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A-level - Resource Security, Water Conflict, Gaza Strip

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A-level - Resource Security, Water Conflict, Gaza Strip

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Doctors Without Borders/Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF)

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Doctors Without Borders/Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF)

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Water is being used as a weapon of war in Gaza

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Gaza’s water crisis has worsened significantly since Israeli authorities cut the entry of aid and electricity in early March, with serious consequences for people’s health.

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A-level - Resource Security, Water Security, California, USA.

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A-level - Resource Security, Water Security, California, USA.

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California Water Challenges Remain Despite Significant Precipitation in 2023

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State and federal officials move forward plans and policies for water conservation, conveyance, and climate resilience. By Michael G. Romey, Lucas I.

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Year 11 - Urban Issues and Challenges, Reducing Traffic Congestion, London, UK

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Year 11 - Urban Issues and Challenges, Reducing Traffic Congestion, London, UK

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GCSE Geography | Transport in London (UK city study: London 7)

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London has a population of just over 9 million people and is considered one of the most polluted cities in the UK, primarily due to high levels of road traffic emissions, which contribute significantly to air pollution, particularly nitrogen oxides (NO2). Central London has a worse pollution record than most other European cities and regularly breaks European Union (EU) regulations on air quality - exceeding the limit of 40 mg/m3 for NO2, although this is not as bad as many cities in Asia. The dense road network leads to congestion and the city’s tall buildings trap polluted air between them. This has an impact on public health with potential for respiratory issues and premature deaths - it is estimated that there are more than 4,000 deaths a year in London due to long-term exposure to air pollution, although recent data shows there has been a slight drop in NO2 levels as a result of the strategies in place to mitigate air pollution.

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Year 11 - Reducing the Gap - Tourism, Jamaica

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Year 11 - Reducing the Gap - Tourism, Jamaica

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A-level - Coastal Systems and Processes, Holderness Coast, UK

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A-level - Coastal Systems and Processes, Holderness Coast, UK

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A-level - Changing Places, Re-imaging and Re-branding of Brimingham

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A-level - Changing Places, Re-imaging and Re-branding of Brimingham

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A-level - Changing representation of place, Stratford, Olympic Village

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A-level - Changing representation of place, Stratford, Olympic Village

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Exploring the developing character of a contrasting and distant place.

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Year 7 - Earthquakes, Gaziantep, Türkiye

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Year 7 - Earthquakes, Gaziantep, Türkiye

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Red Cross Red Crescent Climate Centre & The Humanitarian OpenStreetMap Team

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OpenStreetMap data use in climate smart reconstruction

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Year 9 - Natural Hazards, Pacific Ring of Fire

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Year 9 - Natural Hazards, Pacific Ring of Fire

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The Ring of Fire, also referred to as the Circum-Pacific Belt, is a path along the Pacific Ocean characterized by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. The majority of Earth's volcanoes and earthquakes take place along the Ring of Fire.

Subjects

Earth Science, Geology, Oceanography, Geography

Image

Volcanoes Bromo Nat'l Park

Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park on the island of Java (Jawa), Indonesia, is home to several active volcanoes, which can be seen here smoking ominously against a blue sky.

Photograph by Manamana

The Ring of Fire, also referred to as the Circum-Pacific Belt, is a path along the Pacific Ocean characterized by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Its length is approximately 40,000 kilometers (24,900 miles). It traces boundaries between several tectonic plates-including the Pacific, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Indian-Australian, Nazca, North American, and Philippine Plates.

Seventy-five percent of Earth's volcanoes-more than 450 volcanoes-are located along the Ring of Fire. Ninety percent of Earth's earthquakes occur along its path, including the planet's most violent and dramatic seismic events.

The abundance of volcanoes and earthquakes along the Ring of Fire is caused by the amount of movement of tectonic plates in the area. Along much of the Ring of Fire, plates overlap at convergent boundaries called subduction zones. That is, the plate that is underneath is pushed down, or subducted, by the plate above. As rock is subducted, it melts and becomes magma. The abundance of magma so near to Earth's surface gives rise to conditions ripe for volcanic activity. A significant exception is the border between the Pacific and North American Plates. This stretch of the Ring of Fire is a transform boundary, where plates move sideways past one another. This type of boundary generates a large number of earthquakes as tension in Earth's crust builds up and is released.

Media Credits

The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.

Director

Tyson Brown, National Geographic Society

Author

National Geographic Society

Production Managers

Gina Borgia, National Geographic Society

Jeanna Sullivan, National Geographic Society

Program Specialists

Sarah Appleton, National Geographic Society, National Geographic Society

Margot Willis, National Geographic Society

other

Last Updated

October 19, 2023

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The Ring of Fire, also referred to as the Circum-Pacific Belt, is a path along the Pacific Ocean characterized by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. The majority of Earth's volcanoes and earthquakes take place along the Ring of Fire.

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A-level - Ecosystems Under Stress, Coral Reefs

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A-level - Ecosystems Under Stress, Coral Reefs

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The Line

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In what could be the modern worlds boldest urban development, "The Line" seeks to redefine what it means to build a city. This project is the flagship model for the NEOM megacity [1] which will stretch across Saudi Arabia from the mountains of NEOM to the Red Sea. The concept imagines a giant city, costing $1 trillion to build, holding 9 million people. The structure will be 200m wide, 500m high and 170km long.[2] The Line is designed as two parallel buildings stretching 120km, clad in mirror, containing housing, recreational and business facilities. [3]

The Line, if successful, will revolutionise not only city planning and architecture, but also net zero ambitions for the nation. The city will have no roads, cars or emissions and will run on 100% renewable energy. 95% of the land included in the plans will be preserved for nature. The health and well-being of residents will be prioritised in the city planning. Everyone will have access to all daily essentials within a five-minute walk. A high-speed rail - with an end-to-end transit time of the entire city in just 20 minutes will enable larger journeys.[4]

Aims of The Line

This "one building city"[5] seeks to solve problems of the well-being of city residents, sustainability, economic instability, access to nature and the environmental impact of city sprawl.

As part of the larger NEOM urban mega-projec t, The Line will be a hub of renewable energy generation. Energy produced by and used in the development will be derived from natural resources including wind, solar and green hydrogen facilities, as well as providing a research and development site for new technologies to facilitate the transition to a low-carbon energy system.[6] Developers have released plans to develop "the world's largest green hydrogen project" at NEOM, through a $5 billion endeavour to produce 650 tonnes of the fuel a day by 2025, which will be available for global export in the form of ammonia.

The development is part of the Saudi rebrand plan to market the areas travel hotspots and reshape the kingdom's economy. Designers hope to attract 100 million annual visitors, boosting the local economy by billions of dollars. [7] Its location was in part selected to attract global investment with its proximity to existing commercial routes. Around 13% of the world's trade passes through the Red Sea, and around 40% of the world is fewer than six hours away by air.[8]

The progressive design will offer residents access to nature in a way that older cities cannot. The design of The Line focuses on layering its functions vertically to minimise city sprawl. Diverse open spaces will be suspended on multiple levels to allow all residents access within a two-minute walk of their living space. The Line will also provide views of the surrounding natural landscape, mountains and sky with the reduced infrastructure footprint limiting the possibility of future urban sprawl.[9] This feeling of being close to nature will be enhanced by the city's zero-carbon functionality. Pollution-producing infrastructure will be eliminated and the integration of nature and open spaces throughout will serve an important role in enhancing air quality. The microclimatic spaces supporting the areas for nature will be achieved through the environmental designs allowing for an optimal balance of sunlight, shade and natural ventilation.

Challenges and Criticisms of The Line

Saudi Arabia's Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, who is an avid supporter of the project, has been plagued with accusations of human rights violations. In March 2022, 81 men were executed in the largest mass execution in decades. A US intelligence report revealed that bin Salman approved the operation to capture the journalist Jamal Khashoggi though this has been denied. While the Saudi government has introduced periodic labour reforms, their limited nature and lax enforcement have seen exploitative and dangerous practices continue for the migrant worker population[10].

There are concerns about the previous use of the land. The Saudi government has been accused of forcibly displacing members of the Howeitat tribe to make way for The Line. At least 47 members of the tribe have been arrested or detained for resisting eviction. Five have also been sentenced to death, according to a report by the UK-based ALQST rights group.[11]

The design of the city hinders active and direct mobility. Most of the city will only be reachable via the planned public transport, making travel times a significant problem. [12] Although transport will be available, the convenience of cars in other cities will be difficult for group travel infrastructure to match. [13]

Finally, the claims of The Line running sustainably ignore the vast energy and resources used in the initial construction. [14] Much of the investment for the construction of The Line also comes from profits from the fossil fuel industry. [15] The Line has been perceived by some as a smokescreen to signal climate action while the nation continues increasing fossil fuel production.

Conclusion

Despite challenges, construction of this innovative development has already begun with recent images showing construction of buildings and mass excavation. [16] The Line presents a revolutionary perspective on urban design and living. The project will enable technological development thanks to the integration of AI to design and monitor the cities infrastructure. [17] Much of its design is focused on achieving net zero and providing new and innovative ways to maintain urban living.

To learn more about the complexity and challenges of the global energy transition which this project is part of, take a look at our Global Energy Transition course or our more advanced Net Zero Consultant Expert Certificate Pathway.

[1] https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/saudi-arabia-neom-line-satellite-images-progress-construction

[2] https://www.forbes.com/sites/bradtempleton/2023/06/21/saudi-arabias-neom-the-line-choses-that-shape-due-to-20th-century-train-thinking/?sh=3bf4d05e385a

[3] https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/saudi-arabia-neom-line-satellite-images-progress-construction

[4] https://www.neom.com/en-us/regions/theline

[5] https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/saudi-arabia-the-line-city-scli-intl/index.html

[6] https://www.oilandgasmiddleeast.com/news/saudi-arabias-futuristic-emissions-free-city-the-line-5-facts-you-need-to-know

[7] https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/saudi-arabia-the-line-city-scli-intl/index.html

[8] https://www.arabnews.com/node/2129481/saudi-arabia

[9] https://www.neom.com/en-us/regions/theline

[10] https://edition.cnn.com/style/article/saudi-arabia-the-line-city-scli-intl/index.html

[11] https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/saudi-arabia-neom-line-satellite-images-progress-construction

[12] https://www.globalconstructionreview.com/why-saudi-arabias-the-line-is-not-a-revolution-in-urban-living/

[13] https://www.forbes.com/sites/bradtempleton/2023/06/21/saudi-arabias-neom-the-line-choses-that-shape-due-to-20th-century-train-thinking/?sh=3bf4d05e385a

[14] https://www.globalconstructionreview.com/why-saudi-arabias-the-line-is-not-a-revolution-in-urban-living/

[15] https://brownpoliticalreview.org/2022/12/the-line-a-smokescreen-for-repression-in-saudi-arabia/

[16] https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/saudi-arabia-neom-line-satellite-images-progress-construction

[17] https://www.arabnews.com/node/2129481/saudi-arabia

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The Line: Saudi Arabia's Sustainable Future - The Renewable Energy Institute

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In what could be the modern worlds boldest urban development, "The Line" seeks to redefine what it means to build a city.

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Year 11 - Natural Hazards, Nepal earthquake

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Year 11 - Natural Hazards, Nepal earthquake

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Nepal earthquake of 2015, severe earthquake that struck near the city of Kathmandu in central Nepal on April 25, 2015. About 9,000 people were killed, many thousands more were injured, and more than 600,000 structures in Kathmandu and other nearby towns were either damaged or destroyed. The earthquake was felt throughout central and eastern Nepal, much of the Ganges River plain in northern India, and northwestern Bangladesh, as well as in the southern parts of the Plateau of Tibet and western Bhutan.

The initial shock, which registered a moment magnitude of 7.8, struck shortly before noon local time (about 06:11 am Greenwich Mean Time). Its epicentre was about 21 miles (34 km) east-southeast of Lamjung and 48 miles (77 km) northwest of Kathmandu, and its focus was 9.3 miles (about 15 km) underground. Two large aftershocks, with magnitudes 6.6 and 6.7, shook the region within one day of the main quake, and several dozen smaller aftershocks occurred in the region during the succeeding days. On May 12 a magnitude-7.3 aftershock struck some 76 km (47 miles) east-northeast of Kathmandu, killing more than 100 people and injuring nearly 1,900.

The earthquake and its aftershocks were the result of thrust faulting (i.e., compression-driven fracturing) in the Indus-Yarlung suture zone, a thin east-west region spanning roughly the length of the Himalayan ranges. The earthquake relieved compressional pressure between the Eurasian tectonic plate and the Indian section of the Indo-Australian Plate, which subducts (underthrusts) the Eurasian Plate. Subduction in the Himalayas occurs at an average rate of 1.6-2 inches (4-5 cm) annually. Such tectonic activity adds more than 0.4 inch (1 cm) to the height of the Himalayan mountains every year.

The Himalayan region is one of the most seismically active in the world, but large earthquakes have occurred there infrequently. Before the 2015 temblor, the most recent large earthquake (that is, magnitude 6.0 or above) took place in 1988. That magnitude-6.9 event resulted in the deaths of 1,500 people. A magnitude-8.0 earthquake in 1934, however, killed approximately 10,600 people.

Initial reports of casualties following the early-morning earthquake put the death toll in the hundreds, but, as the day wore on, reports had the total number of fatalities surpassing 1,000 and nearing 1,900 by the end of the day. Within two weeks after the main quake occurred, rescue teams had reached all the remote villages in the earthquake zone, and a more-accurate picture of the earthquake's human cost emerged. The deaths of approximately 9,000 people (which included fatalities in nearby parts of India, China, and Bangladesh) were confirmed, with nearly 16,800 injured and some 2.8 million people displaced by the earthquake. One United Nations (UN) report mentioned that more than eight million people (more than one-fourth of Nepal's population) were affected by the event and its aftermath.

