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“RAFT is a writing strategy that helps students understand their role as a writer, the audience they will address, the varied formats for writing, and the topic they’ll be writing about” (Reading Rockets, n.d.).

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Mitchell, D. (1996). Writing to learn across the curriculum and the English teacher. English Journal, 85, 93-97.

Santa, C., & Havens, L. (1995). Creating independence through student-owned strategies: Project CRISS. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.

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RAFT is a writing strategy that helps students understand their roles as writers, the audience they will address, the varied formats for writing, and the topic they will be writing about. By using this strategy, teachers encourage students to write creatively, to consider a topic from a different perspective, and to gain practice writing for different audiences.

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Per IRIS Center (2006), POW is a mnemonic device that assists students in structuring their writing, while TREE is a mnemonic device helps organize their ideas.

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Page 4: POW+TREE Writing Strategy

As Ms. Lin reflects on the trouble her students are having with writing, she realizes that many of her students need help incorporating the four elements of the writing process (i.e., planning, organizing, writing, and editing and revising) into their essays. She concludes that they need a guide or strategy to follow as they write. For struggling writers who may have difficulty integrating the elements of the writing process, the POW+TREE writing strategy simplifies the first three elements: planning, organizing, and writing. Ms. Lin decides to introduce the POW+TREE writing strategy to her students.

A research-validated strategy, POW is a mnemonic device designed to help students structure any kind of writing. TREE is also a mnemonic device students can use to organize their ideas. As is demonstrated in the table below, students can combine the POW and TREE strategies to address the first three elements of the writing process in order to create persuasive essays.
Research-validated strategy
A strategy or practice that has been proven to work through experimental research studies or large-scale research field studies.

ick an idea or opinion.

Formulate an opinion and state that opinion clearly.

rganize and generate notes and ideas for each part of the TREE.

Organize notes by completing a graphic organizer:

T opic Sentence

Formulate a topic sentence expressing an opinion.

R eason

Give at least three reasons to support the topic sentence.

E xplanation

Explain your reasons.

E nding

Formulate a statement to summarize the topic sentence.

rite and say more.

Write a complete paragraph. Follow the plan developed using the TREE strategy.

After completing the POW+TREE strategy, students will still need to address the fourth element of the writing process: editing and revising. These skills should be taught as part of any comprehensive writing program. The bulletin board below displays the editing marks that Ms. Lin has taught her students. She uses these marks when providing editing and revising feedback to her students, and she requires her students to use them during the peer-editing process.

(Really Good Stuff [Online], 2007)

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IRIS | Page 4: POW+TREE Writing Strategy

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As Ms. Lin reflects on the trouble her students are having with writing, she realizes that many of her students need help incorporating the four elements of the writing process (i.e., planning, organizing, writing, and editing and revising) into their essays. She concludes that they need a guide or strategy to follow as they write.

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For students struggling with dysgraphia, raised line paper may help elementary age students stay on the lines while writing (Jones, n.d.).

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Amazon.com: Raised Lines Paper - Narrow : Office Products

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“Use graphic organizers, maps, index cards, or sticky notes to arrange information by illustrating particular text structures or concepts” (Reading Rockets, n.d.).

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Found on Google from superteacherworksheets.com

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Per Richards (n.d.), POWER is a mnemonic device that helps students remember the writing process.

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The POWER Writing Process - ppt download

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“Transition words help stories flow more smoothly, by providing logical organization and improving the connections between thoughts” (Reading Rockets, n.d.).

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Some teachers find it useful to teach transition words by purpose: words used to help sequence ideas or transition between sentences or paragraphs, words that can be used to show time, those that help writers wrap up or summarize a story, and others. Include our handy transition word guide in your students' writing folders so they have a reference right there as they write their drafts.

A helpful way to begin teaching students about transition words:

1. Call attention to ways transition words are used within your classroom read aloud or the book being used for reading groups.

2. Find a particular paragraph that sequences something, an opening that catches everyone's attention, or words that mark the ending of a chapter or idea.

3. Use these models as a way to discuss students' own writing.

4. Encourage students to review something they've written and look for evidence of transition words.

5. Ask students to find places within their own writing where transition words will clarify what they're trying to say or help the piece by moving the action along.

