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Speech is how we say sounds and words. People with speech problems may:

not say sounds clearly

have a hoarse or raspy voice

repeat sounds or pause when speaking, called stuttering

Language is the words we use to share ideas and get what we want. A person with a language disorder may have problems:

understanding

talking

reading

writing

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Speech is how we say sounds and words. Language is the words we use to share ideas and get what we want.

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1. Move kids closer to a teacher.
2. Make sure kids write down assignments correctly.
3. Give extra time to complete assignments.
4. Replace written assignments to oral presentation. Allow kids do presentation one-on-one with a teacher.
5. Encourage classmates to be patient when students speak in class.
6. Talk about and celebrate differences. Be mindful of bullying.
7. Use technology to make learning easier.

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1. Having real-time captioning on any videos used in the classroom.

2. Using voice-recognition software on computers.

3. Speech Generating Devices can produce digitized speech when the user either types a message or presses on images, words, or letters.

4. Delayed Auditory Feedback (DAF) devices play the user's voice back delayed by a fraction of a second.

5. Frequency Altered Feedback (FAF) devices are similar to DAF, but rather than delaying the user hearing their own voice. They change the pitch at which the user hears their own voice.

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Speech pathologists and assistive technology

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1.
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.). Speech and Language Disorders. https://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/

2.
Speech and Language Disorders Factsheet (for Schools) (for Parents) - Nemours KidsHealth. (2021, March 1). Speech and Language Disorders Factsheet (for Schools) (for Parents) - Nemours KidsHealth. https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/speech-language-factsheet.html

3.
LibGuides: Speech Disorders: Common Assistive Technologies. (n.d.). https://guides.library.illinois.edu/c.php?g=613892&p=4265891

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Orthopedic Impairment: "means a severe orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a student’s educational performance. The term includes impairments caused by congenital anomaly (for example, club foot, absence of some member), impairments caused by disease (for example, poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis), and impairments from other causes (such as, cerebral palsy, amputations, fractures or burns that cause contractures, etc.)."
-Fairfax County Public Schools Website
Definitions of the 14 disability categories (Virginia Department of Education, 2019)

These can also range from genetic abnormalities to disorders or environmental factors (i.e. trauma/injury, or surgery). Includes Bones, Joints, as well as muscle related disability that are so severe it negatively affects the student's educational performance. These can also be called "Physical Disabilities"

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Autism: means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three, which adversely affects a student's educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences. Autism does not apply if a student's educational performance is adversely affected primarily because the child has an emotional disability. A student who manifests the characteristics of autism after age three could be identified as having autism if the criteria in this definition are satisfied.

Deaf-Blindness: means simultaneous hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that the student cannot be accommodated in special educational programs solely for students with deafness or students with blindness.

Deafness: means a hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification, which adversely affects the student's educational performance.

Developmental Delay: means a disability affecting a child aged two (by September 30) to six, inclusive (age two up to age seven), who is experiencing developmental delays, as measured by appropriate diagnostic instruments and procedures, in one or more of the following areas: physical development, cognitive development, communication development, social or emotional development, adaptive development, or has an established physical or mental condition that has a high probability of resulting in developmental delays.

Emotional Disability: means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a student's educational performance:

1. An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors

2. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers

3. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances

4. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression, or

5. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems. The term includes schizophrenia. The term does not apply to students who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an emotional disability.

Hearing Impairment: means impairment in hearing, in one or both ears, with or without amplification, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a student's educational performance but is not included under the definition of deafness.

Intellectual Disability: means significantly below-average general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior, and manifested during the developmental period, that adversely affects a student's educational performance (deficits in cognitive ability and adaptive behavior that are not primarily caused by visual or auditory deficits; motor deficits; emotional disability; learning disability; environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage; and/or limited English proficiency).

Multiple Disabilities: means simultaneous impairments (for example, intellectual disability with blindness or intellectual disability with an orthopedic impairment), the combination of which causes such severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for one of the impairments. The term does not include deaf- blindness.

Orthopedic Impairment: means a severe orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a student's educational performance. The term includes impairments caused by congenital anomaly (for example, club foot, absence of some member), impairments caused by disease (for example, poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis), and impairments from other causes (such as, cerebral palsy, amputations, fractures or burns that cause contractures, etc.).

Other Health Impairment: means having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that:

1. Is due to chronic or acute health problems such as a heart condition, tuberculosis, rheumatic fever, nephritis, arthritis, asthma, sickle cell anemia, hemophilia, epilepsy, lead poisoning, leukemia, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, and Tourette syndrome, and

2. Adversely affects a student's educational performance.

Specific Learning Disability: means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. The term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; of intellectual disabilities; of emotional disabilities; or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.

Speech/Language Impairment: means a communication disorder such as stuttering disorder, impaired articulation, expressive language and/or receptive language impairment, or voice impairments that adversely affects a student's educational performance.

Traumatic Brain Injury: an acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability, psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a student's educational performance. The term applies to open or closed head injuries resulting in impairments in one or more areas, such as cognition, language, memory, attention, reasoning, abstract thinking, judgment, problem solving, psychosocial behavior, physical functions, information processing, speech, and sensory, perceptual, and/or motor abilities. The term does not apply to brain injuries that are congenital or degenerative or to brain injuries induced by birth trauma.

Visual Impairment: means impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a student's educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and blindness.

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Definitions of the 14 disability categories.

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Usually students with orthopedic impairments will usually have the same cognitive abilities as their fellow classmates without disabilities. So, school staff should try and include these students in mainstream regular classes as much as possible given their situation. “The IDEA law says that students should be educated in the least restrictive environment when appropriate”.

Of course, the extent to which a student’s education is affected due to their impairment differs. Factors include the type and severity. While majority of students with an orthopedic impairment don’t have any cognitive or learning issues, some may have neurological or motor issues that might affect sensory processing, perception, and learning.

Some strategies could include:
1. Classroom or seating arrangement closer to the front of the class and near exits

2. Allowing them to leave class a few minutes earlier to avoid student traffic to comfortably reach their next class

3. Elevator key access

4. Implementation or ramps around the campus

5. Possible excused from Physical Education activities when permitted or deemed needed

6. Student aid or assistant

7. Use of technology to enhance or lighten the learning processes

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1. Specialized orthotics or prosthetics to help or improve gross or fine motor skills

2. Electric wheelchairs

3. Specialized desks

4. Canes, crutches, or walkers

5. Communication software

6. Speech recognition software

7. Adaptive equipment for exercise or physical education (i.e. adjustable basketball hoops, velcro catcher, etc.)

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Classroom Interventions for a Child with Orthopedic Impairment

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Fairfax County Public Schools

Disability Categories “Definitions of the 14 disability categories (Virginia Department of Education, 2019)

Retrieved March 14, 2023

https://www.fcps.edu/academics/academic-overview/special-education-instruction/procedural-support-disability-categories

verywellfamily

What Are Orthopedic Impairments in Kids? By Ann Logsdon (Updated on September 21, 2022)

Medically reviewed by Lyndsey Garbi, MD

Retrieved March 15, 2023

https://www.verywellfamily.com/what-is-orthopedic-impairment-2162506

study.com

Assistive Technology for Orthopedic Impairments

Retrieved March 15, 2023

https://study.com/academy/lesson/assistive-technology-for-orthopedic-impairments.html

YouTube

Classroom Interventions for a Child with Orthopedic Impairment by Clarisse Palacio (Oct. 4, 2020)

Retrieved March 15, 2023

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KcHiX57WgEA

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Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

Is a condition related to brain development that impacts how a person perceives and socializes with others, causing problems in a social interaction and communication.

ASD also includes limited and repetitive patterns of behavior.

The term spectrum refers to a wide range of symptoms.

While autism is considered a lifelong disorder, the degree of impairment in functioning because of these challenges varies between individuals with autism.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

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Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disability caused by differences in the brain. Some people with ASD have a known difference, such as a genetic condition. Other causes are not yet known. Scientists believe there are multiple causes of ASD that act together to change the most common ways people develop. We still have much to learn about these causes and how they impact people with ASD.

People with ASD may behave, communicate, interact, and learn in ways that are different from most other people. There is often nothing about how they look that sets them apart from other people. The abilities of people with ASD can vary significantly. For example, some people with ASD may have advanced conversation skills whereas others may be nonverbal. Some people with ASD need a lot of help in their daily lives; others can work and live with little to no support.

ASD begins before the age of 3 years and can last throughout a person's life, although symptoms may improve over time. Some children show ASD symptoms within the first 12 months of life. In others, symptoms may not show up until 24 months of age or later. Some children with ASD gain new skills and meet developmental milestones until around 18 to 24 months of age, and then they stop gaining new skills or lose the skills they once had.