The earthquake produced landslides that devastated rural villages and some of the most densely populated parts of the city of Kathmandu. Initial damage estimates ranged from $5 billion to $10 billion. Inside Kathmandu, bricks and other debris from collapsed and partially collapsed buildings, which included parts of the famous Taleju Temple and the entire nine-story Dharahara Tower, filled the streets. The earthquake also triggered an avalanche on Mount Everest that killed at least 19 climbers and stranded hundreds more at Everest Base Camp and at camps higher up the mountain. Those at the high camps were soon airlifted to Base Camp, and all the climbers either hiked off the mountain or were flown out to other locations.

Immediately after the quake, the Nepalese government declared a state of emergency, and soon nearly the entire Nepalese army was assisting in rescue and recovery work. Nepal also called on the international community for aid. The UN quickly established the "Nepal Earthquake 2015 Flash Appeal" fund, whose goal was to raise an estimated $415 million for Nepal's earthquake relief. By some two weeks after the earthquake, more than $330 million had been either provided directly or pledged.

India, China, and several other countries quickly responded by sending in aid and rescue teams. The delivery of relief services to the people in need during the first few days after the earthquake occurred, however, was complicated by the remoteness of many villages from the existing transportation network, congestion at Kathmandu's international airport, and a shortage of heavy trucks, helicopters, and other vehicles capable of transporting supplies. In addition, earthquake debris-along with "tent cities" erected in streets and other open areas by Kathmandu residents who feared going back to their homes-contributed to making many of the city's streets virtually impassable, hampering efforts by rescuers to reach people still trapped in the rubble. The debris was gradually cleared.

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Nepal earthquake of 2015 | Magnitude, Death Toll, Aftermath, & Facts

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Nepal earthquake of 2015, severe earthquake that struck near Kathmandu in central Nepal on April 25, 2015. About 9,000 people were killed, many thousands more were injured, and more than 600,000 structures in Kathmandu and other nearby towns were either damaged or destroyed.

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Year 11 - Natural Hazards, Amatrice earthquake

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Year 11 - Natural Hazards, Amatrice earthquake

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On August 23, 2016, a magnitude 6.2 earthquake struck Amatrice in central Italy. NASA, along with its domestic and international partners, contributed observations and expertise to the ongoing response. The magnitude of the earthquake has resulted in widespread building damage to several towns throughout the region. This earthquake was the strongest in that area since the 2009 earthquake that destroyed the city of L'Aquila.

Scientists with the Advanced Rapid Imaging and Analysis (ARIA) project, a collaboration between NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, California, and the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, were an integral part of NASA's support to the earthquake response.

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Amatrice Italy Earthquake 2016 | NASA Applied Sciences

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On August 23, 2016, a magnitude 6.2 earthquake struck Amatrice in central Italy. NASA, along with its domestic and international partners, contributed observations and expertise to the ongoing response.

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British Deciduous Woodland (Epping Forest) 1 Flashcards by Jayden Endean | Brainscape

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Study British Deciduous Woodland (Epping Forest) 1 flashcards from Jayden Endean's class online, or in Brainscape's iPhone or Android app. ✓ Learn faster with spaced repetition.

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Malayan Rainforest Station, Kampung Merapuh Lama, Kuala Lipis, Pahang, Malaysia

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Year 10 - Living World, Malaysian Rainforest

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Year 10 - Living World, Malaysian Rainforest

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Year 10 - Living world, Thar Desert, Rajasthan

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Year 10 - Living world, Thar Desert, Rajasthan

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When you think about hot deserts, what's the first image that likely comes to mind? Perhaps it's the Dubai in the United Arab Emirates or the pyramids in Egypt. Beyond these two iconic points of reference, you probably conceptualize hot deserts as expansive areas of sand and nothing more. However, as you will learn in this explanation, other hot desert areas in the world have provided development opportunities.

Thar Desert case study map

The Thar Desert, also called the Great Indian Desert is located in the northwestern region of the Indian Subcontinent on the border between India and Pakistan- 85% is located in India and 15% in Pakistan. In India, most of the Thar Desert is located in the northwestern state of Rajasthan.

Thar Desert case study facts

This is India's only desert (though there are smaller deserts within the Thar desert, such as the GreatRann of Kutch.) The Thar covers an area of about 77,000 square miles (200,000 square kilometres) and is the 17th largest desert in the world and the 9th largest hot desert. Let's take a look at some more Thar desert facts.

Thar Desert climate

In the summer, the Thar Desert experiences very high temperatures during the day, but the nights are cool. Daytime temperatures can get up to 50 oC, while at night, temperatures average between 24-26 oC. The hottest months are June and July. By contrast, in the winter season, the days are warm, but the nights are freezing. During this time the nighttime temperatures can be as low as 4-5 o C. January and December are the coldest months.

The Thar Desert gets very little rainfall- less than 10 inches/ 250mm annually. Rain is also very seasonal, with most of it occurring in December and January.

Thar Desert vegetation

The vegetation includes both perennial and ephemeral plants.

A perennial plant survives for several years.

An ephemeral plant has a short life span.

Perennial plants have adapted to extremely low water conditions in the desert. They are usually short, prickly shrubs such as cacti or babool. In oases, where there is more water and the soil is fertile date palms can be found. Ephemerals bloom and bear fruits during the short rains and then lie dormant until the next time it rains. Ephemerals include bekario.

Thar Desert population

Despite its extreme climate, the Thar Desert has a total population of about 16.6 million people. It is also the most densely populated hot desert in the world, with a population density of 83 persons per square kilometre. The majority of the population here is involved in animal husbandry.

Compare this with the Sahara Desert, the world's largest hot desert, which has a population density of less than 1 person per square kilometre.

Thar Desert case study opportunities

Regardless of the conditions, there have been a number of development opportunities, which have caused the population to grow continuously. Let's look at some of these opportunities.

Mining in the Thar Desert

The state of Rajasthan is mineral-rich, and the Thar Desert is no exception. The area is mined for a variety of minerals. These included gypsum for use as plaster in construction; feldspar, which is used for ceramics; phosphorite, used for making fertilizer and kaolin, which is used as a whitener when making paper. In addition, the limestone found here is the main source of India's steel industry. It is also used for cement. Marble mined in the Thar Desert is also used in construction.

Energy in the Thar Desert

The Thar Desert is a source of both renewable and non-renewable energy resources. For renewable energy, both solar and wind power are cultivated here. On the outskirts of the city of Jaisalmer, 75 turbines generate 60 MW of energy (enough to power thousands of homes.) The Thar Desert is perfect for wind farms because there are large expanses of open space, strong reliable winds and few people. Similarly, in Bhaleri, solar energy is used to power the desalination plant. There is the potential for further expansion of solar generation.

The desalination plant converts salt water to potable (drinkable) water.

Farming in the Thar Desert

Both subsistence and commercial arable farming are practised. The majority of farming is subsistence farming done by farmers to feed their families. If there is any extra, it is sold at the local markets. Subsistence agriculture here includes animal rearing.

Commercial arable farming is also present in the Thar Desert. The development of this type of farming was facilitated by the Indira Gandhi Canal, which allowed for the irrigation of 1351 square miles (3500 square km) of land. Consequently, wheat and cotton are widely grown in the Thar Desert. The canal also provides drinking water.

The Indira Gandhi Canal was built in 1958 and is 404 miles/ 650km long, making it India's longest canal. It was initially called the Rajasthan Canal but was renamed in November 1984 after the assassination of then-Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. The canal begins in the Harike Barragenear to the confluence of the Satluj and Beas Rivers in the state of Punjab and flows south-westerly into the Thar Desert.

Tourism in the Thar Desert

Tourism is important for income and job creation in the Thar Desert. Over the years, it has become a popular tourist destination. Activities here include safaris and camel rides, amongst others. Tourists also frequent the Thar Desert National Park which is home to a variety of exotic animals such as the desert fox, the Bengal fox and the great Indian bustard. Furthermore, Jaisalmer, the largest settlement in the Thar Desert, is known as the "Golden City". People visit it to experience true Rajasthani culture as well as for its famous dunes and fort, which was built in 1156.

Thar Desert case study challenges

With opportunities often come challenges and the Thar Desert is no different. Read on to learn about some of the challenges in the Thar Desert.

Water supply

Being a desert, it must not be surprising that water is an issue. Besides the fact that rainfall is very low, evaporation rates are also very high, thereby limiting water supplies. Water is essential to the activities that create income in the Thar Desert. Hence, water needs to be sustainably managed. There are parts of the desert which have experienced waterlogging due to over-irrigation. This is problematic because when the extra water evaporates, it causes the salination of that area which makes it difficult for crop-growing. There are also sections which have experienced a fall in the water table due to the increasing water demand.

Extreme temperatures

As stated previously, the temperature can reach up to 50 o C in the summer. This makes it difficult for miners, farmers and tour guides to work outside in the extreme heat. In addition, the heat contributes to high rates of evaporation which causes water shortages. Climate change will increase these effects.

Inaccessibility

Recall that the Thar Desert is 77,000 square miles (200,000 square kilometres) in size. Large portions of it are inaccessible because of a poor road network and challenging environmental conditions. The road infrastructure that is present is often impacted by the desert's conditions. For instance, outside of Jaisalmer, the asphalt melts and sand often blows over the roads. Lack of access increases inequality in society.

Thar Desert case study desertification

Desertification is happening in the Thar Desert. The desert is expanding rapidly towards the east because of the migration of people, the changes in rainfall patterns and the spread of sand dunes. Climate change is also a contributing factor. Over-exploitation of resources has resulted in the removal of vegetation cover which causes land degradation. The loss of the Aravali Hills due to unregulated mining is also expected to contribute to the eastward movement, as the hills act as a natural buffer between the desert and the more fertile land.

The impacts and implications of desertification are far-reaching. The sand covers the fertile soil and thereby affects food production. Desertification also causes water sources to dry up. As a result, populations will move to find more hospitable areas in which to live. This movement can cause the spread of diseases. Lack of water can also increase diseases because of poor hygiene. Respiratory illnesses caused by the dust in new areas also occur. Finally, with desertification, there comes the threat of an increase in malnutrition.

To learn more about this process, read our explanation on Desertification.

Thar Desert Case Study - Key takeaways

The Thar Desert is located mainly in the state of Rajasthan in northwest India.

It is the most densely populated hot desert in the world.

Despite its arid conditions, a number of development opportunities have been created in the Thar desert, such as mining, energy exploitation, farming and tourism.

Along with opportunities have come challenges in the form of low water supply, extreme heat and inaccessibility.

Desertification continues to happen in the Thar Desert, which is causing its eastward expansion.

References

Fig. 1 - location of the Thar desert in India (coloured in the darker shade of orange) (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:India_Thar_locator_map.svg) by Planemad (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Planemad) Licensed by CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en)

Fig. 2 - example of perennial vegetation in the Thar Desert (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:D%C3%A9sert_du_Thar-V%C3%A9g%C3%A9tation.jpg) by Ji-Elle (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Ji-Elle) Licensed by CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en)

Fig. 3 - wind turbines near Jaisalmer, Thar Desert (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Turbines-thar-india.jpg) by nomo/michael hoefner (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Nomo) Licensed by CC BY-SA 2.5 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/deed.en)

Fig. 4 - a section of the Indira Gandhi Canal in Rajasthan (https://wordpress.org/openverse/image/db07a98c-45f9-4e95-a54d-781833f798ae) by public.resource.org (https://www.flickr.com/photos/8212496@N06) Licensed by CC BY 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/)

Fig. 6 - Thar Desert road being covered by sand (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Desert_road,_Thar_desert_hari.jpg) by Hriprsd (https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Hriprsd&action=edit&redlink=1) Licensed by CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en)

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Thar Desert Case Study: ✓ Opportunities ✓ Challenges ✓ Desertification ✓ Facts ✓ Map ✓ StudySmarter Original

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A-level - Ecosystems, Serengeti, Tanzania

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A-level - Ecosystems, Serengeti, Tanzania

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https://letstalkscience.ca/educational-resources/backgrounders/savanna-biome

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A-level - Water and Carbon Cycle, River Exe regime

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A-level - Water and Carbon Cycle, River Exe regime

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A-level - Water & Carbon Cycle, Exmoor National Park

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A-level - Water & Carbon Cycle, Exmoor National Park

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A-level - Ecosystems Under Stress/Water & Carbon, Amazon

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A-level - Ecosystems Under Stress/Water & Carbon, Amazon

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Unsustainable industrial and agricultural development, however, has severely degraded the health of the world's rainforests. Citizens, governments, intergovernmental organizations, and conservation groups are working together to protect these invaluable but fragile ecosystems.
Rainforest Structure
In the Amazon rainforest, the towering trees of the emergent layer include the Brazil nut tree ( Bertholletia excelsa) and the kapok tree ( Ceiba pentandra). The Brazil nut tree, a vulnerable species, can live up to 1,000 years in undisturbed rainforest habitats. Unlike many rainforest species, both the Brazil nut tree and the kapok tree are deciduous-they shed their leaves during the dry season.

Animals often maneuver through the emergent layer's unstable topmost branches by flying or gliding. Animals that can't fly or glide are usually quite small-they need to be light enough to be supported by a tree's slender uppermost layers.

The animals living in the emergent layer of the Amazon rainforest include birds, bats, gliders, and butterflies. Large raptors, such as white-tailed hawks ( Geranoaetus albicaudatus) and harpy eagles ( Harpia harpyja), are its top predators.