6. Using editing marks, have students revise their writing using just the right transition words.

This Teacher's Guide from The Writing Fix provides teacher instructions and lesson resources using a mentor text, Centerburg Tales , by Robert McCloskey. The guide includes writing samples from two third-grade writers as they worked to use transition words to improve the flow of their writing.

Another mentor text suggestion from The Writing Fix uses the text Miss Alaineus and involves students writing a script for an imaginative Vocabulary Fashion Show.

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Teaching students to use transition words helps them improve their writing. Transition words help stories flow more smoothly, by providing logical organization and improving the connections between thoughts.

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An important piece of the writing process was proving frequent feedback to students about the quality, missing pieces, and strengths. This improves student and teacher communication as well (Russell, n.d.).

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A recent meta-analysis (Gersten & Baker, 1999) highlights research-based instructional approaches for teaching written expression to students with learning disabilities, including ways to teach students how to analyze material learned in the classroom and how to write personal narratives, persuasive essays, and other genres. All of the instructional interventions studied improved the quality of students' written products, and there was evidence of positive impact on students' self-efficacy, i.e., their senses of being able to write.

Expressive writing was defined as writing for the purpose of displaying knowledge or supporting self-expression (Graham & Harris, 1989). This analysis asked, "Given a group of studies designed explicitly for the purpose of improving the writing of students with learning disabilities, which interventions and components were found to be most effective, and what is the strength of their effects?" This definition and research question led the analysis to include studies of a various interventions. Virtually all of the interventions studied were multifaceted. Three components stood out as ones that reliably and consistently led to improved outcomes in teaching expressive writing to students with learning disabilities:

Adhering to a basic framework of planning, writing, and revision

Explicitly teaching critical steps in the writing process

Providing feedback guided by the information explicitly taught

Adhering to a basic framework of planning, writing, and revision

Teaching students to write requires showing them how to develop and organize what they want to say and guiding them in the process of getting it down on paper. Most of the interventions used a basic framework based on planning, writing, and revising. These steps are part of a recursive, rather than linear, process, i.e., each step may be revisited during the writing process, and the steps do not always proceed in the same order. In these studies, each step was taught explicitly, with several examples and often supported by a "think sheet," a prompt card, or a mnemonic.

Explicitly teaching critical steps in the writing process

Explicitly teaching text structures provides a guide for the writing task, whether it is a persuasive essay, a personal narrative, or an essay comparing and contrasting two phenomena. Different types of writing are based on different structures. For example, a persuasive essay contains a thesis and supporting arguments, while narrative writing may contain character development and a story climax. Instruction in text structures typically includes numerous explicit models and prompts. Although different writers may proceed with the structures in a different order, good writing involves what Englert & Mariage (1991) called "overlapping and recursive processes." These processes do not proceed in a particular order, and one process may inform another in such a way that the author returns to previous steps to update or revise on a regular basis. Again, a plan of action is helpful. The plan makes text structures more visible to students and helps to demystify the writing process.

Providing feedback guided by the information explicitly taught

A third component common to these successful interventions was frequent feedback to students on the overall quality of writing, missing elements, and strengths. When feedback is combined with instruction in the writing process, the dialogue between student and teacher is strengthened. Giving and receiving feedback also helps students to develop "reader sensitivity" and their own writing style. Wong et al. (1997) hypothesized that interactive dialogues, which led students through multiple cycles of reflection, realization, and redress of problems, helped students "see" their thoughts and write from another's perspective. Across the studies of successful writing instruction, teachers and students had an organizational framework and language to use in providing feedback on such aspects of writing as organization, originality, and interpretation. Wong and her colleagues modeled procedures, for students and teachers, providing feedback so that they would attend to the surface features of writing (e.g., spelling and punctuation) as well as to the presentation of ideas.

Specific methods

Numerous methods for teaching written expression incorporate these three common principles. Two examples are Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) (Graham & Harris, 1989b) and Cognitive Strategy Instruction in Writing (Englert et al., 1995; Englert & Mariage, 1991). The SRSD technique involves self-directed prompts that require the students to (a) consider their audience and reasons for writing, (b) develop a plan for what they intend to say using frames to generate or organize writing notes; (c) evaluate possible content by considering its impact on the reader; and (d) continue the process of content generation and planning during the act of writing. Cognitive Strategy Instruction in Writing includes brainstorming strategies for preparing to write, organizing strategies to relate and categorize the ideas, comprehension strategies as students read and gather information for their writing, and monitoring strategies as they clarify their thoughts and the relationships among their items of information. All of these strategies are applied prior to the actual writing.