As children with ASD become adolescents and young adults, they may have difficulties developing and maintaining friendships, communicating with peers and adults, or understanding what behaviors are expected in school or on the job. They may come to the attention of healthcare providers because they also have conditions such as anxiety, depression, or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, which occur more often in people with ASD than in people without ASD.

Signs and Symptoms

People with ASD often have problems with social communication and interaction, and restricted or repetitive behaviors or interests. People with ASD may also have different ways of learning, moving, or paying attention. These characteristics can make life very challenging. It is important to note that some people without ASD might also have some of these symptoms.
Learn more about signs and symptoms of ASD "
Diagnosis

Diagnosing ASD can be difficult since there is no medical test, like a blood test, to diagnose the disorder. Doctors look at the child's behavior and development to make a diagnosis. ASD can sometimes be detected at 18 months of age or younger. By age 2, a diagnosis by an experienced professional can be considered reliable. However, many children do not receive a final diagnosis until they are much older. Some people are not diagnosed until they are adolescents or adults. This delay means that people with ASD might not get the early help they need.
Learn more about screening and diagnosis of ASD "
Treatment

Current treatments for ASD seek to reduce symptoms that interfere with daily functioning and quality of life. ASD affects each person differently, meaning that people with ASD have unique strengths and challenges and different treatment needs. 2 Treatment plans usually involve multiple professionals and are catered to the individual.
Learn about treating the symptoms of ASD "
Risk Factors

There is not just one cause of ASD. There are many different factors that have been identified that may make a child more likely to have ASD, including environmental, biologic, and genetic factors.

Although we know little about specific causes, the available evidence suggests that the following may put children at greater risk for developing ASD:

Having a sibling with ASD

Having certain genetic or chromosomal conditions, such as fragile X syndrome or tuberous sclerosis

Experiencing complications at birth

Being born to older parents

CDC is currently working on one of the largest U.S. studies to date on ASD. This study called the Study to Explore Early Development (SEED), was designed to look at the risk factors and behaviors related with ASD. CDC is now conducting a follow-up study of older children who were enrolled in SEED to determine the health, functioning, and needs of people with ASD and other developmental disabilities as they mature.

How Often ASD Occurs

CDC's Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network has been estimating the number of 8-year-old children with ASD in the United States since 2000.

ASD occurs in all racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups. It is more than 4 times more common among boys than among girls.
Learn more about how CDC estimates the number of children with ASD "
If You're Concerned

As a parent, you already have what it takes to help your young child learn and grow. CDC has developed materials to help you track your child's developmental milestones and share that progress, or any concerns, with your child's doctor at every check-up.
Learn more about CDC milestone checklists and other parent materials "
Contact your child's doctor if you think your child might have ASD or if you have any other concerns about the way your child plays, learns, speaks, or acts.

If you are still concerned, ask the doctor for a referral to a specialist who can do a more in-depth evaluation of your child. Specialists who can do a more in-depth evaluation and make a diagnosis include

Developmental pediatricians (doctors who have special training in child development and children with special needs)

Child neurologists (doctors who work on the brain, spine, and nerves)

Child psychologists or psychiatrists (doctors who know about the human mind)

At the same time, call your state's public early childhood system to request a free evaluation, sometimes called a Child Find evaluation, to find out if your child qualifies for intervention services. You do not need to wait for a doctor's referral or a medical diagnosis to make this call.

Where to call for a free evaluation from the state depends on your child's age:

If your child is not yet 3 years old, contact your local early intervention system.
You can find the right contact information for your state by calling the Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center (ECTA) at 919-962-2001.

If your child is 3 years old or older, contact your local public school system.

Even if your child is not yet old enough for kindergarten or enrolled in a public school, call your local elementary school or board of education and ask to speak with someone who can help you have your child evaluated.

If you're not sure who to contact, call the ECTA at 919-962-2001.

Research shows that early intervention services can greatly improve a child's development. In order to make sure your child reaches their full potential, it is very important to receive services as soon as possible.

References

1. Lord C, Risi S, DiLavore PS, Shulman C, Thurm A, Pickles A. Autism from 2 to 9 years of age. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006 Jun;63(6):694-701.

2. Hyman, S.L., Levy, S.E., Myers, S.M., & AAP Council on Children with Disabilities, Section on developmental and behavioral pediatrics. (2020). Identification, evaluation, and management of children with autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics, 145(1), e20193447.

3. Handleman, J.S., Harris, S., eds. Preschool Education Programs for Children with Autism (2nd ed). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. 2000.

4. National Research Council. Educating Children with Autism. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001.

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Basics About Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) | NCBDDD | CDC

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Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) are a group of developmental disabilities that can cause significant social, communication and behavioral challenges. CDC is working to find out how many children have ASDs, discover the risk factors, and raise awareness of the signs.

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How to Identify -Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

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How to Identify -Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

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There is a range of debates on the use of language when identifying individuals with ASD.

"In the autism community, many self-advocates and their allies prefer terminology such as “Autistic,” “Autistic person,” or “Autistic individual” because we understand autism as an inherent part of an individual’s identity — the same way one refers to “Muslims,” “African-Americans,” “Lesbian/Gay/Bisexual/Transgender/Queer,” “Chinese,” “gifted,” “athletic,” or “Jewish.” On the other hand, many parents of Autistic people and professionals who work with Autistic people prefer terminology such as “person with autism,” “people with autism,” or “individual with ASD” because they do not consider autism to be part of an individual’s identity and do not want their children to be identified or referred to as “Autistic.” They want “person-first language,” that puts “person” before any identifier such as “autism,” in order to emphasize the humanity of their children." (autisticadvocacy.org)

Supporters of person-first language wish to focus on the person versus the disorder/disability. and promote the use of terms such as, "person with autism" or "a person with ASD."

However, some people within the autism community have questioned the use of person-first terms because since they draw attention to the disability. Moreover, autistic individuals and their families are beginning to support the use of i dentity-first language that embraces all aspects of one's identity.

Based on the research, I believe it is best to communicate with each individual on their desire for identification language, whether it be person-first language or identity-first language. Everyone is entitled to be referred to by their desired label.

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What are assistive technologies?

The Technology Related Assistance to Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988 described an assistive technology device as "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities."

ASD is not the same for any one person, therefore a variety of tools are available to support an enhance communication for people with autism regardless of their speech ability.

Assistive Autism Technology can be broken into 3 parts.

Low Tech -AT includes anything that needs no electricity; think weighted vests, sensory balls, or picture boards.

Mid Tech- inexpensive and easy to operate. Examples include battery-operated sensory toys, visual timers, and social skills videos.

High Tech- is digital technology and can include anything from augmentative communication technology for non-verbal people to robots built to increase social skills in children on the spectrum. These are more speech generated devices to assist with communication or understanding social cues.

It's easy to forget how helpful these tools can be for the autism community since so many are verbal. Hopefully these tools can assist your student/individuals needs better to allow their learning experience to the fullest.  Here is a list of helpful ways assistive technology can create a fuller life for people with autism spectrum disorder.

Basic communication

Reading, writing, and math

Telling time and managing schedules

Learning and using social skills

Managing sensory challenges

Staying safe

Activities of daily living (managing household chores and self-care)

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Traumatic brain injury (TBI) happens when a sudden, external, physical assault damages the brain.

TBI is a broad term that describes a vast array of injuries that happen to the brain.
1. The damage can be focal (confined to one area of the brain)
2. or diffuse (happens in more than one area of the brain).

The severity of a brain injury can range from a mild concussion to a severe injury that results in coma or even death.

Possible results TBI:

Cognitive deficits:
Coma, Confusion, Shortened attention span, Memory problems and amnesia, Problem-solving deficits, Problems with judgment, Inability to understand abstract concepts, Loss of sense of time and space, Decreased awareness of self and others, Inability to accept more than one- or two-step commands at the same time

Motor deficits:

Paralysis or weakness

Spasticity (tightening and shortening of the muscles)

Poor balance

Decreased endurance

Inability to plan motor movements

Delays in getting started

Tremors

Swallowing problems

Poor coordination

Perceptual or sensory deficits:

Changes in hearing, vision, taste, smell, and touch

Loss of sensation or heightened sensation of body parts

Left- or right-sided neglect

Difficulty understanding where limbs are in relation to the body

Vision problems, including double vision, lack of visual acuity, or limited range of vision

Communication and language deficits

Difficulty speaking and understanding speech (aphasia)

Difficulty choosing the right words to say (aphasia)

Difficulty reading (alexia) or writing (agraphia)

Difficulty knowing how to perform certain very common actions

Slow, hesitant speech and decreased vocabulary

Difficulty forming sentences that make sense

Problems identifying objects and their function

Problems with reading, writing, and ability to work with numbers

Functional deficits

Impaired ability with activities of daily living (ADLs)

Problems with organization, shopping, or paying bills

Inability to drive a car or operate machinery

Social difficulties

Impaired social capacity resulting in difficult interpersonal relationships

Difficulties in making and keeping friends

Difficulties understanding and responding to the nuances of social interaction

Regulatory disturbance

Fatigue

Changes in sleep patterns and eating habits

Dizziness

Headache

Loss of bowel and bladder control

Personality or psychiatric changes

Apathy

Decreased motivation

Emotional lability

Irritability

Anxiety and depression

Disinhibition, including temper flare-ups, aggression, cursing, lowered frustration tolerance, and inappropriate sexual behavior

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What is traumatic brain injury?