In rainforests on the island of New Guinea, pygmy gliders populate the emergent layer. Pygmy gliders ( Acrobates pygmaeus) are small rodents that get their name from the way flaps of skin between their legs allow them to glide from branch to branch.

Bats are the most diverse mammal species in most tropical rainforests, and they regularly fly throughout the emergent, canopy, and understory layers. For instance, one of the world's largest species of bat, the Madagascan flying fox ( Pteropus rufus)-found on the African island of Madagascar-is an important pollinator that mainly feeds on juice from fruit, but will chew flowers for their nectar.
Canopy Layer
Beneath the emergent layer is the canopy, a deep layer of vegetation roughly six meters (20 feet) thick. The canopy's dense network of leaves and branches forms a roof over the two remaining layers.

The canopy blocks winds, rainfall, and sunlight, creating a humid, still, and dark environment below. Trees have adapted to this damp environment by producing glossy leaves with pointed tips that repel water.

With so much food available, more animals live in the canopy than any other layer in the rainforest. The dense vegetation dulls sound, so many-but not all-canopy dwellers are notable for their shrill or frequent vocalizing. In the Amazon rainforest, canopy fruit is snatched up in the large beaks of screeching scarlet macaws ( Ara macao) and keel-billed toucans ( Ramphastos sulfuratus), and picked by barking spider monkeys and howler monkeys. The silent two-toed sloth chews on the leaves, shoots, and fruit in the canopy.

Thousands and thousands of insect species can also be found in the canopy, from bees to beetles, borers to butterflies. Many of these insects are the principal diet of the canopy's reptiles, including the "flying" draco lizards of Southeast Asia.
Understory Layer
Located several meters below the canopy, the understory is an even darker, stiller, and more humid environment. Plants here, such as palms and philodendrons, are much shorter and have larger leaves than plants that dominate the canopy. Understory plants' large leaves catch the minimal sunlight reaching beyond the dense canopy.

Understory plants often produce flowers that are large and easy to see, such as Heliconia, native to the Americas and the South Pacific. Others have a strong smell, such as orchids. These features attract pollinators even in the understory's low-light conditions.

Animals call the understory home for a variety of reasons. Many take advantage of the dimly lit environment for camouflage. The spots on a jaguar ( Panthera onca), which are found in the rainforests of Central and South America, may be mistaken for leaves or flecks of sunlight, for instance. The green mamba, one of the deadliest snakes in the world, blends in with foliage as it slithers up branches in the Congo rainforest. Many bats, birds, and insects prefer the open airspace the understory offers. Amphibians, such as dazzlingly colored tree frogs, thrive in the humidity because it keeps their skin moist.

Central Africa's tropical rainforest canopies and understories are home to some of the most endangered and familiar rainforest animals-such as forest elephants, pythons, antelopes, and gorillas. Gorillas, a critically endangered genus of primate, are crucial for seed dispersal. Gorillas are herbivores that move throughout the dark, dense rainforest as well as more sun-dappled swamps and jungles. Their droppings disperse seeds in these sunny areas where new trees and shrubs can take root. In this way, gorillas are keystone species in many African rainforest ecosystems.
Forest Floor Layer
The forest floor is the darkest of all rainforest layers, making it extremely difficult for plants to grow. Leaves that fall to the forest floor decay quickly.

Decomposers, such as termites, slugs, scorpions, worms, and fungi, thrive on the forest floor. Organic matter falls from trees and plants, and these organisms break down the decaying material into nutrients. The shallow roots of rainforest trees absorb these nutrients, and dozens of predators consume the decomposers!

Animals such as wild pigs ( Sus scrofa), armadillos, and anteaters forage in the decomposing brush for these tasty insects, roots and tubers of the South American rainforest. Even larger predators, including leopards ( Panthera pardus), skulk in the darkness to surprise their prey. Smaller rodents, such as rats and lowland pacas (a type of striped rodent indigenous to Central and South America), hide from predators beneath the shallow roots of trees that dominate the canopy and emergent layer.

Rivers that run through some tropical rainforests create unusual freshwater habitats on the forest floor. The Amazon River, for instance, is home to the boto ( Inia geoffrensis), or pink river dolphin, one of the few freshwater dolphin species in the world. The Amazon is also home to black caimans ( Melanosuchus niger), large reptiles related to alligators, while the Congo River is home to the caimans' crocodilian cousin, the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus).

Types of Rainforests
Tropical Rainforests
Tropical rainforests are mainly located between the latitudes of 23.5°N (the Tropic of Cancer) and 23.5°S (the Tropic of Capricorn)-the tropics. Tropical rainforests are found in Central and South America, western and central Africa, western India, Southeast Asia, the island of New Guinea, and Australia.

Such ample sunlight and moisture are the essential building blocks for tropical rainforests' diverse flora and fauna. Roughly half of the world's species can be found here, with an estimated 40 to 100 or more different species of trees present in each hectare.

Tropical rainforests are the most biologically diverse terrestrial ecosystems in the world. The Amazon rainforest is the world's largest tropical rainforest. It is home to around 40,000 plant species, nearly 1,300 bird species, 3,000 types of fish, 427 species of mammals, and 2.5 million different insects. Red-bellied piranhas ( Pygocentrus nattereri) and pink river dolphins swim its waters. Jewel-toned parrots squawk and fly through its trees. Poison dart frogs warn off predators with their bright colors. Capuchin and spider monkeys swing and scamper through the branches of the rainforest's estimated 400 billion trees. Millions of mushrooms and other fungi decompose dead and dying plant material, recycling nutrients to the soil and organisms in the understory. The Amazon rainforest is truly an ecological kaleidoscope, full of colorful sights and sounds.
Temperate Rainforests
Temperate rainforests are located in the mid-latitudes, where temperatures are much more mild than the tropics. Temperate rainforests are found mostly in coastal, mountainous areas. These geographic conditions help create areas of high rainfall. Temperate rainforests can be found on the coasts of the Pacific Northwest in North America, Chile, the United Kingdom, Norway, Japan, New Zealand, and southern Australia.

As their name implies, temperate rainforests are much cooler than their tropical cousins, averaging between 10° and 21°C (50° and 70°F). They are also much less sunny and rainy, receiving anywhere between 150-500 centimeters (60-200 inches) of rain per year. Rainfall in these forests is produced by warm, moist air coming in from the coast and being trapped by nearby mountains.

This productivity allows many plant species to grow for incredibly long periods of time. Temperate rainforest trees such as the coast redwood in the U.S. state of California and the alerce in Chile are among the oldest and largest tree species in the world.

The animals of the temperate rainforest are mostly made up of large mammals and small birds, insects, and reptiles. These species vary widely between rainforests in different world regions. Bobcats ( Lynx rufus), mountain lions ( Puma concolor), and black bears ( Ursus americanus) are major predators in the rainforests of the Pacific Northwest. In Australia, ground dwellers such as wallabies, bandicoots, and potoroos (small marsupials that are among Australia's most endangered animals) feast on the foods provided by the forest floor. Chile's rainforests are home to a number of unique birds such as the Magellanic woodpecker and the Juan Fernández firecrown, a hummingbird species that has a crown of color-changing feathers.

People and the Rainforest

Rainforests have been home to thriving, complex communities for thousands of years. For instance, unique rainforest ecosystems have influenced the diet of cultures from Africa to the Pacific Northwest.

The Mbuti, a community indigenous to the Ituri rainforest in Central Africa, have traditionally been hunter-gatherers. Their diet consists of plants and animals from every layer of the rainforest.

From the forest floor, the Mbuti hunt fish and crabs from the Ituri River (a tributary of the Congo), as well as gather berries from low-lying shrubs. The giant forest hog, a species of wild boar, is also frequently targeted by Mbuti hunters, although this species is hunted for sale more often than food. From the understory, the Mbuti may gather honey from bee hives, or hunt monkeys. From the canopy and emergent layers, Mbuti hunters may set nets or traps for birds.

Although they are a historically nomadic society, agriculture has become a way of life for many Mbuti communities today as they trade and barter with neighboring agricultural groups such as the Bantu for crops such as manioc, nuts, rice, and plantains.

The temperate rainforest of the northwest coast of North America is the home of the Tlingit. The Tlingit enjoy a diverse diet, relying on both marine and freshwater species, as well as game from inland forests.

Due to bountiful Pacific inlets, rivers, and streams, the traditional Tlingit diet consists of a wide variety of aquatic life: crab, shrimp, clams, oysters, seals, and fish such as herring, halibut, and, crucially, salmon. Kelps and other seaweeds can be harvested and eaten in soups or dried. One familiar Tlingit saying is "When the tide is out, our table is set."

In more inland areas, historic Tlingit hunters may have targeted deer, elk, rabbit, and mountain goats. Plants gathered or harvested include berries, nuts, and wild celery.

The Yanomami are a people and culture native to the northern Amazon rainforest, spanning the border between Venezuela and Brazil. Like the Chimbu, the Yanomami practice both hunting and shifting-cultivation agriculture.

Game hunted by the Yanomami include deer, tapirs (an animal similar to a pig), monkeys, birds, and armadillos. The Yanomami have hunting dogs to help them search the understory and forest floor for game.
Benefits of Rainforests Ecological Well-Being
Rainforests are critically important to the well-being of our planet. Tropical rainforests encompass approximately 1.2 billion hectares (3 billion acres) of vegetation and are sometimes described as the Earth's thermostat.

Rainforests also help maintain the world's water cycle. More than 50% of precipitation striking a rainforest is returned to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration, helping regulate healthy rainfall around the planet. Rainforests also store a considerable percentage of the world's freshwater, with the Amazon Basin alone storing one-fifth.
Human Well-Being
Rainforests provide us with many products that we use every day. Tropical woods such as teak, balsa, rosewood, and mahogany are used in flooring, doors, windows, boatbuilding, and cabinetry. Fibers such as raffia, bamboo, kapok, and rattan are used to make furniture, baskets, insulation, and cord. Cinnamon, vanilla, nutmeg, and ginger are just a few spices of the rainforest. The ecosystem supports fruits including bananas, papayas, mangos, cocoa and coffee beans.

Rainforests also provide us with many medicinal products. According to the U.S. National Cancer Institute, 70% of plants useful in the treatment of cancer are found only in rainforests. Rainforest plants are also used in the creation of muscle relaxants, steroids, and insecticides. They are used to treat asthma, arthritis, malaria, heart disease, and pneumonia. The importance of rainforest species in public health is even more incredible considering that less than one percent of rainforest species have been analyzed for their medicinal value.

Even rainforest fungi can contribute to humanity's well-being. A mushroom discovered in the tropical rainforest of Ecuador, for example, is capable of consuming polyurethane-a hard, durable type of plastic used in everything from garden hoses to carpets to shoes. The fungi can even consume the plastic in an oxygen-free environment, leading many environmentalists and businesses to invest in research to investigate if the fungi can help reduce waste in urban landfills.

Threats to Rainforests

Rainforests are disappearing at an alarmingly fast pace, largely due to human development over the past few centuries. Once covering 14% of land on Earth, rainforests now make up only 6%. Since 1947, the total area of tropical rainforests has probably been reduced by more than half, to about 6.2 to 7.8 million square kilometers (3 million square miles).

Such rapid habitat loss is due to the fact that 40 hectares (100 acres) of rainforest are cleared every minute for agricultural and industrial development. In the Pacific Northwest's rainforests, logging companies cut down trees for timber while paper industries use the wood for pulp. In the Amazon rainforest, large-scale agricultural industries, such as cattle ranching, clear huge tracts of forests for arable land. In the Congo rainforest, roads and other infrastructure development have reduced habitat and cut off migration corridors for many rainforest species. Throughout both the Amazon and Congo, mining and logging operations clear-cut to build roads and dig mines. Some rainforests are threatened by massive hydroelectric power projects, where dams flood acres of land. Development is encroaching on rainforest habitats from all sides.

Rainforest Conservation

Many individuals, communities, governments, intergovernmental organizations, and conservation groups are taking innovative approaches to protect threatened rainforest habitats.

Intergovernmental groups address rainforest conservation at a global scale. The United Nations' REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation) Program, for example, offers financial incentives for reducing carbon emissions created by deforestation to 58 member countries. The Democratic Republic of the Congo used REDD funds to create an online National Forest Monitoring System that tracks and maps data on logging concessions, deforestation in protected areas, and national forestry sector measures. REDD funds were also used to investigate best practices in solving land disputes in Cambodia, which lacks proper forest zoning and boundary enforcement.

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A rainforest is an area of tall trees and a high amount of rainfall.

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A-level - Ecosystems Under Stress, Richmond Park, Richmond

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A-level - Ecosystems Under Stress, Richmond Park, Richmond

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A-level - Resource Security, Water Stress UK

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A-level - Resource Security, Water Stress UK

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Water is essential for life but regional water resources are under pressure and this will only increase with time

This consultation shares information on predicted future water supply shortages and the choices that need to be made now to provide a resilient water supply for future generations

Public consultation opens on Tuesday, 13 December 2022, and ends on Tuesday, 21 March 2023.

Thames Water is holding a public consultation on a proposed strategic plan for future water supply, the draft Water Resources Management Plan 2024, which opens today. The draft plan sets out the 'big picture' on how Thames Water intends to plan ahead for the next 50 years. It explains how the water company will provide a secure and sustainable water supply for the increasing population in the South East region; protect against the growing risk of drought and water shortages; and, improve the environment. The consultation will run for fourteen weeks until 21 March 2023.