Emerging issues in writing instruction for students with learning disabilities

Gersten and Baker (1999) identify some issues in which research is expected to blossom in coming years. The first group of issues concerns the mechanics versus the content of writing. Early evidence suggested that writing instruction that focused more on content would better capitalize on the strengths of students with learning disabilities. When asked to write about complex ideas, students with learning disabilities often showed conceptual performance beyond that which would be expected on the basis of their performance on lower-level skills such as capitalization, punctuation and spelling (Goldman, Hasselbring, & The Cognition Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1977).

More recent research indicates that dictating to a scribe can eliminate mechanical difficulties and result in a longer, higher-quality composition (e.g., De La Paz & Graham, 1997). While students must eventually learn to do their own writing, these findings suggest a possible bridge to higher performance. Gersten and Baker point out that daily writing instruction should include time devoted to both the mechanics and the process of writing. Problems with the mechanics of writing must be addressed in expressive writing instruction; there is a reciprocal relationship between mastery of transcription skills and growth in the quality of writing. When students have mastered the mechanics, their cognitive resources can be devoted to planning, composing, and revising their work.

According to Gersten and Baker, another issue that is likely to be the focus of expressive writing research is the transfer of writing skills and the spontaneous use of the strategies involved in writing to other subject matter areas to raise the student's overall level of academic achievement. In the meta-analysis reported here, few investigated the transfer of writing skills. Those that did found mixed results. Wong called for instruction to promote transfer of skill. When students are provided such opportunities, she says, transfer will be greatly enhanced.

Based on Teaching Expressive Writing To Students With Learning Disabilities: A Meta-Analysis by Russell Gersten and Scott Baker, 1999.

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Teaching Expressive Writing to Students with Learning Disabilities

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A recent meta-analysis (Gersten & Baker, 1999) highlights research-based instructional approaches for teaching written expression to students with learning disabilities, including ways to teach students how to analyze material learned in the classroom and how to write personal narratives, persuasive essays, and other genres.

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For students that struggle with dysgraphia, have pencil grips on hand for everybody in the class to use (Jones, n.d.).

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Types of Pencil Grips (and Why to Use Them) - The OT Toolbox

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“A scientifically validated framework for explicitly teaching academic strategies to students, SRSD incorporates steps that have been shown to be critical if students are to learn how to effectively use academic strategies” (IRIS Center, 2008).

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Page 3: Self-regulated Strategy Development

Ms. Lin, the lead fourth-grade teacher, listens to Mr. Carter's concern that some of his students do not complete their assignments. She suggests that his students might benefit from learning a writing strategy. Explaining that it is critical for Mr. Carter to use explicit instruction to teach a writing strategy to his students, Ms. Lin introduces him to Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD). SRSD, Ms. Lin explains, provides a framework for teaching instructional strategies and self-regulation strategies.

SRSD Model

A scientifically validated framework for explicitly teaching academic strategies to students, SRSD incorporates steps that have been shown to be critical if students are to learn how to effectively use academic strategies. When teachers implement SRSD, students are more likely to be successful at mastering academic tasks. The SRSD model involves six stages:

Develop Background Knowledge

Discuss It

Model It

Memorize It

Support It

Establish Independent Practice

As they move through these stages, teachers might find it necessary to repeat some of them, whereas at other times they are able to move from stage to stage more quickly. Whatever the case, it is important that teachers understand that the steps are recursive-that is, teachers and students can return to any stage at any point in time.

To better understand why you should teach strategies instruction, consider the analogy of a roadmap. When you go on a road trip, you often take along a map to help you to avoid making wrong turns and getting lost. Like a roadmap, SRSD gives you specific steps and sequences to use when you teach strategies to your students

Students who struggle in academic areas may need more than an instructional strategy; they may need a means through which to regulate their own behavior. The SRSD approach provides students with such a means. Through SRSD, teachers help students to learn four basic self-regulation strategies:
goal-setting
An instructional process that includes:

Setting goals and breaking them into steps as needed

Developing plans for meeting goals and monitoring progress

Implementing the plans

Self-monitoring

Revising the goals when needed

The goal-setting strategy helps students to understand what they are striving for. Used with writing strategies, it can increase student attention, motivation, and effort.