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) happens when a sudden, external, physical assault damages the brain. It is one of the most common causes of disability and death in adults. TBI is a broad term that describes a vast array of injuries that happen to the brain. The damage can be focal (confined to one area of the brain) or diffuse (happens in more than one area of the brain). The severity of a brain injury can range from a mild concussion to a severe injury that results in coma or even death.

What are the different types of TBI?

Brain injury may happen in one of two ways:

Closed brain injury. Closed brain injuries happen when there is a nonpenetrating injury to the brain with no break in the skull. A closed brain injury is caused by a rapid forward or backward movement and shaking of the brain inside the bony skull that results in bruising and tearing of brain tissue and blood vessels. Closed brain injuries are usually caused by car accidents, falls, and increasingly, in sports. Shaking a baby can also result in this type of injury (called shaken baby syndrome).

Penetrating brain injury. Penetrating, or open head injuries happen when there is a break in the skull, such as when a bullet pierces the brain.

What is diffuse axonal injury (DAI)?

Diffuse axonal injury is the shearing (tearing) of the brain's long connecting nerve fibers (axons) that happens when the brain is injured as it shifts and rotates inside the bony skull. DAI usually causes coma and injury to many different parts of the brain. The changes in the brain are often microscopic and may not be evident on computed tomography (CT scan) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans.

What is primary and secondary brain injury?

Primary brain injury refers to the sudden and profound injury to the brain that is considered to be more or less complete at the time of impact. This happens at the time of the car accident, gunshot wound, or fall.

Secondary brain injury refers to the changes that evolve over a period of hours to days after the primary brain injury. It includes an entire series of steps or stages of cellular, chemical, tissue, or blood vessel changes in the brain that contribute to further destruction of brain tissue.

What causes a head injury?

There are many causes of head injury in children and adults. The most common injuries are from motor vehicle accidents (where the person is either riding in the car or is struck as a pedestrian), violence, falls, or as a result of shaking a child (as seen in cases of child abuse).

What causes bruising and internal damage to the brain?

When there is a direct blow to the head, the bruising of the brain and the damage to the internal tissue and blood vessels is due to a mechanism called coup-contrecoup. A bruise directly related to trauma at the site of impact is called a coup lesion (pronounced COO). As the brain jolts backward, it can hit the skull on the opposite side and cause a bruise called a contrecoup lesion. The jarring of the brain against the sides of the skull can cause shearing (tearing) of the internal lining, tissues, and blood vessels leading to internal bleeding, bruising, or swelling of the brain.

What are the possible results of brain injury?

Some brain injuries are mild, with symptoms disappearing over time with proper attention. Others are more severe and may result in permanent disability. The long-term or permanent results of brain injury may need post-injury and possibly lifelong rehabilitation. Effects of brain injury may include:

Can the brain heal after being injured?

Most studies suggest that once brain cells are destroyed or damaged, for the most part, they do not regenerate. However, recovery after brain injury can take place, especially in younger people, as, in some cases, other areas of the brain make up for the injured tissue. In other cases, the brain learns to reroute information and function around the damaged areas. The exact amount of recovery is not predictable at the time of injury and may be unknown for months or even years. Each brain injury and rate of recovery is unique. Recovery from a severe brain injury often involves a prolonged or lifelong process of treatment and rehabilitation.

What is coma?

Coma is an altered state of consciousness that may be very deep (unconsciousness) so that no amount of stimulation will cause the patient to respond. It can also be a state of reduced consciousness, so that the patient may move about or respond to pain. Not all patients with brain injury are comatose. The depth of coma, and the time a patient spends in a coma varies greatly depending on the location and severity of the brain injury. Some patients emerge from a coma and have a good recovery. Other patients have significant disabilities.

How is coma measured?

Depth of the coma is usually measured in the emergency and intensive care settings using a Glasgow coma scale. The scale (from 3 to 15) evaluates eye opening, verbal response, and motor response. A high score shows a greater amount of consciousness and awareness.

In rehabilitation settings, here are several scales and measures used to rate and record the progress of the patient. Some of the most common of these scales are described below.

Rancho Los Amigos 10 Level Scale of Cognitive Functioning. This is a revision of the original Rancho 8 Level Scale, which is based on how the patient reacts to external stimuli and the environment. The scales consist of 10 different levels and each patient will progress through the levels with starts and stops, progress and plateaus.

Disability Rating Scale (DRS). This scale measures functional change during the course of recovery rating the person's disability level from none to extreme. The DRS assesses cognitive and physical function, impairment, disability, and handicap and can track a person's progress from "coma to community."

Functional Independent Measure (FIM). The FIM scale measures a person's level of independence in activities of daily living. Scores can range from 1 (complete dependence) to 7 (complete independence).

Functional Assessment Measure (FAM). This measure is used along with FIM and was developed specifically for people with brain injury.

The Brain Injury Rehabilitation Program

Rehabilitation of the patient with a brain injury begins during the acute treatment phase. As the patient's condition improves, a more extensive rehabilitation program is often begun. The success of rehabilitation depends on many variables, including the following:

Nature and severity of the brain injury

Type and degree of any resulting impairments and disabilities

Overall health of the patient

Family support

It is important to focus on maximizing the patient's capabilities at home and in the community. Positive reinforcement helps recovery by improving self-esteem and promoting independence.

The goal of brain injury rehabilitation is to help the patient return to the highest level of function and independence possible, while improving the overall quality of life- physically, emotionally, and socially.

Areas covered in brain injury rehabilitation programs may include:

Self-care skills, including activities of daily living (ADLs): feeding, grooming, bathing, dressing, toileting, and sexual functioning

Physical care: nutritional needs, medicines, and skin care

Mobility skills: walking, transfers, and self-propelling a wheelchair

Communication skills: speech, writing, and alternative methods of communication

Cognitive skills: speech, writing, and alternative methods of communication

Socialization skills: interacting with others at home and within the community

Vocational training: work-related skills

Pain management: medicines and alternative methods of managing pain

Psychological testing and counseling: identifying problems and solutions with thinking, behavioral, and emotional issues

Family support: assistance with adapting to lifestyle changes, financial concerns, and discharge planning

Education: patient and family education and training about brain injury, safety issues, home care needs, and adaptive techniques

The Brain Injury Rehabilitation Team

The brain injury rehabilitation team revolves around the patient and family and helps set short- and long-term treatment goals for recovery. Many skilled professionals are part of the brain injury rehabilitation team, including any or all of the following:

Types of Brain Injury Rehabilitation Programs

There are a variety of brain injury treatment programs, including the following:

Acute rehabilitation programs

Subacute rehabilitation programs

Long-term rehabilitation programs

Transitional living programs

Behavior management programs

Day-treatment programs

Independent living programs

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Acquired brain injury hapens when a sudden, external, physical assault damages the brain. It is one of the most common causes of disability and death in adults.

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Helping Teachers Working with Children with TBI

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Living with Brain Injuries Taught Us Advocacy | Brandon Kidney Lauren Migliaccio | TEDxCSU

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How a brain injury made me smarter- TedTalk

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How a brain injury made me smarter- TedTalk

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How a brain injury made me smarter: Ann Zuccardy at TEDxPhoenixville

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Educators may need to:

Provide repetition and consistency

Demonstrate new tasks, state instructions, and provide examples to illustrate ideas and concepts

Avoid figurative language

Reinforce lengthening periods of attention to appropriate tasks

Probe skill acquisition frequently and provide repeated practice

Teach compensatory strategies for increasing memory

Be prepared for students' reduced stamina and increased fatigue and provide rest breaks as needed

Keep the environment as distraction-free as possible

Initially, it may be important for teachers to gauge whether the child can follow one-step instructions well before challenging the child with a sequence of two or more directions. Often attention is focused on the child's disabilities after the injury, which reduces self-esteem; therefore, it is important to build opportunities for success and to maximize the child's strengths.

Find out as much as you can about the child's injury and his or her present needs. Find out more about TBI. See the list of resources and organizations at the end of this publication.

