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Module 1: Replacing "Learning Styles" with "Learning Techniques"

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Module 1: Replacing "Learning Styles" with "Learning Techniques"

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This article details the myth of "learning styles," which continue to be widely circulated despite a lack of empirical evidence. Author Ransom Patterson additionally provides an alternative of "learning techniques" that can be used in concert and according to the assignments and activities they are best suited for.

Reviewing the article's list of learning techniques and applying them to specific parts of my COM-111 class will ensure that I'm giving students a bulk of tools to use rather than inhibiting them by assigning them a particular learning style. For example, asking students to write individually in class about what they know, what they'd like to know, and what they think others in the class would like to know helps them come up with speech topics and tailor them to their audience. Modeling spaced repetition for students in preparation for our final exam would help them maximize their time spent studying.

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Read more here.

Table of Contents arrow 2

1. The Myth of Learning Styles

2. An Alternative View: Learning Techniques

3. How to Experiment with Learning

4. Conclusion

I first learned about learning styles from my middle school guidance counselor. Standing before the class in our monthly "guidance" session, she gave the following proclamation:

"There are three learning styles: auditory, visual, and kinesthetic. This test will help you determine which style comes most naturally to you."

We nodded our heads, picked up our pencils, and took the test just like any other. Once the counselor guided us through the test's complicated rubric, I found that my learning style was visual. I carried that knowledge with me through the rest of school and never questioned it.

I've always loved this neat explanation of three learning styles, and I've even used it to justify why I struggled with subjects such as math ("it's just not visual enough," I'd complain to my mom, even though the very visual subject of geometry was one I struggled with the most).

So you can imagine my surprise when after nearly ten years of believing in it, I learned that the traditional idea of learning styles is wrong.

Yep. Learning styles is a myth. I'd actually planned to write a pretty straightforward article on the different learning styles and how knowing yours can help you study better, but then Thomas pointed me to this piece from Wired. In it, psychologist Christian Jarrett explains that the idea of different learning styles simply isn't supported by existing research.

So instead, today's article is all about debunking the myth of learning styles and focusing on what really matters: learning techniques. By the end of this post, you'll know what you actually need to focus on to learn and recall material.

I promise you, it's fascinating stuff, so let's get started!
Want to listen to an audio narration of this article? Just click play below: Additionally, you'll find this narration included in the College Info Geek Podcast feed. If you haven't already, you may want to subscribe!
The Myth of Learning Styles

How many learning styles are there? Turns out, it depends who you ask. Some say three, as I was taught, but others say four or even seven. One literature review identified as many as 13!

And even within each of the learning styles models, there's no clear agreement about what each of the styles means. Just Google "learning styles" to see how ambiguous the situation is.

Even more important than the disagreement about the number of styles, however, is the problem with the larger "learning styles" model.

As Christian Jarrett explains in the Wired article mentioned above, most studies on learning styles reveal that people perform best when the learning style they use is most appropriate for the material they're learning, not the style they prefer:

"...usually the most effective way for us to learn is based not on our individual preferences but on the nature of the material we're being taught - just try learning French grammar pictorially, or learning geometry purely verbally."

- Christian Jarret, "All You Need to Know About the 'Learning Styles' Myth, in Two Minutes"

Furthermore, using a "preferred" learning style (as opposed to an optimal one) can actually be detrimental to learning. Kirschner et al. put it this way in a 2013 paper on common education myths:

"The individually preferred way of learning is often a bad predictor of the way people learn most effectively; what people prefer is often not what is best for them."

- "Do Learners Really Know Best? Urban Legends in Education"

And this makes sense. To paraphrase an example from the above article, you may prefer pizza, but kale is objectively better for you.

In the same way, you may enjoy learning by watching videos but actually perform better on tests when you study by using something like the Feynman technique (we'll get to how to figure out the way you learn best in a moment).

Even looking at my own experience, I've found I learn best using the learning style best suited to the material. I would never expect to learn geography only by reading about it, or cooking just by watching videos of Jamie Oliver. I might enjoy watching videos more, but thinking that it helps me learn better is to confuse enjoyment with effectiveness.