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IRIS | Page 3: Self-regulated Strategy Development

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Ms. Lin, the lead fourth-grade teacher, listens to Mr. Carter's concern that some of his students do not complete their assignments. She suggests that his students might benefit from learning a writing strategy. Explaining that it is critical for Mr. Carter to use explicit instruction to teach a writing strategy to his students, Ms. Lin introduces him to Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD).

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Provide students with the opportunity to talk about their writing and share ideas with partners/peers.

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Strategies, Ideas, and Recommendations from the faculty Development Literature
General Strategies

View the improvement of students' writing as your responsibility.
Teaching writing is not only the job of the English department alone. Writing is an essential tool for learning a discipline and helping students improve their writing skills is a responsibility for all faculty.

Let students know that you value good writing.
Stress the importance of clear, thoughtful writing. Faculty who tell students that good writing will be rewarded and poor writing will be penalized receive better essays than instructors who don't make such demands. In the syllabus, on the first day, and throughout the term, remind students that they must make their best effort in expressing themselves on paper. Back up your statements with comments on early assignments that show you really mean it, and your students will respond.

Regularly assign brief writing exercises in your classes.
To vary the pace of a lecture course, ask students to write a few minutes during class. Some mixture of in-class writing, outside writing assignments, and exams with open-ended questions will give students the practice they need to improve their skills.

Provide guidance throughout the writing process.
After you have made the assignment, discuss the value of outlines and notes, explain how to select and narrow a topic, and critique the first draft, define plagiarism as well.

Don't feel as though you have to read and grade every piece of your students' writing.
Ask students to analyze each other's work during class, or ask them to critique their work in small groups. Students will learn that they are writing in order to think more clearly, not obtain a grade. Keep in mind, you can collect students' papers and skim their work.

Find other faculty members who are trying to use writing more effectively in their courses.
Pool ideas about ways in which writing can help students learn more about the subject matter. See if there is sufficient interest in your discipline to warrant drawing up guidelines. Students welcome handouts that give them specific instructions on how to write papers for a particular course or in a particular subject area.

Teaching Writing When You Are Not an English Teacher

Remind students that writing is a process that helps us clarify ideas.
Tell students that writing is a way of learning, not an end in itself. Also let them know that writing is a complicated, messy, nonlinear process filled with false starts. Help them to identify the writer's key activities:

Developing ideas

Finding a focus and a thesis

Composing a draft

Getting feedback and comments from others

Revising the draft by expanding ideas, clarifying meaning, reorganizing

Editing

Presenting the finished work to readers

Explain that writing is hard work.
Share with your class your own struggles in grappling with difficult topics. If they know that writing takes effort, they won't be discouraged by their own pace or progress. One faculty member shared with students their notebook that contained the chronology of one of his published articles: first ideas, successive drafts, submitted manuscript, reviewers' suggested changes, revised version, galley proofs, and published article.

Give students opportunities to talk about their writing.
Students need to talk about papers in progress so that they can formulate their thoughts, generate ideas, and focus their topics. Take five or ten minutes of class time for students to read their writing to each other in small groups or pairs. It's important for students to hear what their peers have written.

Encourage students to revise their work.
Provide formal steps for revision by asking students to submit first drafts of papers for your review or for peer critique. You can also give your students the option of revising and rewriting one assignment during the semester for a higher grade. Faculty report that 10 to 40 percent of the students take advantage of this option.

Explain thesis statements.
A thesis statement makes an assertion about some issue. A common student problem is to write papers that present overviews of facts with no thesis statement or that have a diffuse thesis statement.

Stress clarity and specificity.
The more the abstract and difficult the topic, the more concrete the student's language should be. Inflated language and academic jargon camouflage rather than clarify their point.

Explain the importance of grammar and sentence structure, as well as content.
Students shouldn't think that English teachers are the only judges of grammar and style. Tell your students that you will be looking at both quality of their writing and the content.

Distribute bibliographies and tip sheets on good writing practices.
Check with your English department or writing center to identify materials that can be easily distributed to students. Consider giving your students a bibliography of writing guides, for example:

Crews, F.C. Random House Handbook. (6th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill, 1992.

A classic comprehensive textbook for college students. Well written and well worth reading.