Give the student more time to finish schoolwork and tests

Give directions one step at a time. For tasks with many steps, it helps to give the student written directions

Show the student how to perform new tasks. Give examples to go with new ideas and concepts

Have consistent routines. This helps the student know what to expect. If the routine is going to change, let the student know ahead of time

Check to make sure that the student has actually learned the new skill. Give the student lots of opportunities to practice the new skill

Show the student how to use an assignment book and a daily schedule. This helps the student get organized

Realize that the student may tire quickly. Let the student rest as needed

Reduce distractions

Keep in touch with the student's parents. Share information about how the student is doing at home and at school

Be flexible about expectations. Be patient. Maximize the student's chances for success

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The Technology Related Assistance to Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988 described an assistive technology device as "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities."

Assistive technologies can be "high tech" and "low tech:" from canes and lever doorknobs to voice recognition software and augmentative communication devices (speech generating devices).

Characteristics:

For students with brain injury (and other students), effective assistive technology tends to have the following characteristics:

It has meaning to the student using it.

It is minimally intrusive

It provides assistance without unnecessarily controlling the student’s day-to-day activities.

It requires skills the student has; the student is not overwhelmed by the device or strategy and has the
background to use it easily.

It is universally accessible or at least accessible to a majority of other people.

It doesn’t make the individuals using it stand out or feel different when using it.

It has built-in prompting, which can decrease over time as the student’s independence increases.

It is supported by the environment; people around the student understand how to use the technology
and can help the student when needed.

Devices for Memory and Organization:

These assistive technology devices focus on helping the student with memory and organization difficulties. This includes a wide range of devices:

calendar boards

schedule organizers

voice organizers

medication reminders

Smartphones

specialized watches

Devices to Access Information: These assistive technology devices focus on aiding the student to access the educational material. These devices include:

speech recognition software

screen reading software

tinted overlays for reading (this may help with visual processing)

academic software packages for students with disabilities

Devices for Positioning and Mobility: These assistive technology devices focus on helping the student participate in educational activities. These devices include:

canes

crutches

wheelchairs

specialized beds

specialized chairs, desks, and tables

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Brainline. (2018, August 15). Classroom Interventions for Students with Traumatic Brain Injuries | BrainLine. BrainLine. https://www.brainline.org/article/classroom-interventions-students-traumatic-brain-injuries

Helping Teachers Working with Children with TBI. Retrieved March 16, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3be-_zIHKNg

‌Johns Hopkins Medicine. (2019). Traumatic Brain Injury. JOHNS HOPKINS MEDICINE. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/ traumatic-brain-injury

Social Sciences, H. (n.d.). LibGuides: Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): Common Assistive Technologies. Guides.library.illinois.edu. https://guides.library.illinois.edu/c.php?g=497977&p=3409451

TBI Tips Assistive Technology in the Classroom. (n.d.). Retrieved March 16, 2023, from https://cbirt.org/sites/cbirt.org/files/resources/Assistive%20Technology%20in%20the%20Classroom_tips.pdf

‌

Texas Council for Developmental Disabilities. (2013). Traumatic Brain Injury - Project IDEAL. Project IDEAL. http://www.projectidealonline.org/v/traumatic-brain-injury/

TEDx Talks. (2017). Living with Brain Injuries Taught Us Advocacy | Brandon Kidney Lauren Migliaccio | TEDxCSU. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B6geJpXVR8Q

TEDx Talks. (2013). How a brain injury made me smarter: Ann Zuccardy at TEDxPhoenixville. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=08HkZgTIYm8

‌

Traumatic Brain Injury in the Classroom: How to Excel in School After TBI. (2020, May 18). Flint Rehab. https://www.flintrehab.com/traumatic-brain-injury-in-the-classroom/

‌

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) in Kids. (2015). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OiLBPsTRLnQ

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Assigned to student who has selected to pause. Not to be assessed.

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While there is no cure for ASD it is believed that there are a variety of ways to be inclusive with behaviors, actions, and environments. They are referred to as 'interventions' which are behavioral educational, and medically based.

According to the National Autistic Society "they do not know much about how effective these interventions are – very few have been independently or scientifically evaluated. It can also be hard to find information about the long-term or negative effects of using them."

The NAS recommends the following fundamentals

be person-centered and promote autistic people’s dignity

keep people safe, healthy and happy

enable autistic people to do the things they love

never try and make someone "less autistic"

never use punishment.

It is advised to remember that Autism is a spectrum and no one individual is the same, therefore it should always be approached with care and consideration.

It is also important to note the following:

The individual should be central to all decisions;

Potential negative effects should be considered;

Professionals discussing or delivering the approach should ideally have a good understanding of autism;

Treatment should be based on the best available evidence;

Positive and negative effects should be carefully monitored and regularly reviewed.

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https://dadfilm.com.au/

This film discusses how parents strive to build a close knit circle of family and friends to help their children function better within society.

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Autism Spectrum Disorder: 10 things you should know

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1. The Autistic Advocacy Organization https://autisticadvocacy.org/about-asan/identity-first-language/

2. The Centers for Disease Control - Autism Facts
https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/facts.html

3. The Mayo Clinic
https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/autism-spectrum-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20352928

4. Psychiatry Organization- Families with with autism
https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/autism/what-is-autism-spectrum-disorder

5. Autism Speaks Organization

https://www.autismspeaks.org/what-are-symptoms-autism

6. Health Direct Australia

https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/autism#misunderstandings

7. UK Autism Organization

https://www.autism.org.uk/what-we-do/help-and-support/how-to-talk-about-autism
https://www.autism.org.uk/advice-and-guidance/topics/strategies-and-interventions

8. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg170

9. https://guides.library.illinois.edu/c.php?g=515793&p=3526329

10. https://www.autismspeaks.org/tool-kit-excerpt/how-technology-can-help

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

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Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disability caused by differences in the brain. Some people with ASD have a known difference, such as a genetic condition. Other causes are not yet known. Scientists believe there are multiple causes of ASD that act together to change the most common ways people develop. We still have much to learn about these causes and how they impact people with ASD.

People with ASD may behave, communicate, interact, and learn in ways that are different from most other people. There is often nothing about how they look that sets them apart from other people. The abilities of people with ASD can vary significantly. For example, some people with ASD may have advanced conversation skills whereas others may be nonverbal. Some people with ASD need a lot of help in their daily lives; others can work and live with little to no support.

ASD begins before the age of 3 years and can last throughout a person's life, although symptoms may improve over time. Some children show ASD symptoms within the first 12 months of life. In others, symptoms may not show up until 24 months of age or later. Some children with ASD gain new skills and meet developmental milestones until around 18 to 24 months of age, and then they stop gaining new skills or lose the skills they once had.

As children with ASD become adolescents and young adults, they may have difficulties developing and maintaining friendships, communicating with peers and adults, or understanding what behaviors are expected in school or on the job. They may come to the attention of healthcare providers because they also have conditions such as anxiety, depression, or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, which occur more often in people with ASD than in people without ASD.

Signs and Symptoms

People with ASD often have problems with social communication and interaction, and restricted or repetitive behaviors or interests. People with ASD may also have different ways of learning, moving, or paying attention. These characteristics can make life very challenging. It is important to note that some people without ASD might also have some of these symptoms.
Learn more about signs and symptoms of ASD "
Diagnosis

Diagnosing ASD can be difficult since there is no medical test, like a blood test, to diagnose the disorder. Doctors look at the child's behavior and development to make a diagnosis. ASD can sometimes be detected at 18 months of age or younger. By age 2, a diagnosis by an experienced professional can be considered reliable. However, many children do not receive a final diagnosis until they are much older. Some people are not diagnosed until they are adolescents or adults. This delay means that people with ASD might not get the early help they need.
Learn more about screening and diagnosis of ASD "
Treatment

Current treatments for ASD seek to reduce symptoms that interfere with daily functioning and quality of life. ASD affects each person differently, meaning that people with ASD have unique strengths and challenges and different treatment needs. 2 Treatment plans usually involve multiple professionals and are catered to the individual.
Learn about treating the symptoms of ASD "
Risk Factors

There is not just one cause of ASD. There are many different factors that have been identified that may make a child more likely to have ASD, including environmental, biologic, and genetic factors.

Although we know little about specific causes, the available evidence suggests that the following may put children at greater risk for developing ASD:

Having a sibling with ASD

Having certain genetic or chromosomal conditions, such as fragile X syndrome or tuberous sclerosis

Experiencing complications at birth

Being born to older parents

CDC is currently working on one of the largest U.S. studies to date on ASD. This study called the Study to Explore Early Development (SEED), was designed to look at the risk factors and behaviors related with ASD. CDC is now conducting a follow-up study of older children who were enrolled in SEED to determine the health, functioning, and needs of people with ASD and other developmental disabilities as they mature.