An Alternative View: Learning Techniques

"...a learning style that might be desirable in one situation might be undesirable in another situation due to the multifaceted nature of complex skills" - "Do Learners Really Know Best? Urban Legends in Education"

So we've debunked the idea of learning styles. Now what? Should we give up on the theory of learning entirely?

I don't think so. Instead, I propose that instead of thinking about learning styles, it's much more useful to consider different learning techniques.

While "learning styles" sounds like something that you either have or don't , learning techniques are much more like a box of tools that you can draw from (and combine) to fit the particular learning challenge.

The number of learning techniques is probably infinite, but here are a few common ones that I find helpful:
Reading
Common to pretty much every class you'll every take, I find reading really helpful for learning anything that requires a rigid, step-by-step procedure.

The written word also allows compression of large amounts of knowledge into a very portable, digestible format, so you tend to get more "bang for your buck" when reading a book vs. watching a video.
Spaced Repetition
If I need to memorize anything, spaced repetition is my go-to. Thomas has a whole video that explains the technique in depth, but I find it super helpful for language learning, geography, and math equations.
Writing
Writing about a topic is a great way to find the holes in your knowledge, and it's especially helpful if you'll be required to write an essay about it for your class's final exam.

The Feynman technique is one version of this, in which you take a blank piece of paper and try to explain the topic in as simple language as possible. This quickly reveals what material you need to study further.
Observing
This technique is what I think makes instructional videos so popular. It's just so much easier for Jacques Pepin to show you how to make the perfect French omelet than it is for a book to explain it.

Observing also includes things like watching "explainer" videos or video tutorial content. And obviously, any kind of demonstration that a professor does in a class or lab.

I think observing can be a very powerful technique if you use it correctly, but I also find it's one of the easiest areas to confuse enjoyment with true understanding.

For instance, if watching Khan Academy videos helps you to understand math concepts, that's great. But make sure to combine that watching with a healthy amount of math practice, since being able to do math is what ultimately matters for class.
Discussing
All this means is having a conversation with other people about the topic. I've never been a fan of studying in groups, but I imagine the reason some people find it helpful is that discussing the material out loud forces you to put it into your own words.

The danger in this technique (and the reason I avoid it) is that it's easy to get off topic. I suggest limiting your discussions to one-on-one if you can, or using a professor's office hours as a chance to discuss the material with someone who (probably) won't get off topic.
Listening
When we read Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream in my 9th grade English class, my teacher had the inspired idea to have us listen to an audiobook of the play in class as we silently read along.

This was hugely helpful to "decoding" the play's archaic language, and it's a technique I've since used extensively when studying other subjects such as Spanish. This is a prime example of where combining learning techniques leads to the best results.
Practicing
I say "practicing" instead of the popular "doing," because it emphasizes the need to be deliberate. You aren't just mindlessly repeating the act over and over - you're alertly practicing it and correcting yourself as needed.

The subject in which I have the most experience using this technique is music. No amount of mental tricks or creative techniques is going to get you around the time you need to spend carefully and methodically rehearsing scales, fingerings, phrasing, and exercises.

If you're learning any subject where the ultimate outcome is some kind of product (anything from an essay to an equation to a conversation in another language), make sure to allow time for deliberate practice.
Combining
And of course, as I already alluded to, you can and should combine the above techniques. I'm learning Spanish, for instance, through a combination of live speaking practice, spaced repetition, reading, writing practice, and videos.

If I followed the standard advice that I should only learn using my natural "style," I'd probably be okay at reading Spanish but useless at pretty much everything else.

But how do you know which techniques are best for which subjects? The key is experimentation...

How to Experiment with Learning

"We are all born into this world, and at some point we will die and that will be that. In the meantime, let's enjoy our minds and the wonderful and ridiculous things we can do with them. I don't know about you, but I'm here to have fun. "

- Paul Lockhart, A Mathematician's Lament

In college, you're expected to do a lot more learning on your own. Your classes may require you to do certain readings, submit homework assignments, and obviously to attend the lectures, but beyond that it's pretty much up to you how you learn the material.

