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16 Ground Rules for Group Work | Facilitator School

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Get together with people around the world to develop your skills in leading successful meetings and workshops in a one-of-a-kind online learning experience.

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Strategies for Effective Group Process: Establish Ground Rules - Susan Fitzell

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Common core: Ideas and techniques for establishing effective group process

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Facilitating Group Work – Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching

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Instructor’s Guide: Facilitating Group Work

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Teaching Group Work: Building Student Collaboration and Agency

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Student accountability is about being committed to learning and growing. Through the years, educators have come up with many different ways to hold students accountable, and then March 2020 and the COVID-19 pandemic rolled around and changed everything. Best practices that teachers had come to know were not always effective in the virtual and hybrid learning environments; so it was time to reinvent a part of the wheel and figure out just how to reach students and make them want to do well in a strange and unprecedented time.

Why is Student Accountability Important?

Student accountability is important because it encourages students to take responsibility for their learning and actions. Students, in turn, learn to value their work and likely increase their levels of confidence. This prepares students for life beyond high school, whether it be furthering their education, going into the workforce, or a combination of both. When students are taught the value of accountability from a young age, it carries over into all aspects of their lives, creating a more well-rounded person.

How to Promote Student Accountability

Create a "just right" learning environment.

A "just right" learning environment is exactly how it sounds: a learning environment that is right for your students. An environment where students feel connected to each other is important at any age and grade level. This helps students to take responsibility for their actions and behavior which is important to keep your classroom running smoothly. Having a classroom where students feel trusted, respected, and safe creates an engaging learning environment and one where students expect to be held accountable for their actions by not just their teachers but their classmates and themselves.

Clear expectations.

Clear expectations are important in holding students accountable for learning and assignments. Creating rubrics for projects/assessments and pieces of writing can help students to understand the expectation of assignments. Having clear written directions, as well as verbal directions, for all assignments is also important to ensure students understand what your expectations are. Due dates are so important! Throughout virtual and hybrid learning, having due dates in Google Classroom has helped students to stay organized and on top of their assignments. Having clear expectations gives support from the teacher necessary to ensure student growth and achievement at any grade level and plays a big part in being able to hold students accountable and in students holding themselves accountable.

Have students take ownership of their learning.

As educators, we have all heard the excuse, "Well, my parents didn't put the assignment in my bookbag", or "You didn't tell me I needed to do this." Students need to own their learning and have an active role in decisions about their learning. It is important to give students a voice in the learning process. This is such an integral part of increasing accountability as it makes students feel responsible for themselves. Mistakes, at any age, are one of the best ways to learn. Errors can lead to learning, and when students hold themselves accountable for their learning, academic, as well as social-emotional growth, is inevitable.

The self-assessment piece.

Self-assessments are a major part of learning. It is imperative for students to reflect on their performance and determine what their strengths and weaknesses are. At a young age, a self-assessment can be as simple as an emoji worksheet where the student circles the emoji that shows how he/she feels about their effort on an assignment.

Another simple self-assessment is a thumbs-up or thumbs-down. You can quickly assess the class on their understanding of a concept or skill in this manner. For upper elementary to high school level students, you can give self-reflection forms for them to fill out after major assessments or marking periods to help students set goals and determine whether those goals have been met. This helps to hold students accountable for their performance.

Support families.

Supporting families is more important now than ever! It is vital to create that strong connection between the school and home work environments. Parents and guardians need to feel supported by the teachers in order to provide the help at home that is necessary for increased success and student achievement. I have observed in my own classroom the successes and achievements of students with families involved and those without. Setting in place the appropriate supports for each student and their families is imperative to their success and also helps to gain support from families in student accountability.

Student, parent, and teacher conferences.

A new twist on the standard parent-teacher conference is involving the students in it as well. Keeping the lines of communication open and involving students more in their education decisions is a great way to increase accountability. These are important discussions, and having student input can really shed a different light on certain situations. Perception is reality and each party could be viewing the same situation differently. Involve students in the problem-solving process and help them to develop that ownership over oneself.

As educators, we need to make students want to come to school. Getting the students through the day (real or virtual) is where accountability begins for the them. This is a major factor in students learning about so many life skills such as time management, self management, and application of skills to the real world. Keeping them involved through all of the processes is vital to their level of accountability and, in turn, their success.

As Denis Waitley stated, "The greatest gifts you can give your children are the roots of responsibility and the wings of independence." Be a part of giving students the gift of future success through promoting accountability!