How Often ASD Occurs

CDC's Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network has been estimating the number of 8-year-old children with ASD in the United States since 2000.

ASD occurs in all racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups. It is more than 4 times more common among boys than among girls.
Learn more about how CDC estimates the number of children with ASD "
If You're Concerned

As a parent, you already have what it takes to help your young child learn and grow. CDC has developed materials to help you track your child's developmental milestones and share that progress, or any concerns, with your child's doctor at every check-up.
Learn more about CDC milestone checklists and other parent materials "
Contact your child's doctor if you think your child might have ASD or if you have any other concerns about the way your child plays, learns, speaks, or acts.

If you are still concerned, ask the doctor for a referral to a specialist who can do a more in-depth evaluation of your child. Specialists who can do a more in-depth evaluation and make a diagnosis include

Developmental pediatricians (doctors who have special training in child development and children with special needs)

Child neurologists (doctors who work on the brain, spine, and nerves)

Child psychologists or psychiatrists (doctors who know about the human mind)

At the same time, call your state's public early childhood system to request a free evaluation, sometimes called a Child Find evaluation, to find out if your child qualifies for intervention services. You do not need to wait for a doctor's referral or a medical diagnosis to make this call.

Where to call for a free evaluation from the state depends on your child's age:

If your child is not yet 3 years old, contact your local early intervention system.
You can find the right contact information for your state by calling the Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center (ECTA) at 919-962-2001.

If your child is 3 years old or older, contact your local public school system.

Even if your child is not yet old enough for kindergarten or enrolled in a public school, call your local elementary school or board of education and ask to speak with someone who can help you have your child evaluated.

If you're not sure who to contact, call the ECTA at 919-962-2001.

Research shows that early intervention services can greatly improve a child's development. In order to make sure your child reaches their full potential, it is very important to receive services as soon as possible.

References

1. Lord C, Risi S, DiLavore PS, Shulman C, Thurm A, Pickles A. Autism from 2 to 9 years of age. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006 Jun;63(6):694-701.

2. Hyman, S.L., Levy, S.E., Myers, S.M., & AAP Council on Children with Disabilities, Section on developmental and behavioral pediatrics. (2020). Identification, evaluation, and management of children with autism spectrum disorder. Pediatrics, 145(1), e20193447.

3. Handleman, J.S., Harris, S., eds. Preschool Education Programs for Children with Autism (2nd ed). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed. 2000.

4. National Research Council. Educating Children with Autism. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001.

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Basics About Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) | NCBDDD | CDC

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Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) are a group of developmental disabilities that can cause significant social, communication and behavioral challenges. CDC is working to find out how many children have ASDs, discover the risk factors, and raise awareness of the signs.

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Visually Impaired Student(s) (VIS)
"The VIS refers to the student or groups of students with different levels of visual impairments ranging from low vision condition to totally blind and studying in the schools and the universities with inclusive education" (Attachoo, 2020).

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Classroom Instructional Strategies

The teacher can employ the following strategies in the

classroom while teaching language:

Engage the child in the brainstorming process.

Instructions and directions should be provided in the known language.

Information such as objectives and importance about the new activity or lesson should be mentioned clearly.

In the language class, start with the vocabulary with supplemental materials to help the child to get concrete experiences.

Use different reading approaches based on the child’s capacity for elective reading and learning.

Provide plenty of time for repetition and practice for an activity.

Instructions should be given at an appropriate pace and evaluation must be conducted at all times to check the child’s language development. If necessary, reteach the content.

Oral and written language should be taught/presented systematically.

Various Methods and Activities in Teaching Language

1. Work as a Team

2. Multisensory Learning

3. Modeling Strategy

4. Use Real Experiences

5. Braille Reading and Writing

6. Storytelling

7. Cooperative Learning

Source: Dheesha, J. B. 2022

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Students who are unfamiliar with inclusive technology may benefit from being referred to Vision Australia for assessment of their technology needs.

Screen Readers

Camera Scanners, OCR and text -to-speech

Smartphone text detection - OCR - text-to-speech apps

Daisy Player

Braille displays and notetakers

Screen magnification

Graphing and Maths Technology

Source: Australian Disability Clearinghouse on Education and Training, n.d.

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There is no 'typical' vision-impaired student: the impairment may be the result of a range of conditions and its impact will depend on the type, extent and timing of vision loss.

The impact of the impairment on learning will vary significantly according to the nature and extent of vision loss: some students will have been born without vision, others will have lost it gradually; some will have no vision at all, others will have some vision, be light-sensitive, or have limited peripheral vision. It is also possible that vision and light-sensitivity will fluctuate day-to-day.

Students may require adjustments and assistive devices to facilitate access to education. An adjustment may be as simple as a seat near the front of the class, but most students use assistive technology (such as closed-circuit TV, screen-magnification or screen-reading software) to enable them to read and access the internet.

There are a wide range of technologies relevant to the general category of vision impairment. Some students might use magnification, glare removal and other visual enhancements to access information using their vision. Students with more limited functional vision may require the use of screen reading technology and/or audio book player to access their studies.

Students who are blind also vary in the kind of technologies they use. Many with congenital blindness, or who have been blind since an early age, will have learnt braille during their schooling and are therefore more likely to use braille as well as screen reading technology. Students who have acquired blindness in adult life, however, are less likely to have learnt braille but may have experience using screen reading and/or magnification technology.

Students who are unfamiliar with inclusive technology may benefit from being referred to Vision Australia for assessment of their technology needs.

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Inclusive Technology for Blind and Vision Impaired

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There is no 'typical' vision-impaired student: the impairment may be the result of a range of conditions and its impact will depend on the type, extent and timing of vision loss.

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Source: Royal National Institute of Blind People (RNIB), 2017

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Understanding Vision Impairment in Children - Lily-Grace

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Source: King, J. 2021

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Visual Impairment is My Superpower | Jacob King | TEDxFaurotPark

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Source: Resource for the blind students, 2011

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Source: Live Accessible, 2019

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Assistive Technology and Aids for the Blind and Visually Impaired | What we use Part 1

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Source: Live Accessible, 2019

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Attachoo, B. 2020. A Phenomenological Study on English Language Learning of Visually Impaired Students in Thailand. Language Institute, Thammasat University. Retrieved: March 17, 2023 Ref. code: 25635921320023TIQ

Australian Disability Clearinghouse on Education and Training, n.d. Inclusive Technology: Blind and Vision Impaired. Retrieved: March 18, 2023. https://www.adcet.edu.au/inclusive-technology/blind-and-vision-impaired

Dheesha, J.B. 2022. Specific Teaching Strategies for Children with Visual Impairment with Reference to Different Subjects. Comprehensive Textbook on Disability (pp.275-281) JAYPEE Brothers. Retrieved: MArch 18, 2023. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/363481237_Specific_Teaching_Strategies_for_Children_with_Visual_Impairment_with_Reference_to_Different_Subjects

Live Accessible, Jun 11, 2019. Assistive Technology and Aids for the Blind and Visually Impaired | What we use Part 1 and 2. [Video] YouTube. Retrieved: March 17, 2023.
Part 1: https://youtu.be/9huTVJYBFdU
Part 2: https://youtu.be/Qmbc1XHe2KE

Office of International Affairs, n.d. Disabled Students Services Thammasat University (DSSTU). [Video] YouTube. Retrieved: March 17, 2023. https://oia.tu.ac.th/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=599&Itemid=490&fbclid=IwAR0TVNj7aersLaYO4-Xbjl7FGmcvUNpHv3zLYOyJBfxQ9Z7ODLRW05a8w90

Resource for the Blind, May 6, 2011. Teaching strategies for blind students. [Video] YouTube. Retrieved: March 17, 2023.  https://youtu.be/U9I0QhVipMU

Royal National Institute of Blind People (RNIB), Nov 28, 2017. Understanding Vision Impairment in Children - Lily-Grace. [Video] YouTube. Retrieved: March 17, 2023 https://youtu.be/7wGP_k_UP9c

King, J. Nov 3, 2021. Visual Impairment is My Superpower | Jacob King | TEDxFaurotPark. [Video] YouTube. Retrieved: March 17, 2023. https://youtu.be/1GPg5KpHY6s

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I. Strategies:

Tutoring/ TU BUDDY/ Counseling

1. Currently, there are English tutoring sessions by the teacher at the language center available for students with disabilities, and the center is planning on hosting more tutoring sessions in the future.

2. There is TU BUDDY, a group of volunteers that aims to help students with disabilities by giving some tutoring in a  specific subject or any other support such as walking with the students to the building that he or she has never been to or typing the documents to create the digital version for producing a braille version and even recording for audiobooks. Up to these days, there are over 30 volunteers in the program.