Substantial water shortages face the whole of the South East of England. The extreme heat and lack of water we experienced this summer is a clear indication of climate emergency first-hand. The predicted regional water demand is set to increase, with the number of people living and working in London and the Thames Valley forecast to grow significantly. Every day, Thames Water currently supplies around 2.6 billion litres of water to customers across London and the Thames Valley. This is enough to fill 1,000 Olympic sized swimming pools. The company forecasts that it will need an extra 1 billion litres of water every day for customers by 2075 to accommodate climate change and population growth.

The draft plan - which proposes investment of up to £13 billion between 2025 and 2050 - sets out strategic options to build in future resilience for the benefit of customers, their children, grandchildren and the environment. It spells out the challenges faced and the planned actions to maintain the balance between water supply and demand.

Even though the plan requires an ambitious reduction in leakage, and for customers to help reduce consumption, new sources of water still need to be found. This plan considers options, including a new abstraction in Teddington supported by water recycling, a new reservoir in Oxfordshire, and schemes to share water across the South East including a new water transfer from the River Severn.

Across the region more than 1,400 options were considered to plug the shortfall between the amount of water in the region and the amount of water needed. Each option was assessed on water output, impact on the environment, carbon budget, delivery timeline and ability to build in future resilience.

Thames Water customers, community groups, businesses, academics, charities and other organisations are being invited to feedback on the draft Water Resources Management Plan. The consultation asks for feedback on the big decisions on the regional water challenges, including planning and building new water resources infrastructure that could take many years before they're ready to provide water.

Thames Water has developed its plan by working collaboratively with Water Resources South East (WRSE) and neighbouring water companies to coordinate a regional response. This collaborative approach has allowed Thames Water to look beyond its boundary and play its part in supporting the regional plan in order to deliver the most benefit across the South East for the long term.

Nevil Muncaster, Strategic Resources Director at Thames Water, said:

"Our plan sets out how we will meet the water resource challenge in the future through a combination of fixing leaks more rapidly, making the way that we use water more efficient and by investment in new infrastructure to meet future needs.

"Working together we can achieve this, and we call on government too, to recognise and support the urgent need for this nationally critical infrastructure as part of these plans. Projects like the Thames Tideway tunnel which is well on the way to delivering a long and lasting legacy for London and the Thames demonstrates that we have all the necessary skills to deliver major projects on time, to budget and with the community."

Over the next 14 weeks, consultation events for the public will be taking place across the region including community information events in Cirencester, Abingdon, Richmond and Steventon as well as briefings.

Consultation feedback received will be carefully considered by the company. In June 2023, it will be sent to the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs as part of Thames Water's submission to the Government for approval of the draft Water Resources Management Plan 2024.

To access the consultation please go to www.thames-wrmp.co.uk
Further information:
Thames Water will be hosting the following events to find out more information about the consultation:

Events will be hosted by a number of Thames Water employees and will run from 2pm - 8pm.

Thames Water will also host a series of pop-up events to support the consultation:

18 January 2023 - Paddington Station - 11am to 7pm

27 January 2023 - Reading, The Oracle Shopping Centre - 10am to 6pm

1 February 2023 - Oxford, Westgate Shopping Centre - 10am to 6pm

4 February 2023 - Swindon, The Brunel Shopping Centre - 10am to 6pm

Water Resources South East (WRSE) Plan and Consultation 2022/23
Over the past three years, under the umbrella of Water Resources South East (WRSE), Thames Water has been working to develop an overarching regional plan addressing our future water challenges. We've collaborated on this plan with our five neighbouring water companies in the South East as well as customers, stakeholders and other water-using sectors. We've ensured our draft Water Resources Management Plan 2024 reflects the wider WRSE regional plan, whilst at the same time focusing on our supply area only. You can find out more about WRSE and the regional plan here www.wrse.org.uk
Strategic Resource Options (SROs)
The draft plan includes the development of several new strategic resource options (SROs) that will serve the whole region. The SROs will deliver a more secure, sustainable and resilient water supply network, billions of pounds of investment, greater protection against the changing climate, less water being taken from our rivers and waterways, increased biodiversity, new jobs and apprenticeships, new opportunities to enjoy nature. The five strategic resource options included in Thames Water's draft plan are a new river abstraction at Teddington; a new reservoir in Oxfordshire (SESRO); and three water transfers.

South East Strategic Reservoir Option (SESRO) - a new storage reservoir, would be built in the Upper Thames catchment, south west of Abingdon in Oxfordshire. The reservoir would be filled with water from the River Thames during periods of high river flow. When river levels drop or demand for water increases, water would be released back into the River Thames for re-abstraction downstream. This would help us protect supplies and manage future water quality issues created by a changing climate. It would also provide regional and local benefits, including environment and biodiversity improvements, public access and recreation, and mitigation of local flooding. This reservoir would supply water for Affinity Water, Southern Water and Thames Water customers. The regional-led work has shown that we need a reservoir of at least 100 Mm3. Planning consent for construction is planned by 2030 water would be available by 2040.

New river abstraction at Teddington - would be sited on the River Thames close to Teddington Weir. Abstracted water would be transferred via an existing underground tunnel to the Lee Valley reservoirs in North London. Highly treated recycled water would be conveyed by pipeline from Mogden sewage treatment works upstream of Teddington Weir to compensate for the additional water taken from the river to protect the environment and wildlife. Planning consent for construction is planned by 2030 water would be available by 2031.

The Severn to Thames Transfer (STT) - would transfer water from the North West and Midlands to the South East for use during a drought. This water would come from the River Severn itself, with Severn Trent Water and United Utilities providing additional sources of water if needed. The water would then be moved from the River Severn to the River Thames either by a new pipeline or by a combination of new pipeline and restoring the Cotswold canals. Ongoing work is being undertaken to enable the scheme to proceed if it's required. Planning consent for construction is planned by 2040 with water available from 2050 in a phased manner. The scheme would supply water for Affinity Water, Southern Water and Thames Water customers.

The Thames to Affinity Transfer (T2AT) - would move water by pipeline from the River Thames to Affinity Water once a new source of water (such as SESRO, STT or a new water recycling scheme in East London) has been developed. In the draft regional plan the construction would be in two phases, the first up to 2040, with water available once the reservoir in Oxfordshire (SESRO) is built. The second phase would be up to 2050.

The Thames to Southern Transfer (T2ST) - would move water by pipeline from the River Thames to Southern Water once a new source of water (either SESRO or STT) has been developed. In the draft regional plan the planning consent and construction would take place through 2040, with water available once the new water sources are available.

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South East England future water supply consultation launched | Newsroom | Thames Water

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Water is essential for life but regional water resources are under pressure and this will only increase with time This consultation shares information on predicted future water supply shortages and the choices that need to be made now to provide a resilient water supply for future generations Public consultation opens on Tuesday, 13 December 2022, and ends on Tuesday, 21 March 2023.

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A-level - Resource Security, Lesotho Highland Water Project

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A-level - Resource Security, Lesotho Highland Water Project

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A-level - Resource Security, Athabasca, AB, Canada

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A-level - Resource Security, Athabasca, AB, Canada

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Alberta, Canada’s oil sands is the world’s most destructive oil operation—and it’s growing

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Can Canada develop its climate leadership and its lucrative oil sands too?

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A-level Resource Security, Chuquicamata, Calama, Chile

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A-level Resource Security, Chuquicamata, Calama, Chile

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Disclaimer

Unsolicited emails and other information sent to Dentons will not be considered confidential, may be disclosed to others, may not receive a response, and do not create a lawyer-client relationship. If you are not already a client of Dentons, please do not send us any confidential information.

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Unsolicited emails and other information sent to Dentons will not be considered confidential, may be disclosed to others, may not receive a response, and do not create a lawyer-client relationship. If you are not already a client of Dentons, please do not send us any confidential information.

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A-level Coastal Systems and Processes, Odisha, India

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A-level Coastal Systems and Processes, Odisha, India

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https://pmt.physicsandmathstutor.com/download/Geography/GCSE/Notes/AQA/The-Changing-Economic-World/Case-Studies/Nigeria.pdf

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https://www.internetgeography.net/amatrice-earthquake-case-study/

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On 24 August 2016, a magnitude 6.2 struck central Italy, to the southwest of the town of Norcia. The 's epicenter was at a shallow depth of only 5.1 km. It was the strongest earthquake to hit Italy since the 2009 L'Aquila earthquake when over 300 people lost their lives in the earthquake measuring 6.3 on the Richter Scale.

The Amatrice earthquake was felt over 100 miles away in Rome. The town of Amatrice experienced a range of primary and secondary effects that had a range of social, economic and environmental impacts.

What caused the Amatrice earthquake?

Italy lies on the collision border of the Eurasian and Africa plate. As the result, Italy is riddled with faults. Two major fault lines are running through Italy, the north-south fault and the east-west fault. As a result of this, the country is being pulled and pushed in several directions. The Apennines, a mountain range that runs down the middle of Italy, is being stretched in a north-west direction at a rate of around 3 mm per year. Pressure builds along the fault and, when released, causes earthquakes.

What were the effects of the Amatrice earthquake?

The shallow depth of the earthquake, the focus was just 5.1km deep, led to severe damage on the surface, particularly in the towns of Amatrice, Accumoli and Arquata del Tronto. As the earthquake struck at 3.36 am, most people in the area were asleep in buildings that collapsed. It has been estimated 13,000 people experienced severe ground movement for around 10-20 seconds and more than 200,000 would have felt strong tremors. By 29 August 2016, there had been about 2,000 aftershocks, some as strong as magnitude 5.5.

It is also worth noting that Amatrice, which usually has a population of 2,500, was about to celebrate its fiftieth annual food festival, so there were additional visitors in the town at the time.

Primary Effects

The primary effects of the Amatrice earthquake include:

Two hundred ninety-nine people lost their lives, 400 were injured, and 4454 were made homeless.

293 historic buildings were damaged or destroyed including the Basilica of San Francesco in Amatrice

Over half the buildings in Amatrice were damaged or destroyed. Despite their reinforcements, 80 percent of the buildings in the old town were affected.

Although the government allocated €1 billion for building improvements since the 2009 L'Aquila earthquake, many properties did not meet seismic building standards. The uptake of the funding had been low.

Despite being restored in 2012, the school in Amatrice collapsed, indicating substandard building practices.

Secondary Effects

The secondary effects of the Amatrice earthquake include:

Landslides blocked roads, making access to the area difficult.

Local residents suffered psychological damage.

Individuals were reported to have been involved in looting.

Unsafe buildings led to the town centre being cordoned off. This had a negative impact on tourism.

Ninety percent of barns and stalls for sheep, goats, and cattle in the affected area were destroyed, alongside the mechanical milking systems. As a result, farmers struggled to milk by hand, leaving their cattle at risk of mastitis, an udder-tissue disease. Farmers struggled to make a living in the aftermath of the earthquake.

What were the responses to the Amatrice earthquake?

Immediate Responses

10,000 homeless people were accommodated in 58 tents.

Sports halls were converted to provide shelter and hotels on the Adriatic coasts were used to temporarily home people.

Many rescue workers arrived within an hour of the earthquake. 5000 soldiers, alpine guides, and the Italian Red Cross were involved in searching for survivors, providing food and water, and supplying tents. Seventy dog teams and twelve helicopters were involved in the rescue effort.

Six of the Vatican's 37 firefighters have traveled to Amatrice to help civil protection workers look for survivors.

A temporary hospital was set up and patients at Amazatrice hospital, which was severely damaged during the earthquake, were transferred to a nearby hospital in Rieti.

Appeals were made by the national blood donation service to ensure demand was met.

Safety check features were activated by Facebook so local people could inform family and friends they were safe.

Locals removed passwords from wi-fi at the request of the Italian Red Cross so rescue teams could communicate more effectively.

A €50 million emergency response was announced by the Italian Government. Taxes for residents were canceled and reconstruction work began immediately.

Long Term Responses

Students were educated in neighbouring schools while 12 classrooms were constructed in prefabricated buildings in Amatrice.

Six months following the earthquake, the government promised to move people from temporary camps into wooden houses.

The cost of rebuilding was reduced by tax incentives, allowing 65 percent of total renovation costs to be used as tax breaks.

Villages were rebuilt, with the building of the same character through a €42 million government initiative called 'Italian Homes'.

A year on, 2.4 million tons of debris and rubble remained in the areas affected by the earthquake.

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Amatrice Earthquake Case Study - Internet Geography

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On 24 August 2016, a magnitude 6.2 struck central Italy, to the southwest of the town of Norcia. The 's epicenter was at a shallow depth of only 5.1 km. It was the strongest earthquake to hit Italy since the 2009 L'Aquila earthquake when over 300 people lost their lives in the earthquake measuring 6.3 on the Richter Scale.

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Year 11 - Natural Hazards, Typhoon Haiyan Philippines 

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Year 11 - Natural Hazards, Typhoon Haiyan Philippines 

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Wakel Colony Wakil Colony Larkana, Pakistan

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Year 11 - Resource Management, Wakel River Basin Project

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Year 11 - Resource Management, Wakel River Basin Project

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Year 11 - Resource management, Lesotho Highland Water Project

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Year 11 - Resource management, Lesotho Highland Water Project

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Amazon Rainforest - Codajás, State of Amazonas, Brazil

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Year 10 - Living World - Amazon Rainforest

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Year 10 - Living World - Amazon Rainforest

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Year 10 - Living World, Svalbard Cold Environment

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Year 10 - Living World, Svalbard Cold Environment

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Year 10 - Rivers, Jubilee River Management

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Year 10 - Rivers, Jubilee River Management

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The Jubilee River is a flood relief channel on the River Thames. It was constructed to reduce the risk of flooding in Windsor and Eton by diverting water from the River Thames. It was funded by the Environmental Agency and cost £330 million. It opened in 2002, and at 11.17 kilometres long, it is the UK's largest artificial channel and was designed to look like a natural river with meanders and shallow reed beds. It has five weirs (dams) along its course.