Lanham, R.A. Revising Prose. (3rd ed.) New York: Scribner's, 1991. Techniques for eliminating

bureaucratese and restoring energy to tired prose.

Tollefson, S. K. Grammar Grams and Grammar Grams II. New York: HarperCollins, 1989,

1992. Two short, witty guides that answer common questions about grammar, style, and usage. Both are fun to read.

Science and Engineering
Barrass, R. Scientists Must Write. New York: Chapman and Hall, 1978. Biddle, A. W., and Bean, D. J. Writer's Guide: Life Sciences. Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1987.

Arts and Humanities
Barnet, S. A Short Guide to Writing About Art. Boston: Little, Brown, 1989. Goldman, B. Reading and Writing in the Arts. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1978.

Social Sciences
Biddle, A. W., Fulwiler, T., and Holland, K.M. Writer's Guide: Psychology. Lexington, Mass,:

Heath, 1987.
McCloskey, D. N. The Writing of Economics. New York: Macmillan, 1987.

Ask a composition instructor to give a presentation to your students.
Invite a guest speaker from the composition department or student learning center to talk to your students about effective writing and common writing problems. Faculty who have invited these experts report that such presentations reinforce the values of the importance of writing.

Let students know about available tutoring services.
Individual or group tutoring in writing is available on most campuses. Ask someone from the tutoring center to give a demonstration in your class.

Use computers to help students write better.
Locally developed and commercially available software are now being used by faculty to help students plan, write, and revise their written work. Some software available allows instructors to monitor students' work in progress and lets students collaborate with their classmates.

Assigning In-Class Writing Activities

Ask students to write what they know about a topic before you discuss it.
Ask your students to write a brief summary of what they already know or what opinions they hold regarding the subject you are about to discuss. The purpose of this is to focus the students' attention, there is no need to collect the summaries.

Ask students to respond in writing to questions you pose during class.
Prior to class starting, list two or three short-answer questions on the board and ask your students to write down their responses. Your questions might call for a review of material you have already discussed or recalling information from assigned readings.

Ask students to write from a pro or con position.
When presenting an argument, stop and ask your students to write down all the reasons and evidence they can think of that supports one side or the other. These statements can be used as the basis for discussion.

During class, pause for a three-minute write.
Periodically ask students to write freely for three minutes on a specific question or topic. They should write whatever pops into their mind without worrying about grammar, spelling, phrasing, or organization. This kind of free writing, according to writing experts, helps students synthesize diverse ideas and identify points they may not understand. There is no need to collect these exercises.

Have students write a brief summary at the end of class.
At the end of the class period, give your students index cards to jot down the key themes, major points, or general principles of the day's discussion. You can easily collect the index cards and review them to see whether the class understood the discussion.

Have one student keep minutes to be read at the next class meeting.
By taking minutes, students get a chance to develop their listening, synthesizing, and writing skills. Boris (1983) suggests the following:

Prepare your students by having everyone take careful notes for the class period, go home and rework them into minutes, and hand them in for comments. It can be the students' discretion whether the minutes are in outline or narrative form.

Decide on one to two good models to read or distribute to the class.

At the beginning of each of the following classes, assign one student to take minutes for the period.

Give a piece of carbon paper to the student who is taking minutes so that you can have a rough copy. The student then takes the original home and revises it in time to read it aloud at the next class meeting.

After the student has read their minutes, ask other students to comment on their accuracy and quality. If necessary, the student will revise the minutes and turn in two copies, one for grading and one for your files.

Structure small group discussion around a writing task.
For example, have your students pick three words that are of major importance to the day's session. Ask your class to write freely for two to three minutes on just one of the words. Next, give the students five to ten minutes to meet in groups to share what they have written and generate questions to ask in class.

Use peer response groups.
Divide your class into groups of three or four, no larger. Ask your students to bring to class enough copies of a rough draft of a paper for each person in their group. Give your students guidelines for critiquing the drafts. In any response task, the most important step is for the reader to note the part of the paper that is the strongest and describe to the writer why it worked so well. The following instructions can also be given to the reader:

State the main point of the paper in a single sentence

List the major subtopics

Identify confusing sections of the paper

Decide whether each section of the paper has enough detail, evidence, and information

Indicate whether the paper's points follow one another in sequence

Judge the appropriateness of the opening and concluding paragraphs

Identify the strengths of the paper

Written critiques done as homework are likely to be more thoughtful, but critiques may also be done during the class period.