Don't view this as a burden; embrace it as an opportunity to experiment with learning techniques.

Now, many of you are understandably uncomfortable with the idea of "experimenting" with anything that can affect your grade, so let me be clear.

I'm not saying you should blindly use one technique to study for a test, pick another random one for the next, and then compare which to see got you a higher grade. That's not just reckless - it's also poor experimental design.

Instead, I suggest you experiment with learning techniques in a context where the stakes are low. A great way to do this is to either make your own quizzes for a subject you're trying to learn or just find practice material online.

Study the material using one method, test yourself, and then wait a couple days to allow the memory to fade somewhat. Then use a different method with a different quiz and compare results.

It's hard to do this in a completely unbiased way, since you're likely to do better the second time around due to prior exposure to the material, but it's good enough for our purposes. Plus, you'll be learning regardless, so it's basically a win-win.

I'd also suggest that you both embrace and challenge your intuition. If you assume that studying material one way will be the best for you, then by all means try that first. But don't be afraid to try a completely opposite method later. You may be surprised to find that the other method works better.

For instance, the intuitive way for most people to memorize something is just to repeat it over and over to themselves, which is called memorizing by rote. Even though a method like spaced repetition is far more effective, it's not something people would naturally try (or even know about). But once they test it and see how superior it is, they can never go back.

Have an open mind and test, test, test!

Conclusion

As you can now see, how we learn is more wonderfully complicated than a simple "learning styles" model can ever encompass.

Furthermore, the most effective learning comes from using the techniques that work best for the material in question (and for you!). With the proper combination of techniques under your belt (and plenty of experimentation), you'll be equipped to learn just about anything!

I hope this article has gotten you excited about the topic of learning, or at the very least inspired you to try out some new learning techniques.

To learn more about the subject of learning in general, I recommend the following resources:

What learning techniques work best for you? Have a learning story you'd like to share? Join the conversation in the comments section below, or start a discussion in the College Info Geek community.

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Why the "Learning Styles" Concept is Wrong (And What to Use Instead)

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C.I.G. is supported in part by its readers. If you buy through our links, we may earn an affiliate commission. Read more here. Table of Contents arrow 2 The Myth of Learning Styles An Alternative View: Learning Techniques How to Experiment with Learning Conclusion I first learned about learning styles from my middle school guidance counselor.

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Module 2: Applying Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs to Teach Students About Persuasion

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Module 2: Applying Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs to Teach Students About Persuasion

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This graphic illustrates the different levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and includes specific examples of each that can be discussed with students. Levels 1-4 are described as "deficiency needs," meaning that motivation decreases once these essential physical, psychological, and social needs are met. Level 5 is described as containing "growth needs," or motivating factors that continue to blossom once met.

I currently use Maslow's Hierarchy in my COM-111 class during our persuasion unit. Students review the pyramid, then think about what common needs and values would fall under which level(s). I could take this a step further and incorporate visual aids into the exercise, asking students to identify the needs and values inherent in certain print advertisements. What needs or values does the ad appeal to? What level of the pyramid would this fit under? Is this a deficiency need appeal, or something higher?

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Module 3: Flipping the Classroom for an Online Blended Format

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Module 3: Flipping the Classroom for an Online Blended Format

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This article from the University of Waterloo in Canada defines a flipped classroom as a way to reverse homework and lecture components of class in order to maximize active learning and engagement. It also offers a "planning model for flipped classes" that can be incorporated into a week or an individual lesson. The planning model begins with the instructor introducing the task, then the students are assignment an out of class task, the teacher assesses learning, and finally, reinforces that learning with an in-class activity.