Social Issues

As the discharge of the River Thames between Maidenhead and Eton is reduced during high flow conditions, wealthy properties in Maidenhead and Eton are protected. However, this is at the expense of less affluent areas downstream at Wraysbury, beyond the confluence of the Jubilee River and the River Thames beyond Eton.

The Jubilee River is not a fully navigable river, as was promised. Weirs disrupt those using the river for leisure along its course.

Economic Issues

At £330 million, it is one of the UK's most expensive flood defence schemes. It is one of four planned flood relief channels. However, the EA ran out of money to complete them all.

The weirs were damaged during floods in 2003, and their upkeep is expensive.

The flood relief scheme has transferred the problem of flooding downstream, where there was severe flooding in 2014. However, additional flood management is needed downstream.

Environmental Issues

Habitats located below the confluence of the Jubilee River and the River Thames were damaged following extensive flooding in 2014.

The concrete weirs look unattractive and spoil the natural environment.

Aquatic habitats are affected by algae that collect above the weirs.

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The Jubilee River is a flood relief channel on the River Thames. It was constructed to reduce the risk of flooding in Windsor and Eton by diverting water from the River Thames. It was funded by the Environmental Agency and cost £330 million.

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Year 10 - Coasts, Swanage Coastal landforms

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Year 10 - Coasts, Swanage Coastal landforms

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Year 9 - Resource Management, UK Resources, UK's biggest wind farm, Hornsea

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Year 9 - Resource Management, UK Resources, UK's biggest wind farm, Hornsea

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AQA Resource Management - Internet Geography

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AQA GCSE Geography - AQA Resource Management - resources to support teaching, learning and revision for Resource Management.

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Year 9 - Africa is not a country, Colonialism, Sierra Leone

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Year 9 - Africa is not a country, Colonialism, Sierra Leone

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Watch the video above and consider...

What do you see that matches your images and ideas of what Africa is like?

What is not part of your expectations? How does it challenge your ideas (or even prejudices) about Africa?

Now think more carefully about how you perceive the continent of Africa. Create a mind-map to summarise your ideas/images. You could use the diagram below as a starting point.

Study the images below and then complete the table at the bottom. Again consider which images challenge your ideas? Why?

Click on the table to open a copy in Google Docs,

In your own words, summarise the main point or points that Chimamanda makes in her talk.

How does this connect to how we might view people who live in LICs?

What can we do about this? What can we do ourselves to make sure we are fair when we think about people? How can we educate/challenge others?

Understand how environmental, economic and political challenges have restricted Africa's development.Each group will be given a topic to research and present to the rest of the group. You must think about why this "challenge" has restricted Africa's development.
You are going to think about some of the challenges that Africa has faced which have affected development.

You must include the following:
You should include:

Ideas of innovative solutions or ways to move past the problems

Click on the table below to open your own copy of the table. Use the information from your classmates' presentations to complete in detail.

​What are the key barriers to economic development in the continent of Africa? Explain using examples to support your argument. Suggest some strategies to overcome these barriers and possible sources of optimism for future African development.

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Watch the video above and consider... What do you see that matches your images and ideas of what Africa is like? What is not part of your expectations? How does it challenge your ideas (or even prejudices) about Africa? Now think more carefully about how you perceive the continent of Africa.

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Fast fashion is 'fast' in a number of senses: the changes in fashion are fast, the rate of production is fast; the customer's decision to purchase is fast; delivery is fast; and garments are worn fast - usually only a few times before being discarded.

The rise of fast fashion has had devastating consequences, from its reliance on plastic fabrics and its enormous carbon footprint to its erosion of workers' rights.

In this article we explain what we mean when we say 'fast fashion' and why it is so bad for people and the planet.

What is fast fashion?

In the last few decades, we have seen fashion trends changing more and more quickly. Pressures on workers to produce more and at lower prices have grown alongside pressures on consumers to turn to the newest trends.

Fast changing trends

At its heart, the fast fashion business model relies on consumers endlessly buying more clothes. Brands tempt consumers by offering ultra-cheap garments (for example, Missguided's £1 bikini) and ever-changing new ranges. At the time of writing, fast fashion brand Shein featured 21,139 clothes under the 'New in' section of its website.

Fashion brands have long used new styles and lower prices to attract customers, but previously brands would plan new ranges many months, even years, in advance. The pace of change was relatively slow and there were fewer products on offer. In comparison, fast fashion is focused on responding to ever-changing consumer tastes as quickly as possible.

For example, in the BBC's 'Breaking Fashion' show we see Manchester-based fast fashion company, In the Style, reproducing a bodysuit worn by Kylie Jenner. The company manages to have the piece designed, manufactured and on sale within 10 days of the piece first being worn publicly by the celebrity.

The rise of fast fashion is intertwined with social media and celebrity/influencer culture. A celebrity posts a photo wearing a new outfit, and their followers want it, so fast fashion brands rush to be the first to provide it. Fast fashion brands often target young people - so called Gen Zs -, who have been brought up amongst social media and influencer culture. In fact, a recent survey found that almost 75% of 18-24 year olds believe influencers can be held somewhat accountable for the rise in disposable fashion.

Of course, the flow of causality is not that simple: fast fashion brands are not simply reacting to consumer demand, they are also creating it. But the essential point is that these brands operate on the basis of constantly producing new lines of clothes to meet the insatiable and ever-changing consumer demand for all things new.

Fast production

Faster changing trends means that producers are under pressure to manufacture clothes more and more rapidly. Factories are expected to produce new lines with only a couple of month's notice, meaning that their workload - and therefore the amount of employment they can offer to workers - is unpredictable and insecure.

The drive to produce garments rapidly has led many UK fast fashion companies to reshore clothing production to the UK, where previously almost all clothing brands sourced from less-economically developed countries such as Bangladesh or Vietnam.

Leicester has become a central hub for clothing production and many of the scandals associated with workers' rights in the UK have been found in factories in the city.

The exploitation of workers in fast fashion supply chains is partly the result of brands pressuring suppliers to produce clothes as cheaply and quickly as possible. We talk about this more below.

Fast sale and delivery

The low-cost of fast fashion items encourages fast sale. The average person in the UK buys 60% more clothing today than in 2000. We buy more clothes per person in the UK than in any other country in Europe, and our addiction has grown - with online searches for 'cheap clothes' increasing 46.3% during the first coronavirus lockdown.

Even if you are out-of-pocket you can buy items using Klarna and other easy credit services. Its post-purchase payment options allow you to defer paying for your garment for 14 to 30 days, much like a payday loan.

Most companies also offer cheap deals for quick delivery. At the time of writing, Boohoo offered unlimited next-day delivery for one year for just £7.99.

Fast use

It's estimated that the average item of clothing is worn just 14 times, and in 2019 The Guardian reported that one in three young women considered an item worn just once or twice to be old.

Much modern clothing is not made to last. Due to super-fast production, designs are generally not well stress-tested before sale, and cheap synthetic fabrics are used in order to keep costs low. Much of it will end up in landfill after only being worn a handful of times.

Five things you need to know about fast fashion

The problems with fast fashion

What are the environmental problems with fast fashion?

The endless creation of new clothes comes with a heavy environmental price. Every year the sector requires 93 billion cubic meters of water, which is enough to meet the consumption needs of five million people, and is responsible for around 20% of industrial water pollution as a result of textile treatment and dyeing.

There are also numerous problems with the materials and processes used. For example, cotton production uses 6% of the world's pesticides and 16% of insecticides.

The industry also has a heavy carbon footprint, which is responsible for up to 10% of total global carbon emissions, and estimated to increase by 50% by 2030.

The above problems affect the clothing sector more broadly, but one issue is particularly endemic to fast fashion: plastic.

How much plastic do clothes contain?

The rise of fast fashion has been heavily dependent on synthetic fibres such as polyester, nylon, acrylic and elastane, which are made from heavily processed petrochemicals (fossil fuels). These materials are cheap to produce - polyester, for example, costs half as much per kilo as cotton - and therefore allow brands to keep prices low, though with a high environmental price-tag.

Polyester is the most widely used of these synthetic fibres and is now found in over half of all textiles produced. It is generally produced from polyethylene terephthalate, better known as PET, a type of plastic derived from crude oil and natural gas - also used to make items such as plastic bottles.

The ubiquitousness of plastic in clothing means that the textile sector accounts for 15% of total plastic use; the only sectors that use more are construction and packaging. Many brands are making a song and dance about using recycled plastics for their clothes, but a recent report by the RSA found that the actual level of recycled content was pitifully low. Across four major online fast fashion brands, the use of recycled fabrics was a mere 4%.

Our analysis of Shein's website found its recycled content was even lower, at only 0.5%, despite the brand claiming, " When selecting materials, we do our best to source recycled fabric, such as recycled polyester."

Recycling plastics where possible has some benefits, but it does nothing to address the problem of microfibres - the miniscule bits of fabric that are released when clothes are worn, washed, or disposed of, that find their way into our bodies and the natural world.

According to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, clothes release half a million tonnes of microfibres into the ocean every year, equivalent to more than 50 billion plastic bottles.

These fibres have been found almost everywhere: from the summit of Mount Everest to the placentas of unborn babies. We still do not know the effects they may have.

How much waste does the clothing industry cause?

The industry is also responsible for enormous amounts of textile waste. The amount of textiles being produced globally per person has more than doubled from 5.9kg to 13kg over the period 1975-2018.

Many of the clothes bought are thrown away after being worn just a handful of times: the industry produces an estimated 92 million tonnes of textiles waste annually, much of which is burnt or finds its way to landfill, while less than 1% of used clothing is recycled into new garments.

Some of this waste consists of items that never even reached the consumer - clothing lines that have become outdated and so are destroyed instead of sold.

Atacama clothing mountain highlights over-consumption

The shocking reality of fast fashion's waste problem hit the headlines in November 2021 with an Agence France-Presse (AFP) report on the mountains of discarded clothing ending up in Chile's Atacama Desert. A total of 59,000 tons of second-hand clothing is said to arrive in Chile for resale each year from Europe, the US and Asia. However, an estimated 39,000 tons is unable to be sold and ends up dumped in the desert.

The situation highlights the myriad of problems in the fashion industry. The over-consumption of new clothing means that even an increasingly thriving second-hand clothing market cannot keep up, and this is exacerbated by the amount of poor-quality clothing not suitable for resale.

While second-hand markets certainly play a huge role in reducing the carbon impact of clothing when replacing the purchase of new items, a system where clothing gets shipped around the world multiple times, only to be wasted anyway is clearly not sustainable.

Clothing made of plastics

The piles mounting up in the Atacama, and in landfills across the world, are not biodegradable. Much of our clothing is made from synthetic plastics and also contains chemicals harmful to the environment.

Many fashion brands are pledging to address the issue of the use of virgin plastics in clothing manufacture, a material derived from the fossil fuel industry. However, this is often by replacing it with recycled synthetics.

And this may well be from recycled plastic bottles but, as a recent Guardian article points out: "PET bottles are also part of a well-established, closed-loop recycling system, where they can be efficiently recycled at least 10 times. The apparel industry is 'taking from this closed-loop, and moving it into this linear system because most of those clothes won't be recycled', said Maxine Bédat, Executive Director of New Standard Institute. "Converting plastic from bottles into clothes may actually accelerate its path to the landfill, especially for low-quality, fast-fashion garments which are often discarded after only a few uses."

The fashion industry, governments and consumers need to act to slow down consumption and ensure that garments are sustainable at every stage of their life cycle, from fibre production, to manufacture, to end-of-life.

Why is it bad for workers?

In order to offer clothes at ultra low prices, fast fashion brands need their costs to be low. One of the main ways of doing this is to drive down the wages of garment workers in the supply chain.

For years, brands have 'chased the cheap needle' around the world, seeking countries with the lowest labour standards so that garment workers can be easily exploited. In recent years, many UK fast fashion brands have found the cheap needle closer to home, often in quasi-legal factories in cities such as Leicester.

In the UK, Boohoo has become somewhat the symbol of fast fashion's worker exploitation problem. Numerous exposés have shown that while the pockets of Boohoo's directors are bursting at the seams, the people who actually stitch the seams of its clothing are paid a pittance, with some found to have been paid under half the minimum wage.

The Levitt report, which looked in depth at Boohoo's Leicester supply chain, found that "The allegations of unacceptable working conditions and underpayment of workers are not only well-founded but are substantially true." Levitt also claimed that these problems were endemic to the system and likely found across Boohoo's supply chain.

Worker exploitation is an essential part of the fast fashion model. If an item is very cheap, chances are that the person who produced it was paid little.

A 2022 report Unbearable Harassment: The Fashion Industry and Widespread Abuse of Female Garment Workers in Indian Factories, found that every single woman spoken to for the report (90), had either experienced or witnessed gender-based violence and harassment (GBVH) carried out by male supervisors and managers at the factories they worked at.

"Verbal, physical, and sexual harassment exists in every garment factory - not just this one. It existed before COVID, it exists during COVID, and it will exist after COVID..." Smita, Tamal Nadu.

The report goes on to state that:

"Violence on the factory floor cannot be dismissed as just a factory-level problem; rather, it must be understood as an industry-wide culture of violence driven by the business model of global fashion brands".

Which are the leading fast fashion brands?

