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How can we apply Greek philosophy, specifically Aristotelian values of aesthetics and tragedy, to reflect the portrayal of the human form and anatomy in art throughout history?

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How can we apply Greek philosophy, specifically Aristotelian values of aesthetics and tragedy, to reflect the portrayal of the human form and anatomy in art throughout history?

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Greek philosophers Aristotle and Plato had two contrasting notions of what art was. Plato saw art as imitations of ordinary life. Art was a “mimesis” to Plato, a representation of nature. Aristotle, however, saw art as a catalyst to represent the “essence” and inner value of an object. He challenged his mentor’s concept of mimesis and believed that mimesis involved mathematical concepts such as symmetry and proportion, as well as specific perspectives for the viewer. To him, the form completed itself as related to its functioning, such as "the heart to the form to serve its function of pumping blood."¹Art, in Aristotle’s view, was infused with life and truth when it captured the very essence of the subject. He goes as far as saying that “it is possible to judge a man’s character from their physical appearance if one grants that body and soul change together in all natural affections,” and that should a lion showcase bravery through large extremities, man could follow suit.² This Aristotelian value is reflected throughout European art, most notably in Greek art, of course, Roman sculptures, and Byzantine iconography.

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¹O’Hear, Anthony. 2012. “On Sculpture.” Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplements 71: 1-12. 2012. https://www-cambridge-org.ezproxy.lib.ucalgary.ca/core/journals/royal-institute-of-philosophy-supplements/article/on-sculpture/9A08ADF4BCD42A489C3F63412D5B412B.

²Maguire, Henry. 2022. “Essence and Accident: Byzantine Portraiture and Aristotelian Philosophy.” Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 46 (1): 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1017/byz.2021.28.

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Credit: Marie-Lan Nguyen, Laocoön and his sons, 2008, Photograph, 2.4 m, Vatican Museum, Vatican City,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Laocoon_Pio-Clementino_

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Laocoön and his sons is an icon of the Hellenistic period with its dynamic and expressive portrayal of Laocoon’s tragic fate. Although its origins are questioned and theorized to be a copy of a bronze original, this sculpture is prominent in art history nonetheless. It is seen as a break from the idealized approach in classical sculpture-making due to its emotional style. Pain is evident on Laocoön’s face as he attempts to free himself and his sons from the serpents sent from Athena as a punishment for questioning the motive behind the Trojan horse. Every single muscle and nerve in Laocoon’s body displays agony and pain. White marble allows spectators to observe the tense and contracting muscles within Laocoon’s body, most prominently on his abdomen and arms. He is frozen in time as he lengthens his upper body in preparation for what seems to be a strike against the serpents or as an attempt to untangle himself. Viewers immediately feel a great sense of despair, and some might even reach a state of catharsis, a theory explored by Aristotle.

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Fig. 1, Gold coin of Alexander, reverse, St.John the Baptist crowning the Emperor. 

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Fig. 1, Gold coin of Alexander, reverse, St.John the Baptist crowning the Emperor. 

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Credit: Henry Maguire, Gold coin of Alexander's reverse St.John the Baptist crowning the Emperor, 2022, Photograph, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC, https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Gold-coin-of-Alexander-reverse-St-John-the-Baptist-crowning-the-emperor-Credit_fig5_359595216

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Fig.2, Seal of Theodotos protospatharios.

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Fig.2, Seal of Theodotos protospatharios.

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Credit: Henry Maguire, Seal of Theodotos protospatharios, 2022, Photograph, Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, DC, https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Gold-coin-of-Alexander-reverse-St-John-the-Baptist-crowning-the-emperor-Credit_fig5_359595216.

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Aristotelian logic is present in Byzantine icons and, most prominently, in saintly portrayals. A saint’s portrait captured particularity rather than similarity. Choniates stated "that the inner character of the soul is revealed by the external characteristics of the body," which takes root in Aristotle's concept of mimesis. ¹ Byzantine iconophiles utilized this Aristotelian logic when defending the use of religious icons during Iconoclasm. Rather than using words on the coins or seals to highlight the holiness of a sacred body, Byzantine artists used physical characteristics amongst saints. For example, in the gold coin of Alexander (Fig.1), St. John the Baptist‘s identity is not written on the coin, but his characterization of a long face and long beard, a stole, and a wisp of hair on his forehead, all point to a standard representation of himself during that time. The seal of Theodotos protospatharios showcases the exact characteristics of St. John, cementing their connection. Saints were also individualized and recognized in portraits through their supplicants. It is also essential to note the characterization of the emperor. His body is bulky and square compared to the thinly St.John crowning him. Using bodily characteristics is crucial in differentiating holy bodies from royal bodies. Regal figures were portrayed as more vital, voluminous, and sturdier, while sacred figures were made out to be malnourished.

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¹ Maguire, Henry. 2022. “Essence and Accident: Byzantine Portraiture and Aristotelian Philosophy.” Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 46 (1): 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1017/byz.2021.28.