AACC is currently in talks of creating a new online instructional format called "online blended," which combines one weekly synchronous meeting with asynchronous time. I believe that a flipped classroom would work especially well for this kind of format, with the active learning, reinforcing group activity work being saved for the synchronous session while the "homework" is comprised of listening to lectures or reading on the students' own time. In COM-111, I could easily use this flipped classroom model for our First Amendment activity. First, I would introduce the expectations for the assignment: students pick two scenarios and determine if the people in question were protected by the First Amendment. For homework, they would analyze these scenarios and write up their conclusions. Then, I would offer comments on their work. Finally, students would join together in our synchronous session and pair up with others to discuss where their conclusions align and diverge. This process would allow solitary work to be completed and graded on the students' and my own time, while synchronous time could be used for the most social element of the exercise.

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In a flipped classroom students engage with lectures or other materials outside of class to prepare for an active learning experience in the classroom.

This is not a new idea, but the current usage of the term "flipped" is generally associated with students engaging with materials online followed by in-class activities that involve peer learning or small-group work. There are many activities that can be part of a flipped class such as discussions, debates, clicker questions, Q and A, demonstrations, simulations, peer tutoring and feedback, and role playing. An instructor may choose to flip just a few classes a term, where the concepts lend themselves to active learning experiences, or to flip all classes. As in all class planning, the objectives of the class must be determined before the activities are planned. See CTE Teaching Tips, " Writing Intended Learning Outcomes."

Why flip?

In a lecture, the attention of most students starts to decrease after ten or fifteen minutes, so flipping the class can help keep students focused and learning for the whole period.

Flipping the classroom means that students have time to process and reflect on concepts and increase their knowledge base before coming to class to apply their learning.

Instructors can get a sense of where students are having difficulty with the course material or have questions or misconceptions about concepts (possibly through an online assessment or discussion forum) before they come to class. Instructors can then adjust what will be done in class depending on this feedback. This is often called "just-in-time teaching" (JITT).

Students can control the time, pace and place of learning with the online materials. Many students find it useful to repeat segments of an online presentation when they are having difficulty with a particular concept or when they are studying for the final exam. For some students the ability to rewind and listen to a presentation or explanation again can help them make more meaningful notes or overcome language fluency difficulties.

Although an up-front investment of time is necessary to create online materials, including video content, the materials can be reused by the instructor from year to year.

Flipping some classes can add some variety and change of pace to classes and make the course more interesting for both students and instructor.

There is evidence that having students engage in active learning and peer learning in class leads to deeper understanding and greater retention of concepts than traditional lecture information transfer in class.

A planning model for flipped classes

Often when instructors are planning to flip a class they focus all their attention on planning the activities that the students will do in class and on what the students will do online to prepare for that active learning in class. However, there are two other aspects of the flipped-class design that require planning: how the activities will be introduced to the students and how the instructor and the students will know that they have adequately prepared for the in-class experience.

Introduce the task

The goal of this stage of the flipped class is to maximize student participation/readiness for the activities they will be doing online and in-class. Instructors should introduce the tasks by clearly explaining their expectations for what the students will be doing and the amount of time the students will need to invest to be ready for the class activity. Explaining what they will be doing and why being prepared for the in-class activities is also important. For some students, active learning in the classroom will be a new experience so a "no surprises" approach can reduce possible anxiety about a more participatory approach to learning.

Out-of-class task

Carefully consider the choice of media for the online activities and materials. Instructors can create their own materials such as narrated PowerPoints, screencasts and podcasts, or reuse online content such as websites, readings and videos. Video content should be concise -- no more than 10-15 minute segments -- and it can be helpful to students if there are guiding questions or prompts to help them recognize the keys objectives of the preparatory work. If instructors include an online means for students to submit questions about difficult concepts or other questions, they can use some class time to discuss these issues. For examples of activities see CTE Teaching Tips, " Online Activities and Assessment for the Flipped Classroom".

