and understanding. For trauma-affected learners, structured, predictable activities foster focus and confidence.

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Link new information to what learners already know. Building on existing knowledge helps the brain form stronger, more meaningful associations. Real-world examples, analogies, and projects deepen understanding and support knowledge transfer (Holmes et al., 2025). For learners with trauma, this approach reduces stress by making new concepts more relatable and manageable.