It is important to note that most of the fashion sector has become 'faster' in recent years. As such, even the more mainstream, established brands will be 'fast' to some extent. However, there are some brands that stand out as much faster than the rest:

Boohoo, which also owns the following brands: Burton, Coast, Debenhams, Dorothy Perkins, Karen Millen, MissPap, Nasty Gal, Oasis, Pretty Little Thing, Wallis, Warehouse

In the Style

I Saw it First

Missguided

If a brand is offering vast numbers of 'new in' clothes (usually thousands of new items every day) and its products are super cheap, then it is a fast fashion brand.
UPDATE
Missguided collapsed at the end of May 2022, leaving suppliers and workers out of pocket for months of completed orders.

The Frasers Group, controlled by the Sports Direct founder Mike Ashley, has reportedly bought the company out of administration for £20m. This process will take around two months to complete.

We will review the impact of the collapse and new owner in due course.

Meanwhile, Labour Behind the Label have campaigned to demand workers and suppliers are paid, amidst reports that many are owed thousands of pounds.

Update from COP26 on fashion

Considering its comparative carbon impact, maybe the fashion industry deserved more focus at the recent COP26 summit in Glasgow, but it was not totally without attention.

In the second week, an update to the Fashion Industry Charter for Climate Action was announced, with more ambitious targets for carbon reduction to align with the Paris Agreement's 1.5-degree aim. The charter currently has 130 signatories including brands such as H&M, Primark, Levi's, Chanel and Adidas.

A request for government-backed incentives for using sustainable materials was also submitted by global non-profit Textile Exchange, with its COO, Claire Bergkamp, stating: "We need both regulations to stop bad action and incentives for sustainable materials to help reduce the price burden that currently exists for sourcing more responsibly. Our hope is through trade incentives and tariff reductions, we can level the playing field, without placing the burden on suppliers across the value chain".

The call was supported by 50 of the world's largest fashion and textile companies. It is an interesting turn of events considering the UK Government's complete reluctance to regulate the UK fashion industry as recommended by the 2019 Fixing Fashion report. The call could also be viewed as a profit-driven industry with a history of wreaking havoc on the environment, now demanding it be subsidised for doing the right thing. However, it is true that with such a harmful and complex industry strong legislation is badly needed to start curtailing fashion's destructive path.

Awful conditions at a Shein factory exposed

A Channel 4 documentary broadcast autumn 2022 went undercover at a Shein factory to expose predictably awful conditions and exhausted, exploited workers.

The brand is also shown to copy designs from independent designers, rely on unpaid influencers for its marketing, and use manipulative sales techniques such as countdown timers and multi-buys to encourage overconsumption.

Yet the company is hugely popular and massively outsells its fast fashion rivals. Despite many similar documentaries and decades of campaigning on garment worker rights, it seems that cheap clothes are an addiction we just can't break.

Check out our clothing guides to find some much more ethical options for new clothes, or choose second hand.

What progress has been made in the decade since the Rana Plaza disaster?

The Rana Plaza disaster and the Accord

April 2023 marks the 10th anniversary of the Rana Plaza disaster in Bangladesh which killed more than 1,100 garment workers, an event that exposed the appalling human cost of fast fashion. Simon Birch asks what progress, if any, has been made over the past decade in the fight against fast fashion.

Following the Rana Plaza disaster the Bangladesh Accord was established. This was the first and only legally binding agreement that holds brands to account for health and safety in the garment industry, and is designed to prevent another Rana Plaza tragedy from ever happening again.

"The Accord represents a significant victory for textile workers," says Anna Bryher from Labour Behind the Label, one of the UK's leading campaign groups against fast fashion. "There's been a massive improvement in the safety of clothing factories in Bangladesh," acknowledges Bryher.

Whilst this is welcome good news, the bad news is that the Accord hasn't done anything to address the pitifully low wages that Bangladeshi garment workers still receive.

But whilst the global fast fashion business model is still based on exploitative low wages, the brands themselves are now coming under increasing pressure.

Profits at fast fashion pioneers ASOS and Boohoo are tumbling whilst last year Missguided, one of the UK's flagship fast fashion companies went bust, all largely as a result of the cost-of-living crisis that's seen soaring costs of everything from cotton to shipping.

Environmental claims from fast fashion companies under the spotlight

Last year, the UK's Competition and Markets Authority launched an investigation into whether eco-friendly and sustainability claims made by the fast fashion chains Asos, Boohoo and George at Asda constitute greenwashing.

Meanwhile over in Europe, the EU is stepping up its fight against throwaway culture by aiming to end fast fashion by 2030.

In an ambitious initiative launched last year, the EU announced its intention to vastly expand its clothing design rules on recycling and sustainability. In just seven years' time, all textiles sold within the EU must be recyclable, free of hazardous substances and contain a high percentage of recycled fibres.

All these actions are clearly good news for the environment but the bottom line is that fast fashion still demands the exploitation of garment workers.

However, it's important to remember that the problem is with the clothing companies, not with the clothing industry.

"We all need clothes and the clothing industry provides millions of jobs around the world from farmers who provide the cotton and fabrics to workers in garment factories," says Heather Webb, a former researcher at Ethical Consumer who has since worked within the fast fashion industry as an ethical trade analyst.

"Big fashion brands are consistently treating the factories they buy from poorly and it's the workers and environment who suffer," says Fiona Gooch from Transform Trade that campaigns for a more ethical global trading system.

"We need a fashion watchdog to regulate UK garment retailers along the same lines as the existing supermarket watchdog that's successfully reduced the unfair buying practices of the UK's largest food retailers," explains Gooch. "A fashion watchdog would reduce abusive and unfair purchasing practices of the garment retailers which would ultimately benefit garment workers."

Whilst acknowledging that a fashion watchdog would be a good thing, Anna Bryher believes that it wouldn't fix the problem of low wages within the clothing industry. What's needed says Bryher is new legislation to enable clothing brands to be held to account for their unfair purchasing practices.

Heather Webb agrees. "We need government intervention in the market," says Webb. "One of the key things that could improve both the pay and working conditions of garment workers is a law outlawing the unethical buying practices of clothing brands."

Progress by brands is extremely slow

The Ethical Fashion Report published in 2023, 10 years after the first edition, found that although there has been some progress for garment workers, overall change is still too slow. Their research found that at the current rate of progress, it would be 75 years before all companies are paying a living wage at even a minimum of one factory per company. The vast majority of clothing companies (84%) were not sourcing from any factories which paid a living wage.

Find out more in the report and also use the charity's 'Speak Out' tool to see how individual brands are doing and let them know what you think.

People's clothing habits are changing

Despite the pervasiveness of fast fashion, things are beginning to improve.

New research from WRAP has found that compared with similar research carried out in 2013, we are wearing our clothes for slightly longer. Jeans, for example, now have a longevity of just over four years, compared to just over three in 2013. The research also found that more than half of us are happy to buy second hand clothes; nearly 60% of us put a lot of effort into maintaining our clothes; and that a similar proportion look for ways to repair clothes when they're damaged.

The WRAP research also estimates that the UK's wardrobes hold 1.6 billion items of unworn clothes, an average of 31 items for each adult. And yet we're still spending more than £4 billion on shopping for clothes each month. WRAP makes the point that as textiles and fashion are responsible for between 4% and 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions, we need a revolution in our clothing habits to make our wardrobes sustainable.

Circular clothing industry

The purpose of the WRAP research was to understand the population's receptiveness to circular business models for clothing. These included second hand, upcycling, subscription, rental (pay-per-wear) and repair (where a brand repairs an item of clothing a customer has purchased from it for a fee).

WRAP found that 40% of people are likely to use a subscription service and that 58% are open to using a repair service. Among those who have already used a circular business model, the majority said they would do so again.

WRAP argues that this shows there is a clear case for clothing brands and retailers to adopt circular business models.

Read the full WRAP report into clothing longevity on their website and read tips on repairing and buying second hand in our article on upcycling and buying second hand clothing.

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What is fast fashion and why is it a problem? | Ethical Consumer

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Alex Crumbie explores the growing concern about the social and environmental impacts of the fast fashion clothing industry and sets out what's wrong with fast fashion.

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Year 9 - Natural Hazards, Haiti earthquake

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Year 9 - Natural Hazards, Haiti earthquake

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(This is in addition to the aid delivered between January 2010 - July 2010)

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Year 9 - Glaciation, Fox Glacier, New Zealand

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Year 9 - Glaciation, Fox Glacier, New Zealand

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End of the ice: New Zealand's vanishing glaciers

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New Zealand's glaciers are retreating. After years of inaction, Covid could be a wake-up call for change - but is it already too late?

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Advertisement
Japan, the world's third largest economy, has been experiencing the issue of population aging to an unprecedented degree. More than 20 percent of Japan's population is over 65 years old, the highest proportion in the world. By 2030, one in every three people will be 65 or older, and one in five people 75-plus years old. The rapid aging process in Japan is striking because of the high rate of economic growth and changes in family and social structures in the post-war period.

The decline in Japan's fertility rate has been attributed to several factors such as changing lifestyles, people marrying later in life or not marrying at all, and the economic insecurity of younger generation. Increasing life expectancy is another driving force behind the aging trend. Fifty years ago, life expectancy at birth was about 72 years; it has since climbed to 84 years.

There are two fundamental aspects behind Japan's aging population. One aspect is the increase in the proportion of the elderly in the total population. The other is the slower growth of the population, arising directly from the declining fertility rate. The former affects Japan's economic performance by increasing the social security burden and benefits. The latter has a direct impact on economic growth by reducing the labor force, which is a major factor in production. "A rapidly aging population and shrinking labour force are hampering growth," warned the IMF in its latest country report on Japan. The IMF also calculated that the impact of aging could drag down Japan's average annual GDP growth by 1 percentage point over the next three decades.

The causal effect of aging is leaving its mark on the macroeconomy of Japan, especially the labor force and capital accumulation. Due to the nation's aging and shrinking population, there is an increased need to address the labor shortage. People eventually retire and leave the workforce as they start aging, and at present, there are not enough young people in Japan to fill this vacuum owing to the decline in the fertility rate as well. This further implies that some of Japan's big industries - like motor vehicles and electronics - do not possess the manpower to continue at the current level of production. If Japan cannot maintain its levels of production, it may subsequently lose its spot as the third largest economy in the world.

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The issue of aging is also likely to make untenable the seniority system among the labor force, in which wages increase in proportion to length of service with a company. This leads to fewer promotion opportunities and also damages workers' morale. Due to a decrease in the working age population, Japan also hopes to see higher female labor force participation under tightening labor market conditions. Prime Minister Shinzo Abe is currently pursuing such a path, which has been called "Womenomics," where companies are pressured and incentivized to hire more women and give more leadership positions to women.

As Japan's population is aging, the Abe administration finds it difficult to balance its conservative views on immigration with the need for younger and skilled workers to boost the Japanese economy. Therefore, the nation came up with the idea of allowing more foreign workers in a controlled manner. A new regulation that came into effect in April 2019 created two residence/visa status types for foreign individuals working in sectors that are suffering from labor shortages. However, the impact of the 2019 amendment to the Immigration Act cannot be assessed easily. It is important to keep in mind that the countries targeted as possible sources of labor for Japan will also face their own labor shortages, especially in the caregiving sector, in the near future.

A study by the UN Population Division released in 2000 found that Japan would need to raise its retirement age to 77 to maintain its worker-to-retiree ratio. Currently, retirees are largely well off and are reaping the fruits of a long and laborious life. However, it is unlikely that the benefits they enjoy now can be sustained for future generations. Aggravating the growing labor force shortage are the rising expenses associated with aging, like caregiving needs for the ill and the fact that older people will require extra medication and hospitalization.

Abe's administration has also vowed to tackle this crisis by taking steps to support young couples in raising children, for instance, making preschool education free. His government has set a target of increasing the fertility rate back to 1.8 by 2025 - a goal unlikely to be achieved so soon, given that the rate was just 1.43 in 2017.
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The government should pursue structural and labor reforms, which will aim at increasing the nation's productivity despite the declining labor force supply. More elderly people and women should be encouraged to play active roles in the labor force.

Healthier individuals are better able to work longer and with more energy, which suggests that protecting older individuals' health will intensify their productivity and labor force participation. In addition to savings in healthcare costs, effective health promotion programs will therefore lead to gains in productive labor hours and output. A healthy population will also lead to higher savings rates, lower medical expenses, and increased foreign direct investment. The government has also come up with an idea of making Japan an "age-free society" in which people 65 and older will not be considered senior citizens and will rather be encouraged to stay healthy and keep working.
Simran Walia is currently pursuing an M.Phil in Japanese studies under the Centre for East Asian Studies from Jawaharlal Nehru University. Prior to this, she was a Research Assistant at Observer Research Foundation.
The 2019 Revision of World Population Prospects, released in June 2019, predicts the proportion of people aged 65 years and older in Japan will increase from the current level of 28 percent to 38 percent by 2050. Although the rapid aging of the population is a major challenge to the Japanese economy, its negative impacts on savings and investment can be largely reduced by stimulating labor-augmenting technological change and extending the working life of the elderly.

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How Does Japan's Aging Society Affect Its Economy?

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Advertisement Japan, the world's third largest economy, has been experiencing the issue of population aging to an unprecedented degree. More than 20 percent of Japan's population is over 65 years old, the highest proportion in the world. By 2030, one in every three people will be 65 or older, and one in five people 75-plus years old.

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Year 8 - UK Weather, Storm Eunice, South West UK

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Year 8 - UK Weather, Storm Eunice, South West UK

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As the UK was hit by three large scale weather systems, experts warn that storms could become more frequent in the future, highlighting the need for a better understand of such events.

Between February 16th and 21st, the UK was successively hit by three large scale weather systems: Storm Dudley, Storm Eunice, and Storm Franklin. Following days of intense storms, many parts of the country were flooded, and disruptions were reported. Experts say the storms are linked to climate change, and such storms may become more frequent in the future.