Assess the learning

Before the in-class session both the instructor and the students can benefit from knowing if the students are adequately prepared for the in-class activity. Self-assessment quizzes or low-stakes online quizzes can be a good way to assess if students are adequately prepared. Ideally these assessments are short (3 to 4 questions), and include questions that provide an opportunity for students to apply what they have learned rather than questions that merely test factual knowledge. Formative feedback on the assessment questions and an opportunity for students to pose their own questions to the instructor can also be included. Evidence of preparation can also be provided through a short assignment or assessment at the beginning of the in-class portion of the flipped class. Learning and assessment are interconnected: low stakes or formative assessment is a valuable learning tool for students.

In-class activities

The most effective activities for promoting deep learning are those that create opportunities for peer-to-peer learning, student-instructor dialogue, and opportunities for active learning. The objectives of an activity should be clearly linked to course objectives and assessments; the in-class activity time can be used to encourage students to be creative and make discoveries (and errors) in a relaxed, low-risk environment. For examples of activities see CTE Teaching Tips, " Active Learning Activities" and " In-class Activities and Assessment for the Flipped Classroom".

Motivation

Student motivation, which underlies the whole learning process, can be affected by the design of the activity. An enthusiastic instructor who has good rapport with students and creates an open and positive atmosphere in class can motivate student participation and learning. Activities that are designed to be challenging, but achievable, can help motivate students. Also students will be more motivated if they find personal meaning and value in the material and see that the course is relevant and linked to their future success. Providing frequent feedback to students as they complete their learning can also increase motivation.

What are the potential challenges of flipping?

Trying a new approach for a single class or many classes in a term will have its challenges. The following are real but not insurmountable.

Increased work load for the instructor. Time and effort is required to rethink and prepare both pre-class and in-class activities; however, activities can often be reused without too much effort the next time the class is offered.

Instructors might need to decrease the course content. With more student participation and dialogue, instructors may find that they are not able to "cover" as much material as they have in that past, so rethinking the learning outcomes of the course may be necessary. The concepts that are learned are likely to be retained for longer and applied more effectively with the active learning component.

Not all active-learning strategies are feasible in large classes. The activities that can be feasibly facilitated in a really large class are fewer than those in a small class, but there are still many ways to engage students in applying concepts and peer learning. A mixture of mini-lectures and think-pair-share and/or the use of clickers can be effective even in really large classes - see Activities for Large Classes.

Students might resist changing from a lecture approach. For many students being passive in a lecture is easier and less intimidating than being actively involved in a class. However, if asked, students often acknowledge that active, deeper learning experiences are more valuable and that they prefer meaningful learning in the classroom. (See First Day Questions for the Learner-Centered Classroom by Gary Smith for a strategy to introduce students to active learning.)

Be prepared for some students not being prepared. Hopefully instructors have taken the requisite steps to ensure that students are prepared for class, but if students do come to class unprepared, don't re-lecture -- move forward anyway. Once students see that you are serious about supporting active learning in the classroom, they will likely be better prepared the next time.

Technology. Who has ever used a new technology without some kind of technical issue? Be prepared for blips along the way and contact your CTE liaison to find out how to get support with using teaching technologies.

CTE teaching tips

Other resources

This Creative Commons license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon our work non-commercially, as long as they credit us and indicate if changes were made. Use this citation format: Course design: planning a flipped class. Centre for Teaching Excellence, University of Waterloo .

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Course Design: Planning a Flipped Class | Centre for Teaching Excellence

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In a flipped classroom students engage with lectures or other materials outside of class to prepare for an active learning experience in the classroom. This is not a new idea, but the current usage of the term "flipped" is generally associated with students engaging with materials online followed by in-class activities that involve peer learning or small-group work.

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Module 4: Improving Public Speaking/Presentation Skills for Professor and Students Alike

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Module 4: Improving Public Speaking/Presentation Skills for Professor and Students Alike

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Coursera offers a wide range of massive open online courses (or MOOCs) for anyone looking to improve their existing skills or explore new subjects. Their Dynamic Public Speaking Specialization offers four distinct courses that would ultimately lead to a certificate, or courses can be taken individually. They are Introduction to Public Speaking, Speaking to Inform: Discussing Complex Ideas with Clear Explanations and Dynamic Slides, Speaking to Persuade: Motivating Audiences with Solid Arguments and Moving Language, and Speaking to Inspire: Ceremonial and Motivational Speeches. The second course in particular (Speaking to Inform) extends many of the concepts we have explored in Module 4 of this class, including audience-centered communication, obeying time constraints, and creating dynamic visual aids.

