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These were pioneering bilingual schools set up by German communities in Ohio, Pennsylvania, Missouri, Minnesota, North and South Dakota, Wisconsin, and Texas.

These schools are important not only for being early examples of bilingual education in practice if not in name, but also because they demonstrate, and form a part of, a long history of linguistic diversity in this land.

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This act made it so that immigrants were required to speak English in order to become naturalized Americans.

The Nationality Act of 1906 is important because it exemplifies a shifting perspective toward limiting bilingual education during the first two decades of the 20th century.

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Establishment of first modern dual language school in 1963

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Establishment of first modern dual language school in 1963

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Cuban exiles established a Spanish-English dual language school in Florida.

The establishment of this school marks the restoration of bilingual education following the restrictive environment of the previous decades. The fact that this school was established by Cuban exiles with political support and resources from state institutions further underlines the highly politicized nature of bilingual education.

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Lau v. Nichols was a landmark court case involving the rights of students to receive education in a language that they could understand. The ruling held that failing to provide students with an adequate program meeting their linguistic needs was a violation of the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment as well as Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

The court case is significant because it is emblematic of the fight to establish language rights through legal channels. The ruling itself established the right to equal opportunity for language minorities in the classroom. Following the ruling, the Office of Civil Rights formulated a set of guidelines for language minorities, including classes in English as a Second Language, English tutoring, and some form of bilingual education.

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California's Proposition 227 - the 'English for the Children' initiative - severely restricted bilingual education programs. Sheltered (or structured) English-immersion programs replaced bilingual education programs.

Proposition 227 is significant because it illuminates part of the contours of public backlash against bilingual education. Proposition 227 was touted as a way of improving English language instruction to increase students' economic and employment opportunities. Bilingual education programs, according to this rationale, were detrimental to students due to their ineffectiveness at teaching students English and hindering of students' academic achievement.

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Admin. (2020, July 21). The 1963 Coral Way Bilingual Program: The first publicly-funded dual language program in the United States. UF Special Collections Blog. https://ufsasc.domains.uflib.ufl.edu/1963-coral-way-bilingual-program-first-publicly-funded-dual-language-program-united-states-ufsasc/

Baker, C., & Wright, W. E. (2021). Historical introduction to bilingual education in the United States. In Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism (7th ed., pp. 180-207), Multilingual Matters.

German Historical Institute. (2018, August 7). Drawing of german school house, Philadelphia, 1861. Immigrant Entrepreneurship. https://www.immigrantentrepreneurship.org/images/drawing-of-german-school-house-philadelphia-1861/

Hester, J. L. (2017, December 19). How to become an American citizen from the 18th century to today. Atlas Obscura. https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/american-history-process-naturalization-citizenship-historical-society

Kim, H.-J., & Winter, M. (2020, July 9). Language education evolves in U.S., California. San Francisco Public Press. https://www.sfpublicpress.org/language-education-evolves-in-u-s-california/

Republican Ron Unz enters California U.S. senate race | Sacramento bee. (n.d.-b). https://www.sacbee.com/news/politics-government/capitol-alert/article66525082.html