Overview of the storms
On February 16th, the Met Office warned about the impacts of strong winds caused by two storms: Dudley and Eunice. It stated that both storms could cause significant disruption and issued yellow and amber warnings. It further warned that wind gusts could exceed 95mph in coastal areas, and 80mph in inland areas.

From February 16th onward, the UK experienced strong winds across Northern Ireland, Scotland, England and Wales. Storm Eunice caused the UK Met Office to issue red weather warning in Southern England, Wales, the Midlands, London, and the East of England.

On February 20th, the Met Office named Storm Franklin, predicting high winds in Northern Ireland, England and Southern and East Scotland. It also alerted about the potential for some snow and the risk of flooding in low-lying coastal roads.
Storm Eunice
Storm Eunice caused major disruption in the UK and claimed the lives of 10 people across western Europe. At its peak, more than 1.4 million people were left without power. The storm also had devastating effects in Belgium, Denmark, Germany, and many more countries across Europe.

More than 400 flights from and within the UK were cancelled, the O2's arena white roof was torn off by the wind, causing all bars and restaurants to be evacuated. The storm caused the fastest wind ever recorded in England with 122 miles per hour on the Isle of Wight and Eunice was one of the most powerful windstorms to impact the country in over 30 years.
Storm Dudley
Storm Dudley impacted Northern England and Western Scotland. In Scotland, it disrupted the train services following reports of fallen trees blocking lines and damage to overhead wires and signalling faults. All rail services were suspended throughout Friday in Wales.

Dudley also disrupted the air traffic, with Easy Jet having to abort landing to Glasgow due to the storm. The Ferry Operator CalMac cancelled services due to high waves that reached 12 metres high. Along the coast of Devon and Cornwall, damaging gusts close to 100mph hit as the wind strengthened. Inland, the Storms is said to have led to wind gusts of 80mph.

In England, the storm caused power cuts in parts of the North East, North Yorkshire, Lancashire and Cumbria. Additionally, the Tyne and Wear Metro was suspended, with engineers deployed in the damaged areas to repair the damages.
Storm Franklin
Storm Franklin hit a week after the first storms Dudley and Eunice, further causing disruptions and putting pressure on river levels and the soil's ability to absorb excess water. The storm notably caused tree falling across England, and flooding in Scotland and England. In Wales and England, it caused high waves that crashed against seafronts and a lighthouse. Additionally, dozens of houses lost power following the storm. The storms also caused for the Northern Rail line to be flooded at the Rotherham Station in South Yorkshire, interrupting the traffic. The storms also brought snow in parts of Scotland and England.

England had 185 flood warnings & 2 severe flood warnings as of 7:00am on the 21 st February.

Flood risks caused by Storm Dudley, Eunice and Franklin
Following yellow, amber and red weather warnings, the Environmental Agency alerted on the risk of coastal and river flooding due to high precipitations.

Before Storms Dudley and Eunice hit, the Environment Agency alerted from February 15th about the risk of flooding along Severn and Wye. It warned that it could affect homes and businesses along Avonmouth to Gloucester and urged people to take steps to protect themselves and their property, including preparing a bag with important documents, checking insurance and whether they are covered by flood damages, turning off gas, electricity and water, and staying informed about the latest flood situation.

The EA warned that strong winds could lead to large waves and coastal flooding to homes and businesses along Severn and Wye estuaries. In total, across the UK, more than 140 flood warnings were issued. The west of the UK suffered most of the flooding due to the rocky, clay and sandy soils, which absorb less rainfall.

In South Ayrshire, flooding was reported in various areas such as the A713, which impacted the traffic to enter and travel to the University Hospital Ayr. Floods were also reported in Glasgow, Shropshire, England, along the River Ouse in Yorkshire, the River Severn in the West Midlands, in Bewdley in Worcestershire.

Despite record river levels, flood defences protected more than 40,000 properties across England and Wales.
Effective measures put in place across the country to mitigate the impact of the Storms
Major flooding was avoided in Northern Ireland due to effective management of flood risk. The area was still impacted by the flood ahead of Storm Franklin in the Derg Valley, impacting roads, homes and businesses. To mitigate the risk, preventative measures were implemented before Storm Franklin to stop the Drumragh River from bursting its banks.

The success of Northern Ireland, England, Scotland and Wales in minimising flood consequences highlight the need to have accurate predictive tools to be better prepared. To further predict and understand the risk of large flood events, Ambiental's tool provides accurate and up-to-date data deployed across the UK.

Our flood maps provide accurate and detailed data that allow mortgage lenders, local governments, insurers, and property professionals to make better decisions regarding flood risks. Our technology can create specific flood maps for each client, taking into account different factors such as river levels and soil saturation. For the insurance sector, the data also provides valuable information to set the correct pricing for vulnerable areas, and in determining which areas to insure.

Ambiental's Climate Suite data products provide analytics and actionable insights for understanding long-term physical risks. FloodScore Climate database equips our clients with the latest climate scenarios and risk assessments for every property.

The high precipitations led to high river levels across the country, increasing the risk of flooding after the Storms. Hence, the risk of flooding was ongoing after the stormed had passed. On February 27th, the UK government issued two more flooding warnings: in River Severn at Severn Ham and in River Severn at Apperley and the Leigh.

The devastating economic effects of the storms
Prominent damages to the power and internet infrastructure were reported, requiring companies to deploy engineers on the ground to repair the damages swiftly. In Cumbria, a wind turbine was destroyed, its blades pulled off and embedded in a field.

A study from the risk modelling firm RMS estimates that insured losses from European countries could be huge. Across all Europe, the three storms caused the death of more than 26 people and led to power outages, and damage to buildings, infrastructure and roads.

Many experts attributed the storms to global warming, explaining that, while the strong winds are not caused directly by climate change, the damage of such storms is exacerbated because of increased rainfall and sea-level rise linked with global warming. Hence, heavy rainfall, flood and storms will become more frequent with global warming. With record-high river levels and wind gusts, the Storms Dudley, Eunice and Franklin may be what is to come, increasing the need for predictive technology.

Ambiental is supporting the insurance industry and infrastructure managers to understand storm risks, not only through our flood data, but also now with our new wind risk and tree risk datasets.

Contact Ted Bartholomeusz to learn more about our latest products for the UK and Europe.
E: ted.bartholomeusz@rhdhv.com
T: +44 (0)1273 006904

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Impact of Storms Dudley, Eunice and Franklin in the UK

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As the UK was hit by three large scale weather systems, experts warn that storms could become more frequent in the future, highlighting the need for a better understand of such events. Between February 16th and 21st, the UK was successively hit by three large scale weather systems: Storm Dudley, Storm Eunice, and Storm Franklin.

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Three Gorges Dam, 秭归县 Yichang, Hubei, China

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Three Gorges Dam | Facts, Construction, Benefits, & Problems

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Three Gorges Dam: Three Gorges Dam, dam on the Yangtze River just west of the city of Yichang in China.

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Poverty Reduction in South Sudan - The Borgen Project

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Nonprofits are also working towards poverty reduction in South Sudan. Many of these charities were founded by South Sudanese refugees.

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Coastal erosion at Happisburgh, Norfolk - British Geological Survey

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As part of a programme of work monitoring coastal erosion and landsliding BGS are surveying the cliffs adjacent to the village of Happisburgh in Norfolk.

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Topic updates

Here is an in-depth photojournalism report on the unrelenting growth of Lagos. An exceptional resource for geography teachers.

Lagos as a megacity. This report has illustrations, maps and graphs - a perfect case study. By 2050 Nigeria will have twice the population it has today and about 60% of them will be under 25.

Lagos recently came second bottom in the 2017 survey of the world's most liveable cities.

The World's Most Liveable Cities

Andy Day

Andy recently finished being a classroom geographer after 35 years at two schools in East Yorkshire as head of geography, head of the humanities faculty and director of the humanities specialism. He has written extensively about teaching and geography - with articles in the TES, Geography GCSE Wideworld and Teaching Geography.

© 2002-2023 Tutor2u Limited. Company Reg no: 04489574. VAT reg no 816865400.

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Lagos - The City that Won't Stop Growing

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Topic updates Here is an in-depth photojournalism report on the unrelenting growth of Lagos. An exceptional resource for geography teachers. Lagos as a megacity. This report has illustrations, maps and graphs - a perfect case study. By 2050 Nigeria will have twice the population it has today and about 60% of them will be under 25.

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Antarctica has experienced air temperature increases of 3°C in the Antarctic Peninsula. Although that might not seem very much, it is 5 times the mean rate of global warming as reported by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

Warm up

Over the past 50 years, the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula has been one of the most rapidly warming parts of the planet. This warming is not only restricted to the land but can also be noted in the Southern Ocean. Upper ocean temperatures to the west of the Antarctic Peninsula have increased over 1°C since 1955. It has now been established that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current is warming more rapidly than the global ocean as a whole. Studying climate change in Antarctica is important because it enables scientists to predict more accurately future climate change and provide information to politicians and policy makers.

The warming of the Antarctic Peninsula is causing changes to the physical and living environment of Antarctica. The distribution of penguin colonies has changed as the sea ice conditions alter. Melting of perennial snow and ice covers has resulted in increased colonisation by plants. A long-term decline in the abundance of Antarctic krill in the SW Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean may be associated with reduced sea ice cover. Large changes have occurred in the ice cover of the Peninsula. Many glaciers have retreated and ice shelves that formerly fringed the Peninsula have been observed to retreat in recent years and some have collapsed completely.

Learn more about the latest developments on climate change:

The impacts of climate change

Learn more about the A-68 and A-76 icebergs, the warming of the Southern Ocean and the impacts on iconic Antarctic species.

Cold Facts

What are the impacts of climate change on Antarctica?

Impacts on ice

Ice shelves are the floating extensions of a grounded ice sheet. One of the largest ice shelves, the Ronne-Filchner covers an area slightly smaller than Spain. Each summer, a significant amount of meltwater is produced which can only be tolerated so long before the ice shelf will weaken and retreat. Climate in the Antarctic Peninsula has warmed by 3°C meaning that once stable ice shelves are now retreating. Since the 1950s this is a loss of 25,000 km2 of ice shelf.

Learn more about ice shelves:

Impacts on wildlife: penguins

There are about 20 million breeding pairs of penguins in the Antarctic. Some species of penguins in Antarctica are declining in numbers while others are not. The picture varies depending on where in Antarctica you are looking. Adélie penguins, a species well adapted to sea ice conditions, have declined in numbers in some areas and have been replaced at some sites by open-water species such as chinstrap penguins. Further south, emperor penguins, which breed on sea ice surrounding continental Antarctica, have also experienced a decline in numbers by up to 50% in places.

Are Adélie penguins facing extinction? Read these articles to find out:

Impacts on marine life: krill

Results published by the British Antarctic Survey in 2004 highlighted that Antarctic krill numbers are declining. Krill are very important to the Antarctic food web and this decline could threaten whales, seals and penguins all of which feed on krill. The decline of krill has been linked to a dramatic decline in sea ice. Sea ice is a vital feeding ground for the huge number of krill in the Southern Ocean. The research shows that krill numbers have dropped by about 80% since the 1970s. Less sea ice during the winter is likely to be the cause and may explain declines seen in several species of penguins. Krill feed on the algae found under the surface of the sea ice, which acts as a kind of 'nursery'. The Antarctic Peninsula, a key breeding ground for the krill, has experienced a striking decrease in sea ice.

Learn more about krill at the following websites:

Impacts on sea level

Although Antarctica is many thousands of miles away from most of us, the impacts of climate change are not only confined to the shores of the icy continent. Scientists fear that water that is currently stored in ice on land (including ice sheets but not ice shelves) may melt and contribute to sea level rise. Satellite measurements since the early 1990s indicate that sea level is rising at a rate of 3mm per year and indeed sea level has been rising over the last century. However, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) are not able to confirm confidently at present what contribution the melting of ice sheets will have on sea level over the coming centuries. There is a possibility that sea level rise could be higher than the IPPC estimates suggest.

Learn more about the changes in sea level at the following websites:

Student Activities

Part 1: Impacts on ice

Read the information in Cold Facts about the impacts of climate change on ice.

How have the ice shelves changed between 1950 and 2000?

Using the Geographical Information Systems (GIS) maps on the changes in ice shelves and the pdf of ice shelf changes

Describe the changes in the ice shelves. Hint: use the scale line to improve your answer!

Outline the advantages and disadvantages of using this method to display information.

Part 2: Impacts on wildlife

What facts in this article support the view that penguins are declining in Antarctica due to climate change?

Suggest other factors that could be leading to a decline in penguin numbers.

Part 3: Impacts on marine life: krill

Read the information in Cold Facts about the decline of krill.

Krill is crucial to the Antarctic food chain. Complete the interactive food web

Using the interactive food web answer the following questions:

a) Which animals feed on krill?

b) What impact is the decline in krill likely to have on the blue whale?

c) What impact is the decline in krill likely to have on the crabeater seal?

Suggest other causes, other than global warming, for the decline in Antarctic krill.

Visit the following website for more information:

Part 4: Impacts of sea level rise

Read the information in Cold Facts about sea level rise.

Discuss in pairs what impacts a rise in sea level could have on:

a) Low lying areas in Bangladesh

b) Coastal areas of the UK

c) Low lying islands of the Maldives

d) Farming areas of Egypt

Visit the following website for more information:

Climate change and you

You have learnt in this section the huge impacts of climate change on Antarctica and sea level rise. What steps are you making to reduce your carbon footprint? Discuss your ideas with your class.