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Credit: Alexander van Loon, The Bronzes of Riace, 2019, National Archaeological Museum of Reggio Calabria, Italy, https://www.worldhistory.org/image/9986/the-br

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The Riace Bronzes, subject to John Boardman's review in "Due Bronzi di Riace," epitomize the embodiment of Greek philosophical ideals, notably resonating with Aristotelian values of aesthetics and tragedy in their portrayal of the human form.¹ These sculptures, discovered off the coast of Riace in Italy, are towering and meticulously crafted bronze figures of ancient warriors. Their anatomical precision and idealized proportions reflect the Greek pursuit of balance, harmony, and the ideal human physique—a core tenet of Aristotelian aesthetics. These ideals, rooted in the philosophical belief in the beauty of the natural world, underscore the statues' lifelike features, poised stances, and detailed musculature, elevating the representation of the human form to an idealized state. Furthermore, these sculptures evoke the tragic aspect of Greek thought, capturing a sense of pathos and emotional depth through their expressions, posture, and sheer physicality, embodying the notion of tragedy as a powerful artistic vehicle to evoke profound human emotions. Thus, the Riace Bronzes serve as a testament to how Greek philosophy, particularly Aristotelian values of beauty, balance, and tragedy, have influenced the portrayal of human anatomy and form in art throughout history.

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¹John Boardman. “The Riace Bronzes.” The Classical Review 36, no. 2 (1986): 282–84.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/3064572.

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Credit: Habari1, Discus Thrower, 2010 Photograph, 2592 x 3872,  Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome https://www.istockphoto.com/photo/discus-thrower-roman-marble-s

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Greek philosophy, particularly the Aristotelian values of aesthetics and tragedy, profoundly echoes in the portrayal of the human form and anatomy in art throughout history. The Discobolus statue by Myron, crafted around 450 BCE, epitomizes the Greek fascination with humanism and the pursuit of perfect bodily form. Reflecting Aristotelian aesthetics, the sculpture emphasizes the body's physicality over internal emotions, featuring a generic, expressionless face to concentrate attention on the physique.¹ Myron's work embodies the classical Greek ideal of celebrating athleticism and human anatomy, aligning with Aristotle's emphasis on the aesthetic appeal of the human body. The statue's portrayal of a discus thrower captures the grace and dynamism of the athlete's movement, showcasing a realistic depiction of human anatomy through the meticulously sculpted musculature.² Furthermore, the Severe Style evident in the statue, characteristic of the Early Classical period, highlights the emphasis on symmetrical, generic features and the focus on the body's physicality, resonating with Aristotelian notions of visual beauty and proportion. This masterpiece, albeit a Roman copy, serves as a testament to Greek values, honoring the significance of athletes in society and art, thus echoing the aesthetic principles espoused by Greek philosophy, particularly those of Aristotle, across ages.

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¹ Horton, Richard. 2015. “Beauty, the Body, and Identity.” The Lancet 385 (9977): 1499–1500. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(15)60741-3.

² Schmalbeck, Sabine. 2015. “Diskobolos.” Furman University Scholar Exchange. 2015. https://scholarexchange.furman.edu/art231/12/.

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Laocoön and his sons; An Aristotelian analysis of tragedy.

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Laocoön and his sons; An Aristotelian analysis of tragedy.

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Catharsis. The word derives from Greek roots meaning “purification” or “clarification”. When considering this etymology, catharsis means the purification of emotions, such as fear and pity, through art. ¹ Aristotle first mentions catharsis in his Poetics when analyzing tragic art. His definition of the term was not elaborated thoroughly in that treatise. Much of the concept of “catharsis” we know now results from centuries of debate among scholars. However, Aristotle’s use of “catharsis” did not imply the total purge of emotions but as a beautiful metaphor for an odd feeling of tragic pleasure and being washed or cleansed.² When viewing something so grotesque or tragic, our fears are being directed toward that object and are punctured. Through this, we gain control over irrational feelings.

When observing the representation of Laocoön and his sons through this philosophical viewpoint, we experience catharsis. At first glance, we pity Laocoön and fear the serpent that wraps around his body and the bodies of his sons. We experience Laocoön's terror ourselves. The allure of the tragic sculpture outweighs the desire to look away and extinguish the heavy emotions we feel. Ultimately, we overcome the fear within our minds, replaced with self-discovery, to admire the portrayal of Laocoön and his sons, thus leading to a state of catharsis.

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¹ Packer, Mark. 1984. “The Conditions of Aesthetic Feeling in Aristotle’s Poetics. 4th Ed. Vol. 24. .” Google Scholars. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=e102ac94876060c6ae29ce573c9340c130bc7193.

² Francis, Terna Patrick. 2020. “UNDERSTANDING the CONCEPT of CATHARSIS in ARISTOTLE.” AMAMIHE Journal of Applied Philosophy 18 (2). https://www.acjol.org/index.php/ajap/article/view/ajap_v18n2_5/348.

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Polycleitus' renowned work, the Doryphoros, reflects a departure from natural representation, as his notion of proportion transcends mere realism to embody what Quintilian describes as adding "decorum to the human form beyond what is real."¹ This concept of decorum, translated as appropriateness in both ethical and aesthetic terms, goes beyond mere accuracy, aligning with Aristotle's emphasis on aesthetic consistency over strict anatomical fidelity. Polycleitus' pursuit of decorum creates a visual formula that surpasses individual anatomical realities, akin to what Baudrillard termed "hyperreal." Similarly, Philostratus introduces symmetria, highlighting that artistic symmetry isn't merely about anatomical accuracy but rather emphasizes a visual harmony between body parts. Philostratus' obscure reference to the "area below the hip" in sculpture, particularly the exaggerated iliac furrow or "Apollo's Belt," demonstrates a departure from anatomical reality in favor of artistic expression. This departure from strict anatomical accuracy in favor of visual consistency resonates with Aristotelian principles of aesthetic harmony and the prioritization of visual representation over literal anatomical fidelity in art.

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¹ Charles Heiko Stocking. “Greek Ideal as Hyperreal: Greco-Roman Sculpture and the Athletic Male Body.” Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics 21, no. 3 (2014): 45–74.

https://doi.org/10.2307/arion.21.3.0045.