3. The staff of DSS also provides a counseling session, talking with the students about their problems both school-related and others.

II. Assistive Tech and Visual/Media:

Instructional materials

1. For students with visual impairments, the service center will provide braille instructional materials, textbooks with enlarged text, textbook files that are compatible with the voice-over program, or audiobooks.

2.There are 4 recording rooms for audiobooks with staff and volunteers helping record the books.

Examination

1. The service center is responsible for making braille or enlarged text and the digital version of the test paper for students with visual impairments.

2. The students can also make a request to take their test at the center and a request to increase the test time. The extra time is optional. Should the students need the extra time they have to arrive at the service center before an actual testing time and leave the test room at the same time as other students to prevent any foul play.

Dormitory and assistive devices

1. Every student with disabilities in the university who wants to stay in the university dormitory will be arranged into the dorm without any exception. The students also able to request a helping buddy or volunteer staff to stay with them in the dormitory.

2. Every student with disabilities in Thammasat has the rights to every assistive device they need. Everyone will receive a laptop computer and a voice recorder. Each student also receives the devices according to their needs. For a blind student, they will receive the white cane. For students with visual impairments, they receive an image enlarging devices. For students with mobility impairment, they can borrow both normal and electric wheelchairs to use for the whole time they study in the university and then return when they graduated. For the students with hearing disability, there are hearing and speaking aids and they also can request a class coordinator from the service center to help communicate with the faculty staff and the teachers. The center also takes care of the maintenance cost of all the devices.

Scholarships

1. The students with disabilities that have the disability identification card will receive up to 60,000 baht from the government and up to 70,000 baht if the student study in science-related fields. The money will be used directly only for study fees that the students registered in each year.

2. The admission program also provides scholarships to students in need. Each year the service center gives around 25 scholarships with 55,000 baht per year. The students don’t have to pay back to the university, they only have to check in with the service center at least once a week in the first few months and then once a month for the rest of the study years. These check-in session aims to keep track of the students’ study and any other problems being in the university.

Source: Office of International Affairs Thammasat University, n.d.

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An emotional disability is often paired with a behavioral disorder and can be identified as a one of several emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). These disorders can include  "Anxiety Disorder, Manic-Depressive  Disorder, Oppositional-Defiant Disorder" and others (Loveless, 2023).

These disorders can have affect a students ability to:
- learn
- develop and sustain relationships
- manage behavior and emotional responses
- maintain a sense of happiness and positive mood
- respond appropriately to events
- regulate fear and anxiety response to various external situations

These difficulties are identifiable as a disorder if they are pervasive and have a long term effect on a student's ability successfully integrate and accomplish school, classroom and social norms.

A student will not be considered to have EBD if they are considered to be "socially maladjusted", which can be determined on a case-by-case or state-by-state basis

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by Becton Loveless

"Emotional and Behavioral Disorder" is an umbrella term under which several distinct diagnoses (such as Anxiety Disorder, Manic-Depressive Disorder, Oppositional-Defiant Disorder, and more) fall. These disorders are also termed "emotional disturbance" and "emotionally challenged." According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), children with emotional and behavioral disorders exhibit one or more of these five characteristics:

1. An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.

2. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.

3. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.

4. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.

5. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.

IDEA guarantees students access to a Free and Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) possible. As such, students diagnosed with emotional disorders (ED) are often included in general education classrooms. However, severe cases often require students to be taught in special education "cluster units," self-contained programs, or even separate schools.

Under the umbrella term of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, there are two categories: Psychiatric Disorders and Behavioral Disabilities.

Psychiatric Disorders

This category encompasses a wide range of conditions. Psychiatric disorders are defined as mental, behavioral, or perceptual patterns or anomalies which impair daily functioning and cause distress. Some of the most common examples of these diagnoses include:

Anxiety Disorder

Bipolar Disorder (aka Manic-Depressive Disorder)

Eating Disorder (such as anorexia, bulimia, and binge-eating disorder)

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Psychotic Disorder

From a teacher's perspective, psychiatric disorders present a profound challenge for a number of reasons. For one, schools are not hospitals, and teachers can not be expected to "treat" these disorders. Students who struggle with these sorts of challenges are often undergoing treatment and may be receiving medication. Medication can affect people in unexpected ways and, because medical information is confidential, teachers may be unaware why students are acting the way they are. This makes it difficult to respond appropriately to certain behaviors. Additionally, students suffering from these conditions may be simply unable to meet academic and behavioral expectations. In such cases, students need to receive special education interventions of some sort, and may need to be moved into a special education classroom.

Behavioral Disabilities

Children with behavioral disabilities engage in conduct which is disruptive to classroom functioning and/or harmful to themselves and others. To be diagnosed as a behavioral disability, the behaviors must not be attributable to one of the aforementioned psychiatric disorders.

There are two categories of behavioral disabilities: oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder.

Oppositional defiant disorder is characterized by extreme non-compliance, negativity, and an unwillingness to cooperate or follow directions. Children with this condition are not violent or aggressive, they simply refuse to cooperate with adults or peers.

Conduct disorder is much more severe. This disorder is characterized by aggression, violence, and harm inflicted on self and others. Students with conduct disorder typically need to be taught in special education classrooms until their behavior has improved enough to allow contact with the general education population.

Strategies for Teaching Students with Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

As with other conditions, students with emotional and behavioral disorders need a positive, structured environment which supports growth, fosters self-esteem, and rewards desirable behavior.

Rules and Routines

Rules need to be established at the beginning of the school year, and must be written in such a way as to be simple and understandable. The wording of rules should be positive: "Respect yourself and others" is a better rule than "Don't hurt anyone." Keep it simple: 6 rules or less.

Consequences for breaking rules should also be established at the beginning of the school year, and applied consistently and firmly whenever the rules are broken. The consequences must be consistent and predictable. When administering consequences, provide feedback to the student in a calm, clear manner. That way, the student understands why the consequence is necessary. Try to avoid becoming emotionally reactive when rules are broken. Emotional reactivity gives the student negative attention, which many children find very rewarding. Remain calm and detached, be firm yet kind. It's a difficult balance to achieve, but crucially important for positive results.

Routines are very important for classroom management. Students with emotional and behavioral disorders tend to struggle with transitions and unexpected change. Going over a visual schedule of the day's activities is an effective way to start the day, and helps the students feel grounded.

Techniques for Supporting Positive Behavior

Students with emotional and behavioral disorders often need to receive instruction in a special education setting because their behavior is too maladaptive for a general education classroom. Here are a few ideas to guide and support growth towards more positive, adaptive behavior:

Token Economy - Students earn points, or tokens, for every instance of positive behavior. These tokens can then be used to purchase rewards at the token store. In order for a token economy to be effective, positive behavior must be rewarded consistently, and items in the token store must be genuinely motivating for the student. This takes a fair amount of preparation and organization, but has proven to be quite effective.

Classroom Behavior Chart - A chart which visually plots the level of behavior of every student in the classroom. Students who are behaving positively progress upwards on the chart; those who are behaving negatively fall downwards. This makes every student accountable, and helps you monitor and reward progress. This won't work if difficult students perpetually stay on the bottom of the chart. Focus on the positive to the fullest degree possible, and keep them motivated.

Lottery System - Similar to the token economy, students who behave in positive ways are given a ticket with their name on it. These tickets are placed in a jar, and once or twice a week you draw one out. The winner of the lottery is rewarded with a prize.

Positive Peer Review - Students are asked to watch their peers, and identify positive behavior. Both the student who is behaving positively and the student who does the identifying are rewarded. This is the exact opposite of "tattle-telling," and fosters a sense of teamwork and social support in the classroom.

Teaching children with emotional and behavioral disorders can be extremely challenging. Remember: fostering and rewarding positive behavior has proven to be vastly more effective than attempting to eliminate negative behavior. Punishment and negative consequences tend to lead to power struggles, which only make the problem behaviors worse. It is not easy to remain positive in the face of such emotionally trying behaviors, but don't give up. Your influence could mean a world of difference to these students who are struggling with an incredibly difficult condition.

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Emotional and Behavioral Disorders in the Classroom

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Explore the characteristics of children with emotional and behavioral disorders, as well as strategies for teaching these student.