Learn more about climate change and you from the following websites:

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Impacts of climate change - Discovering Antarctica

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The Antarctic Peninsula is one of the most rapidly warming parts of the planet. What are the impacts of such change?

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Wildlife presenter Ferne Corrigan takes a look at the Arctic tundra and how plants and animals have adapted to live in this biome.
Ferne describes the location of the tundra biomes around the world before describing the climate of the biome.

She then explains how the barberry plant has adapted to survive the harsh weather before explaining how the Arctic fox and the Musk ox have adapted to survive in the Tundra ecosystem.

Ferne then changes focus to the Sami people of the tundra biome and how they use the changing seasons to survive.

This clip is from the series Ecosystems and Biomes.

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Geography KS3 / GCSE: How animals have adapted to live in the Arctic tundra

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Wildlife presenter Ferne Corrigan takes a look at the Arctic tundra and how plants and animals have adapted to live in this biome. Ferne describes the location of the tundra biomes around the world before describing the climate of the biome.

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CASE STUDY: Elmsbrook - UKGBC - UK Green Building Council

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Elmsbrook is a 393 home development that is the first phase of NW Bicester eco-town that will eventually provide 6,000 homes and associated infrastructure for Bicester. It is the first and only development built in UK to meet original principles of PPS1 for eco towns and the largest true zero carbon development in UK, incorporating regulated and unregulated energy.

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Year 7 - Plate tectonics, Nepal earthquake

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Year 7 - Plate tectonics, Nepal earthquake

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Problem Focus / Country Context

Nepal is a seismically active country: between 1900 and 2011, there were six serious earthquakes, resulting in a total of around 13,500 deaths. In April and May 2015, Nepal was struck by a series of major earthquakes that killed 8,898 people and injured a further 22,300. The first earthquake, measuring magnitude 7.8, struck on April 25, 2015, with an epicenter in Barpak Village, approximately 75 km from the capital, Kathmandu. The weeks that followed saw over 300 quakes greater than magnitude 4.0, including a second serious earthquake (magnitude 6.3) on May 12, with an epicenter near Mount Everest.

Unlike many of the projects included in this series of case studies, where different actors assumed different roles in the open data value chain, the actors involved in this particular initiative combined roles as data collectors, providers, users and intermediaries. The focus on generating crowdsourced data and putting it to use alongside open government data blurred the lines that typically demarcate traditional roles among open data stakeholders.

With that in mind, the lead actors in the projects examined here are:

Kathmandu Living Labs (KLL): A non-profit civic technology company working to create high impact technology to transform the ways government works.

Young Innovations Ltd: A Kathmandu tech company founded in 2007 specializing in solutions for development, their goal is to establish open data as one of the priorities of the Government of Nepal.

Local Interventions Group:

Local Interventions Group (LIG) is a non-profit working in the global south to improve governance through data-driven solutions. Founded by participants in a student seminar at the London School of Economics, it has offices in the UK and Nepal. LIG is both data user and provider, having actively sought to expand Nepali open datasets through crowdsourcing and the conversion of static government data to machine-readable format.

Open Nepal: a knowledge hub and learning space for Nepali organizations and people who produce, share, and use data for development. The platform is owned by Young Innovations, NGO Federation of Nepal, Freedom Forum, and Development Initiatives, and was intended to bring together journalists, CSOs and those in the tech industry working with open data.

Code for Nepal: a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization registered in the U.S., dedicated to empowering Nepal through increasing digital literacy and access to open data, building apps to improve lives, service delivery to earthquake survivors and right to information. Cofounded by Mia Mitchell and Ravi Kumar Nepal in 2014, Code for Nepal has pursued projects aimed at bridging the digital divide experienced by women, poor people, rural people, and ethnic minorities in Nepal.

Key Beneficiaries

Most of the open data projects reviewed here were intended to directly benefit the Nepali population affected by the quakes, either through immediate relief work or through a more efficient and effective recovery. This improved efficiency, however, also benefited aid agencies, donors, and government, through better targeting of relief and recovery efforts and funds. Other projects were intended to reach intermediaries such as journalists, so that they could use the data to improve accountability.

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Problem Focus / Country Context Nepal is a seismically active country: between 1900 and 2011, there were six serious earthquakes, resulting in a total of around 13,500 deaths. In April and May 2015, Nepal was struck by a series of major earthquakes that killed 8,898 people and injured a further 22,300.

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For as long as anyone can remember the River Severn has been the lifeblood for people living in the Mid West of England and Wales. Settlers have long enjoyed her bounty. Food, energy, water, and an essential trade route that brought wealth and prosperity. Towns, once small hamlets and villages began to emerge and thrive as dominant powerhouses.

In the last two centuries our reliance on riverways has reduced. Today, many people enjoy the River Severn for recreation, such as taking river cruises or fishing. There are so many things to discover, we thought it would share with you our favourite River Severn facts.

The River Severn gets its name from the Latin word Sabrina, named by the Romans. This was eventually Anglicized to become Severn. The Welsh name for Sabrina is Hafren when translated it means boundary. This makes a lot of sense when you look at the geography, as the River Severn acts as a natural border between England and Wales.

The River Severn length is 220 miles long (354 kilometres), the River Severn is the longest river in the United Kingdom. As you can see from the map of the River Severn below she provides a natural border between England and Wales.

The source of the River Severn starts in the Cambrian Mountains of mid-Wales. Here on the bare slopes of Plynlimon which, less than 15 miles from the Welsh coast is where she begins. At an elevation of 610m above sea level the average rainfall for this area is high (-2500mm). As you can imagine this is well above the UK average of 885mm. It's hard to say exactly where the River Severn starts. The Severn originates as a peat bog that soaks up the rainwater; water trickles from the bog to form a small brook. The young Severn River passes through the conifer plantations of the Hafren Forest. It's not until it reaches the market town of Llanidloes that it becomes distinct.

If you are looking for waterfalls on the River Severn, you have to look upstream. Probably the most distinct of all the waterfalls, and certainly the first true waterfall is in the Hafren Forest. Severn Break its Neck is its name and easily accessible via a trail just outside of Llanidloes Town Centre. There's parking nearby; to get face Llanidloes Market Hall from Great Oak Street and take Short Bridge Street directly opposite. Follow the narrow road to Old Hall and then on to the Rhyd-y-benwch car park. While walking on this route you'll find many cascades and plunge pools that are formed as a result of the Severn carving its path through the forest.

Are you unsure of what an oxbow lake is? You can see one in the Welsh village of Caersws just outside of the mid-Wales town of Newtown. Here the river has changed its course, creating an ox-bow lake near the River Severn. An ox-bow lake is a horseshoe-like meander. Gradually it creates a new path through erosion, leaving the old meander stranded.

In Shrewsbury, the River Severn levels are monitored at the Welsh Bridge. At this monitoring station, the normal level of the River Severn is between 0.5m and 2.52m. The highest level ever recorded was on Wednesday 1 st November 2000 where the River Severn at the Welsh Bridge reached 5.25m. This wasn't the largest flood on the River Severn in Shrewsbury within living memory. The worst flood happened in 1946, but in 2010 the River Severn came within 230mm of the highest ever depth.

The River Severn mouth flows into the Bristol Channel creating a massive estuary which is over five miles wide. Originally called The Severn Sea, the lower estuary of the River Severn (known as Afon Hafren in Welsh) extends out to meet the North Atlantic Ocean. At its widest the Bristol Channel is over 50km (30 miles) across, separating South Wales from South West England.

The River Severn is famous for the Severn Bore. This is a tidal bore that surges its way upstream against the flow of the river. At the wider parts closer to the estuary the Severn Bore appears like a roller. Further up stream the bore appears as a series of waves that even advance through two weirs.

The tidal range on the River Severn is the second largest in the World. It can reach 15m (49 foot) at a speed of between 8 to 13 miles per hour.

There are 21 tributaries that flow into the River Severn, these join at confluence points. Sometimes tributaries are only small trickles like at the source of the River Severn. Others are large rivers, such as the Avon. Overall, the streams and rivers that join the River Severn cover an area of 4,409 square miles or 11,420 square km.

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River Severn Fact File - Geography in Action - Sabrina Boat

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For as long as anyone can remember the River Severn has been the lifeblood for people living in the Mid West of England and Wales. Settlers have long enjoyed her bounty. Food, energy, water, and an essential trade route that brought wealth and prosperity.

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Well done to our Year 13 on having handed in their NEAs! Year 9 Options - please do visit our Options page under KS4 "Choosing GCSE Geography" for our booklet and video

St Ivo Geography Department Online Portal "Geography is the subject which holds the key to our future" - Michael Palin

Ordnance Survey Map Skills

As geographers, one of the key skills that you need to learn is how to read an Ordnance Survey map. These skills will be tested throughout the key stages and are a common feature in examinations.

Some of the key map- skills you need to be confident in are:

Using Map Symbols

Giving Grid References (4 and 6 figure grid-references)

Understanding contour lines and how relief is shown on a map

Measuring distance on a map

It is important to keep practising these key skills and the best way is to use an actual OS map. However there are some useful online resources to help you recap and also learn these skills.

Map Skills Quizzes

Try the following links to practice your map skills...

- the fantastic mapzone from the Ordnance Survey is great for practicing map skills as well as finding out more about GIS and some great Geography links

KS3 BBC Bitesize - OS Map Skills - you can revise your OS map skills here and get some test questions

- GCSE BBC Bitesize - Map skills revising your higher level OS map skills here.

- Map Reading Skills Quiz an interactive quiz to test your map skills knowledge.

Learning your Map Skills
There are some useful videos below to help you recap and learn many of the key Ordnance Survey map skills that you need to become confident in.

2. Grid References - 4 and 6 figure Grid References

3. Understanding Contours - Showing relief on OS maps

4. Measuring Distance on Maps

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Well done to our Year 13 on having handed in their NEAs! Year 9 Options - please do visit our Options page under KS4 "Choosing GCSE Geography" for our booklet and video St Ivo Geography Department Online Portal "Geography is the subject which holds the key to our future" - Michael Palin Ordnance Survey Map Skills As geographers, one of the key skills that you need to learn is how to read an Ordnance Survey map.

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4R2F+RQ Rio de Janeiro, State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

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Google takes you inside the unexpected world of the favelas. Come with us on an interactive 360° walk inside Rio's comunidades to meet some truly inspiring people.

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Year 10 - Urban Issues, Regeneration in London

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Year 10 - Urban Issues, Regeneration in London

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The Lower Lea Valley in East London was chosen as the site for the 2012 Olympic Park. The Olympic Park is located north of the London Docklands and is mostly within the borough of Newham. The River Lea, which runs through the Olympic Park is a tributary of the Thames. The area was in need of urban regeneration.

KEY TERM:
​​​Urban Regeneration: The revival of old parts of the built‐up area by either installing modern facilities in old buildings (known as renewal) or opting for redevelopment (i.e. demolishing existing buildings and starting afresh).

Why was the Lower Lea Valley in need of regeneration?

​Before the London 2012 Olympics, the Lower Lea Valley was an area of urban deprivation (poverty) with:

Derelict (abandoned) industrial and brownfield sites - much of the 500 acre site was polluted and abandoned industrial and brownfield land, which was badly contaminated by chemicals.

Polluted waterways - The River Lea and Lee Navigation Canal were badly polluted.

Social deprivation - It was an area of social deprivation with few services, poor quality housing and high unemployment.

Poor infrastructure - existing infrastructure was in a poor state of repair.

Advantages of the regeneration of the Lower Lea Valley
SOCIAL ADVANTAGES ECONOMIC ADVANTAGES

Lloyds TSB estimate that the Olympics will generate £10 billion in extra income for the UK economy.

Unemployment OVERALL fell across London during the Olympic period.

Infrastructure improved. Stratford got a Tube station to help connect the area to the rest of London.

The Olympics brought more than £9bn of investment to east London, much of which went into transport.

The athletes' village has been relaunched as a housing estate called the East Village, with 2,818 new homes. 40% are 'affordable homes'.

A new school opened in the grounds of the park. Chobham Academy, which has helped to provide extra school places.

The aquatics centre now uses its 50m pools as facilities for the community and schools, as well as elite athletes.

SOCIAL DISADVANTAGES ECONOMIC DISADVANTAGES ENVIRONMENTAL DISADVANTAGES

The games produced 3.3 million tons of CO2.

Wildlife had to be relocated e.g. 4,000 newts, 100 toads and 300 common lizards.

The total bill for the Olympics was £8.77 billion of tax payer's money. (£5billion over budget).

During the construction of the Olympics, very few jobs were created for local people. There are still high levels of unemployment in Newham.

Existing businesses had to move, including H. Forman and Sons, a salmon-smoking factory with 50 employees.

Many of the materials for the stadiums and the Olympic Park came from overseas (local materials weren't used).

Rents and property prices have gone up as a result of the Games. Rents are now unaffordable to most of Newham's poorest households.

Properties for poorer people had to be demolished to make way for the site.

Many people in the boroughs surrounding the Olympic Park remain in poverty.

​ ENVIRONMENTAL ADVANTAGES

The Olympic Site was built largely on 560 acres of brownfield land. The land was cleaned and decontaminated.

The stadiums were made of at least 25% recycled materials.

New green spaces and wildlife habitats were created, including ponds, woodlands, and artificial otter holts.

The quality of water in the River Lea that runs through the Olympic Park has improved.

Many of the grounds in the Olympic Park have been kept as parkland and are open to the public for recreational use.

Disadvantages of the regeneration of the Lower Lea Valley

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The Lower Lea Valley in East London was chosen as the site for the 2012 Olympic Park. The Olympic Park is located north of the London Docklands and is mostly within the borough of Newham. The River Lea, which runs through the Olympic Park is a tributary of the Thames.