As an instructor, I believe that you can never be "too good" at public speaking and that there is always something to learn when improving and enhancing your existing skills. This class (and the certificate as a whole) would help me convey information to students in a more engaging way and give me new suggestions for how to organize presentations and visual aids. Beyond these advantages, because I teach public speaking at AACC, I could transfer these same skills into the material and activities that students will work on in class. All courses in this Coursera certificate program align with major speeches that students are required to give. In learning more about them, I can adjust my current lesson plans to incorporate new information.

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Become an Excellent Public Speaker. Master techniques for designing and delivering clear and compelling presentations.

Skills you will gain

Communication Presentation Speech Public Speaking Confidence

About this Specialization

Good speaking is your most enduring job skill. This four-course specialization will provide you with the instruction, experience, and practice to develop and deliver compelling presentations. Drawing from the established knowledge in communication, rhetoric, linguistics, and argumentation, each course balances proven ideas with lots of speech practice. The courses in this specializations should help speakers at all levels. If you are nervous about public speaking, this is for you! I have spent an entire career helping nervous novice speakers grow into confident communicators. We slowly work up specific skills that you can practice multiple times before putting together a longer speech.

Applied Learning Project

Learners will design, practice, record, and receive feedback on speeches that they can use in their professional lives (elevator and summary talks, informative slide-deck presentations, persuasive policy recommendations, and inspirational stories). After completing this specialization, learners will have the experience and skills to design compelling presentations and a portfolio of polished speeches.​

Started a new career after completing this specialization.

Got a pay increase or promotion.

Set and maintain flexible deadlines.

No prior experience is necessary.

Approx. 5 months to complete

Subtitles: English, Arabic, Portuguese (Brazilian), Vietnamese, Spanish

Started a new career after completing this specialization.

Got a pay increase or promotion.

Set and maintain flexible deadlines.

No prior experience is necessary.

Approx. 5 months to complete

Subtitles: English, Arabic, Portuguese (Brazilian), Vietnamese, Spanish

There are 4 Courses in this Specialization

Offered by

University of Washington

Founded in 1861, the University of Washington is one of the oldest state-supported institutions of higher education on the West Coast and is one of the preeminent research universities in the world.

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Offered by University of Washington. Good speaking is your most enduring job skill. This four-course specialization will provide you with the instruction, experience, and practice to develop and deliver compelling presentations. Drawing from the established knowledge in communication, rhetoric, linguistics, and argumentation, each course balances proven ideas with lots of speech practice.

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Module 5: Incorporating Active Learning Into Formative Assessment Strategies

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Module 5: Incorporating Active Learning Into Formative Assessment Strategies

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This list of active learning strategies from the Teaching & Learning Transformation Center includes a list of instructor goals met, which is extremely useful for lesson planning. Instructors can select activities that aid in their goal of previewing content, reviewing content, completing formative assessment, fostering collaboration among students, and so much more. The activities listed are clever and often quick, and they are varied enough to use multiple times in the duration of a course.

These strategies address multiple challenges for me in the classroom. For one, they are just what I need to integrate more formative assessment into my classes. They would also enable me to grab students' attention right away with a "hook," instead of my traditional approach of starting class with housekeeping items. For example, Question Ranking is a kind of formative assessment that grabs attention at the beginning of class. Asking students to write down questions that they would like me to answer not only gets them thinking about course content right away, but provides me with valuable feedback on potential knowledge gaps or content areas that need more explanation. The alternative suggestion -- have students write down questions on index cards and then put a mark on other index cards they'd like to see answered -- is a great way to get a class that may be quieter/less verbal on board with the exercise.