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In order to identify and best meet the needs of students struggling with EBD schools and related professionals can collect data on a students emotional state and the consequent behaviors. Using this data an individualized education program / plan (IEP) can be created for the student. An IEP will help classroom teachers and parents utilize various strategies to assist the student's learning. Some of the strategies include:

an environment that is positive, safe and well structured

students should be held accountable for meeting expectations set in the classroom

rules and routines that focus on positive goals

Consequences that

are consistent

are predictable

give calm and clear feedback so as to identify why consequences are needed

avoid emotionally reactive language

Positive behavior support can include

token economy

classroom behavior chart

lottery system

positive peer review

Break down tasks into smaller steps

Offer choices

Provide additional time to complete tasks

Provide assignments that match a student's ability level

brain breaks / movement breaks

Preferential seating (should be carefully monitored so as to avoid disturbances)

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There are a number of assistive technologies that can aid students with EBD. These technologies can relieve the stress and negative emotions that can be both a trigger for emotional and behavioral outbreaks. The use of these technologies will should be included in the IEP. As a consequence, adults involved in meeting the needs of the student are able to utilize the best technologies.

This is not to say that a varying degree on trial-and-error is not involved in meeting the student's needs. Parette, Crowley and Wojcik (2007) provide a number of suggestion to professionals when selecting appropriate assistive technologies.

1. Take into account the student learning and environmental situation. These factors can act as triggers for emotional and behavioral states.

2. Collect data to help teachers and students identify causes, rates and types of emotions, or behavior.

3. Encourage struggling students monitor their own emotional state so as to regulate behavior.

4. Provide tools to help students become increasingly socially competent.

Some of the assistive technologies than can be utilized include:

text-to-speech software programs for reading, which decreases the stress placed upon a student

For writing, the following technologies can reduce the cognitive load placed on students which can reduces frustrations that limit their ability and allow them to better complete a task.

talking word-processors

graphic organizers

speech recognition software

DraftBuilder

microphone and speech recognition software

In mathematics, students often struggle with the large number of tasks needed to keep in their short term memory in order to solve a problem. To reduce the stress this creates the following technologies can be utilized, as appropriate

Calculators (Edmark calculators)

manipulatives such a fraction sets, measurement, place value charts, counters, etc.

To monitor their own behavior students can use the following technologies which can help them stay on task

stopwatches

hand-held counters

palm devices

computer devices

visual/auditory prompting devices

visual/auditory cueing devices

self-graphing devices

Technology that can assist students in social interactions include:

Social Stories

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One of the biggest hurdles to addressing and providing assistance to students with EBD is the lack of clear identification as to what truly qualifies as an emotional or behavioral disability.

According to the Individuals with Disabilities Act: A Comparison of State Eligibility Criteria (2020) states individually determine how a disability is evaluated and as such what qualifies as a disability. As a consequence, students that might qualify for a disability in one state would not necessarily do so in another state. Some EBD related diagnoses include: ADHD or schizophernia.

Another consideration is whether or not assistive technologies are appropriate. It is necessary for an an IEP to be created and the benefits to be carefully weighed against the various costs. For example, does the technology used become a crutch rather than a way to support learning, emotional development and behavior regulation.

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Overview of Emotional Behavioral Disorders

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Dragoo, Kyrie, E (October 12, 2020)  The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act: A Comparison of State Eligibility Criteria https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46566

Emotional and Behavioral Disorders in the Classroom. (n.d.). https://www.educationcorner.com/behavioral-disorders-in-the-classroom.html

L. (2018, May 4). Assistive Technology for Students with Learning Disabilities - LD@school. LD@School. https://www.ldatschool.ca/assistive-technology/

What Are Emotional and Behavioral Disorders? | HealthyPlace. (2022, January 11). https://www.healthyplace.com/parenting/behavior-disorders/what-are-emotional-and-behavioral-disorders

Disability Categories. (n.d.). Fairfax County Public Schools. https://www.fcps.edu/academics/academic-overview/special-education-instruction/procedural-support-disability-categories

Social Stories - Carol Gray - Social Stories. (2015, November 2). Carol Gray - Social Stories. https://carolgraysocialstories.com/social-stories/

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Intellectual Disability
"a disability that affects the acquisition of knowledge and skills, in particular any of various neurodevelopmental conditions affecting intellectual processes, educational attainment, and the acquisition of skills needed for independent living and social functioning." (Oxford Dictionaries)

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1. Use baby steps

Start by breaking each lesson down into its simplest, most vital components. These steps can be provided to ID students alongside teaching a wider class to ensure they can keep up and develop the same understanding as their peers. To reduce frustration and encourage participation, this method is highly effective.

2. Incorporate more physical learning experiences

Whether using physical items to support learning in sciences or maths or simply offering a direct way for students to connect their learning to the real world, this method can be invaluable for all your students to help them develop their knowledge more well-rounded way.

3. Start a feedback book or chart

Students with ID can greatly benefit from immediate and consistent feedback. Using a feedback book or chart can create a record of that feedback, allowing the student to look back and see their development in black and white.

4. Encourage music in the classroom

Music can be a vital part of learning and development for any student, but for those with ID, it can be an especially powerful motivator. Music alongside concepts or lessons can help them retain information and offer greater engagement in the subject.

5. Provide visual stimulus

Whether it’s simply drawing the concept, you’re describing on a whiteboard or providing students with video or photographic content to study. ID students find it easier to focus when visually involved in the learning process.

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As one of the most common developmental disabilities found within mainstream schools, most teachers will work with students with an intellectual disability frequently during their careers.

As such a vast, overarching umbrella, there are many different definitions and levels of difficulty for students with ID, making it even more essential to provide excellent strategies and a suitable learning environment for children that need that extra helping hand.

Diagnosed and supported by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, or IDEA, students with ID and their educators are provided with plenty of resources and tools to ensure they receive the education they need, with the accommodations they require to succeed.

Understanding students with an intellectual disability?

A broad category that includes various skill levels, severities, and support requirements, an intellectual disability can involve problems with an individual functioning intellectually and/or adaptively.

Examples of difficulties around intellectual functioning can include problem-solving, the ability to communicate effectively, or the capacity to learn. Adaptive functioning and behavior may include specific challenges such as hygiene, routines, or even day-to-day social skills. Some of the most common causes of ID are:

Genetic conditions - most commonly caused by abnormal genes inherited from the parent or due to errors in the combination of genes during development. IDs under this category may include Down syndrome and PKU or Fragile X Syndrome.

Gestational problems - a result of the baby not developing properly inside the mother. There are many causes for ID due to problems during pregnancy. Drinking during pregnancy or contracting a serious infection can cause this.

Birth problems - in prolonged or difficult births, where the baby may not be getting enough oxygen, the child's chance of an ID is greatly increased.

Health issues - various diseases and health concerns can lead to intellectual disabilities, such as measles or whooping cough. Malnutrition, poisoning, or lack of access to prompt medical care can also result in ID due to ill health.

Intellectual disability is not classified as a disease or a mental health problem. Over 425,000 children in the US have a form of intellectual disability and require special education or other accommodations within mainstream schools to succeed and learn effectively. While there is no cure for ID, there is plenty of evidence that with extra time and patience, children and individuals with this disability can accomplish and achieve many things, both in life and academically.

Students with an intellectual disability in the classroom

For children with an intellectual disability, certain aspects of development and learning can be stressful, difficult, or otherwise inaccessible. These challenges are especially obvious in the classroom, with many students with ID struggling with learning effectively. These characteristics can lead to impaired understanding and difficulty understanding concepts or 'keeping up' with other students.

For many ID children, the following difficulties may apply:

Difficulty in developing social and communication skills

Increased time needed for cognitive processing of tasks or new learning materials

Difficulty in understanding new or different information

Difficulty understanding or comprehending concepts that are abstract

Difficulty processing information sequentially

Because ID is a blanket term - similar to autism spectrum disorder in the classroom - children with this disability can require higher support and resources or none. With intellectual disabilities understood more than ever before when it comes to the needs and support of individuals with this disability, there is ample information for teachers and parents to provide insight into what an intellectual disability is.

For students with an intellectual disability, this is often not the only reason they struggle to work in a mainstream school environment. Between 40-60% of students with ID are also on the spectrum, leading to further difficulties in effective communication and learning.

Teaching students with an intellectual disability

When offering students with ID a fulfilling, suitable, and productive learning environment, it's important to consider the accommodations and requirements the child may need to perform as well in a mainstream education setting as other students. As such, employing practical strategies can be the perfect place to start.

These strategies are more versatile than simply applying to ID; there is also a great deal of crossover with the challenges faced by students with other learning difficulties, such as ADHD or autism spectrum disorder. As such, developing the insight and techniques needed to support students with ID can benefit a range of children.

Here are just a few of the teaching methods that educators can employ to support students with an intellectual disabilities:

Using small steps

For students with an intellectual disability, breaking down each learning task into small, easy-to-digest steps can be invaluable. Teachers can modify their existing curriculum by introducing each learning task as a series of short, individual actions instead of looking at the bigger picture.