Use read-around groups.
Read-around groups are a technique used with short assignments (two to four pages) which allows everyone to read everyone else's paper. Divide the class into groups no larger than four students and divide the papers (coded for anonymity) into as many sets as there are groups. Give each group a set and ask the students to read each paper silently and decide on the best paper in the set. Each group should discuss their choices and come to a consensus on the best paper. The paper's code number is recorded by the group, and the same process is repeated with a new set of papers. After all the groups have read all the sets of papers, someone from each group writes on the board the code number from the best paper in each set. The recurring numbers are circled. Generally, one to three papers stand out.

Ask students to identify the characteristics of effective writing.
After completing the read-around activity, ask your students to reconsider those papers which were voted as excellent by the entire class and to write down features that made each paper outstanding. Write their comments on the board, asking for elaboration and probing vague generalities. In pairs, the students discuss the comments on the board and try to put them into categories such as organization, awareness of audience, thoroughness of detail, etc. You might need to help your students arrange the characteristics into meaningful categories.

Sources The Strategies, Ideas and Recommendations Here Come Primarily From:
Gross Davis, B. Tools for Teaching. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, 1993.
And These Additional Sources...
Boris, E. Z. "Classroom Minutes: A Valuable Teaching Device." Improving College and

University Teaching, 1983,31(2), 70-73.

Elbow, P. "Using Writing to Teach Something Else." Unpublished paper, 1987.

Hawisher, G. E., and Selfe, C. L. (eds.). Critical Perspectives on Computers and

Composition Instruction. New York: Teachers College Press, 1989.

Holdstein, D. H., and Selfe, C. L. (eds.). Computers and Writing: Theory, Research,

Practice. New York: Modern Language Association, 1990.

Lowman, J. Mastering the Techniques of Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1984.

Petersen, B. T. "Additional Resources in the Practice of Writing Across the Disciplines."

In C. W. Griffin (ed.), Teaching Writing in All Disciplines. New Directions in Teaching and Learning, no. 12. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1982.

Professional and Organizational Development Network in Higher Education.

Bright Idea Network, 1989. (For information contact David Graf, Iowa State University, Ames.)

Pytlik, B. P. "Teaching Teachers of Writing: Workshops on Writing as a Collaborative

Process." College Teaching, 1989, 37(1), 12-14.

Tollefson, S. K. Encouraging Student Writing. Berkeley: Office of Educational

Development, University of California, 1988.

Walvoord, B. F. Helping Students Write Well: A Guide for Teachers in All Disciplines.

(2nd ed.) New York: Modern Language Association, 1986.

Watkins, B. T. "More and More Professors in Many Academic Disciplines Routinely

Require Students to Do Extensive Writing." Chronicle of Higher Education, 1990, 36(44), pp. A13-14, A16.

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Efficient Ways to Improve Student Writing

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Efficient Ways to Improve Student Writing

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Jones, S. (n.d.). Dysgraphia accommodations and modifications. LD OnLine. https://www.ldonline.org/ld-topics/writing-spelling/dysgraphia-accommodations-and-modifications?theme=print

The IRIS Center. (2006). Improving writing performance: A strategy for writing persuasive essays. Retrieved from https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/pow/

The IRIS Center. (2008). SRSD: Using learning strategies to enhance student learning. Retrieved from https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/srs/

Reading Rockets. (n.d.). RAFT. https://www.readingrockets.org/classroom/classroom-strategies/raft

Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Transition words. https://www.readingrockets.org/classroom/classroom-strategies/transition-words

Reading Rockets. (n.d.). Writing: In practice. https://www.readingrockets.org/reading-101/reading-101-learning-modules/course-modules/writing/practice

Richards, R. G. (n.d.). Strategies for the reluctant writer. LD OnLine. https://www.ldonline.org/ld-topics/writing-spelling/strategies-reluctant-writer

Russell, G. (n.d.). Teaching expressive writing to students with learning disabilities. LD OnLine. https://www.ldonline.org/ld-topics/writing-spelling/teaching-expressive-writing-students-learning-disabilities

University of Wisconsin Whitewater. (n.d.). Efficient ways to improve student writing. https://www.uww.edu/learn/restiptool/improve-student-writing