This step-wise approach is the basis of many different learning models for all kinds of students, with each step and level of investment varying according to the specific requirements of the individual student.

Modify teaching to be more hands-on

Students with ID are known to struggle with abstract concepts individually, making some traditional teaching styles incompatible with their specific challenges. Opting to go more hands-on with teaching can provide a more kinesthetic approach for students.

An example of this would be teaching gravity by demonstrating how it functions in the real world by dropping an object to illustrate the force.

Think visual

The visual world and what is directly in front of the child are important factors in teaching a student with ID. They tend to do best in environments where visual aids or support is provided, whether to learn specific subjects or map their completed progress. Using charts with ID students has proven to be highly effective, especially with direct, immediate feedback.

For more insight into these teaching methods and why they are suitable for students with ID, this article on AAC offers further information and guidance.

Five ways to incorporate intellectual disability strategies into your classroom

While there are many general strategies and suggestions surrounding ID in the classroom, implementing those opportunities, and including them in your curriculum, is a different challenge altogether. But in mainstream schools, it's essential to balance offering support to your students and providing a well-rounded teaching experience.

These five methods offer simple, effective ways to incorporate elements of ID-suitable guidelines into any classroom with minimal disruption and excellent results:

1. Use baby steps

Start by breaking each lesson down into its simplest, most vital components. These steps can be provided to ID students alongside teaching a wider class to ensure they can keep up and develop the same understanding as their peers. To reduce frustration and encourage participation, this method is highly effective.

2. Incorporate more physical learning experiences

Whether using physical items to support learning in sciences or maths or simply offering a direct way for students to connect their learning to the real world, this method can be invaluable for all your students to help them develop their knowledge more well-rounded way.

3. Start a feedback book or chart

Students with ID can greatly benefit from immediate and consistent feedback. Using a feedback book or chart can create a record of that feedback, allowing the student to look back and see their development in black and white.

4. Encourage music in the classroom

Music can be a vital part of learning and development for any student, but for those with ID, it can be an especially powerful motivator. Music alongside concepts or lessons can help them retain information and offer greater engagement in the subject.

5. Provide visual stimulus

Whether it's simply drawing the concept, you're describing on a whiteboard or providing students with video or photographic content to study. ID students find it easier to focus when visually involved in the learning process.

With an intellectual disability such a common difficulty for many students, it's vital to ensure that they receive the same level of care and attention when it comes to their education as any other student. At the same time, teachers, educators, and parents must work together to ensure they provide the best environment for every student.

How we can help you with students with an intellectual disability

Platforms like Classful provide educators with the resources they need to make their classroom the best it can be for intellectually disabled students, and have never been quicker or easier. We do all the hard work for you, and you raise the money you need to support your favorite teacher and improve the educational possibilities of students with intellectual disabilities in the classroom.

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Students with an Intellectual Disability (5 Methods to Help) - Classful

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As one of the most common developmental disabilities found in schools, most teachers will help students with an intellectual disability during their career.

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This website includes many tools that can be useful.
1. Text-To-Speech tools and apps
2. Sources for digital books and publications
3. Audiobooks
4. Speech-To-Text
5. Literary Suites
6. Organization systems
7. Note taking tools
8. Study and productivity aids

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Top best Assistive Technology and Apps for Learning Disability

Welcome to our overview of Assistive Technology, organized by category. This is not an exhaustive analysis, but a quick survey of the products that we consider to be valuable tools. Almost all of these apps and services have free trials so you can see if they work for you. We are not including prices because they change all the time, but we note if something is free, or involves a subscription.

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Welcome to our overview of Assistive Technology, organized by category. This is not an exhaustive analysis, but a quick survey of the products that we consider to be valuable tools. Almost all of these apps and services have free trials so you can see if they work for you.

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Understanding Intellectual Disability  Definitions, Intervention, and Resources

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Facts and Myths about Intellectual Disabilities

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(n.d.). Students with an Intellectual Disability (5 Methods to Help). Classful.com. Retrieved March 18, 2023, from https://classful.com/students-with-an-intellectual-disability/

LD Resources Foundation Action (n.d.). Top best Assistive Technology and Apps for Learning Disability. LDRFA.org. Retrieved March 18, 2023, from https://www.ldrfa.org/assistive-technology-tools/

[Children's Resource Group]. (2019, February 27). Understanding Intellectual Disability Definitions, Intervention, and Resources [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nE6W_b8ryHQ

[Centre for Educational Neuroscience]. (2021, December 3). Facts and Myths about Intellectual Disabilities [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jOOVFrnHccA

[Psych Hub]. (2021, October 20). What is IDD? [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rymHXQmiugI

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Deaf or Hard of Hearing (DHH)

Hearing Impairment: ”impairment in hearing, in one or both ears, with or without amplification” (Disability Categories, n.d.) that has a strong negative effect on communication and educational performance, while still able to depend on “auditory channel as the primary sensory input for communication” (Dragoo, K.E., 2022).

Deafness: “a hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification” (Disability Categories, n.d.), with a strong negative effect on communication and educational performance. Due to the “absence of enough measurable hearing… the primary sensory input for communication may be other than the auditory channel. (Dragoo, K.E., 2022)”

What constitutes hearing impairment and what constitutes deafness may vary depending on country or state, so evaluation by a medical professional is key before a conclusion is drawn.

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A) Approaches/Strategies:

1. Quiet place to work
2. Proper seating near teacher/audio source
3. Visual aids (images and diagrams)
4. Breaks (to prevent auditory fatigue)
5. Teaching the student one on one
6. Providing access to interpretation services

7. Having access to transliteration services
8. Having adult DHH models for communication
9. Amplification Approach (motivate full time use)
10. Multi-sensory approach
11. Approaches that focus on language, literacy, modern skills

B) Site based programs (if deemed appropriate):

-Auditory-oral: Focus on utilizing the students' remaining hearing, and growing auditory skills. Employs the use of volume amplification and speech reading.
-Cued language: Providing access to spoken language by representing phonetic sounds through cues (hand signs).
-Total communication: A combination of different methods of communication, such as auditory-oral, cued language, as well as sign language, picture systems, and more.

C) To assist use of technology, access to:

-Technology training (including daily care and troubleshooting)
-Technology support videos
-Educational audiologists

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Note: Both teachers and students require proper training and on-going support in order to fully utilize technology in the classroom.

-Laptops/tablets
-Headphones/speakers
-Hearing aid or cochlear implant
-Assistive listening devices (works in conjunction with hearing aid/cochlear implant)
-Infrared systems (works in conjunction with hearing aid)
-Communicators (AAC devices, speech generator)
-Speech-to-text (Dragon Naturally Speaking)
-Audio recorders (Audacity)
-Computerized pens
-Closed captioning resources
-Cue cards (with visual aids)
-ShowMe and ScreenChomp (screen/audio recorder, can share video file)

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Free Photo | Front view doctor holding hearing aids

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Download this Free Photo about Front view doctor holding hearing aids, and discover more than 23 Million Professional Stock Photos on Freepik. #freepik #photo #hearingaids #medicaltech #healthcaretechnology

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U_Q7axl4oXY&ab_channel=TEDxTalks

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Making Education Accessible to Deaf Children | Nyle DiMarco | TEDxKlagenfurt

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lYOKlRNoC-E&ab_channel=PBSKVIE

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Inside California Education: A Return to School – Day in the Life: Deaf and Hard of Hearing Teacher

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hlPECxb9sEM

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Roles and Responsibilities of the DHH Team

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Adapted Curriculum, PreK-12. (n.d.). Fairfax County Public Schools. https://www.fcps.edu/academics/academic-overview/special-education-instruction/adapted-curriculum-prek-12

Disability Categories. (n.d.). Fairfax County Public Schools. https://www.fcps.edu/academics/academic-overview/special-education-instruction/procedural-support-disability-categories

Dragoo, K.E., (2022, October 12) The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act: A Comparison of State Eligibility Criteria. Congressional Research Service

L. (2018, May 4). Assistive Technology for Students with Learning Disabilities - LD@school. LD@School. https://www.ldatschool.ca/assistive-technology/

Maza, L. (2022, May 6). Assistive Technology in the Classroom | Enabling Devices. Enabling Devices. https://enablingdevices.com/blog/assistive-technology-in-the-classroom/#:~:text=Speech%2Dto%2Dtext%20software%20and,benefit%20from%20communicators%2C%20as%20well

Services for Students Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing. (n.d.). Fairfax County Public Schools. https://www.fcps.edu/academics/academic-overview/special-education-instruction/deaf-hard-hearing-services

Successful Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning Disabilities – Learning Disabilities Association of America. (n.d.). https://ldaamerica.org/info/successful-strategies-for-teaching-students-with-learning-disabilities/

image: Freepik.com