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How to Increase Student Accountability - TeachHUB

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Student accountability is about being committed to learning and growing. Through the years, educators have come up with many different ways to hold students accountable, and then March 2020 and the COVID-19 pandemic rolled around and changed everything.

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Small-group learning transforms the traditional teacher-driven classroom into a student-centered learning environment characterized by high engagement and achievement. By providing space for personalized learning and collaboration, small groups create a space where students receive the differentiated support they need. Teachers are often hesitant to use small-group learning due to concerns about classroom management and learning support given the multiple pods of students working collaboratively on different tasks around the classroom. How can teachers effectively facilitate learning when students are working on five or more different tasks simultaneously, especially when one of those tasks might be a teacher-led small group? How can teachers effectively administer small groups in online or hybrid learning environments?

For small groups to function well in the physical, online, or hybrid learning environment, there must be levers of accountability established and ready to employ. The following post will delve into concrete strategies teachers can use to create metrics and tools of accountability that will ultimately promote student independence, agency, and leadership in the classroom through small-group learning.

Routines and Procedures

Classrooms that function well have established routines and procedures that lead to safety and organization. Depending on the grade level and subject area of the classroom, these routines and procedures may include expectations for how students enter and exit the classroom, steps for obtaining materials, procedures for requesting permission to go to the restroom, or even ways to ask for help while working. Teachers prepare students for success and make excellent use of instructional time when they plan in detail how students should complete routine activities in class.

For small groups, teachers should consider developing step-by-step routines and procedures for any common movements or transitions that take place during small-group learning. Consider, for instance, how students may move from one small group to another in a timely and safe manner. The following common occurrences may merit the planning of a routine or procedure during small-group learning: accessing technology, obtaining and returning supplies, submitting small-group work, seeking help from the teacher, leaving the classroom to collaborate outside. In my Spanish classroom, I used the following "Workstations Rotation" procedure to empower students to lead the learning process and spend as little time as possible in transition between activities:

1. Step One: At the end of a workstation, the teacher rings the bell twice, stands up, and is seen by all students scanning the classroom. Students end conversations within 10 seconds. For students who are not on task, the teacher says, "Waiting on (specific number) of students to have their eyes silently on the speaker." Then the teacher uses positive narration to call out those who are on task: "Thank you (insert name) for your attention."

2. Step Two: Once all students are silent and have their eyes on the teacher, the teacher says the following instructions in an even tone and a moderate volume: "When I say go and not before I say go, quietly wrap-up conversations, pack up materials and prepare to transition. You have 60 seconds on the timer. Go." The teacher sets and displays a timer and is seen scanning the room or walking around. (Note that the teacher is careful never to speak while students are talking. If students start talking during instructions, the teacher self-interrupts . If a student is not paying attention, the teacher uses close proximity. If a student is wildly off task, the teacher interrupts the transition and tells students to continue working momentarily until the issue can be resolved privately and individually.)

3. Step Three: At the end of the timer, the teacher rings the bell twice and is seen scanning the room. Once all students are silent and have their eyes on the teacher, the teacher says the following instructions in an even tone and a moderate volume: "When I say go and not before I say go, stand up, push in chairs, walk silently to the next workstation. You will have 15 minutes to work." Before saying go, the teacher does a choral check for understanding: "We will stand... (students chorally complete the sentence). We will push in our... (students chorally complete the sentence). We will walk... (students chorally complete the sentence)." The teacher says, "Go." Then the teacher sets and displays the timer and is seen scanning the room or walking around. (Note that the teacher uses positive narration to point out students who are following directions. For students off task, the teacher gives quick verbal reminders in a private and respectful way. If a student is consistently missing the mark, the teacher has a private conversation and practices transitioning.)

4. Step Four: Once all students have arrived at their next workstation, the teacher circulates through stations and assists where needed. Any students who may have struggled during the transition are given a chance to meet with the teacher.

As detailed and specific as this may seem, the procedure I have just described helped my classroom function like a well-oiled machine with little or no disruption due to unwanted behavior or confusion. Students spent the vast majority of their time working independently and collaboratively in small groups because we wasted no time on messy transitions.

Within virtual and hybrid learning environments, it is important to step back and consider the specific context in which learning occurs. Each environment will require different routines and procedures to function properly; however, a few best practices remain true for any effective routine. According to Doug Lemov's groundbreaking manual for effective teaching and learning, Teach Like a Champion 3.0 , highly effective classroom procedures have the following characteristics: simple, quick, requiring little narration by the teacher, and planned in detail. One invaluable tool for small-group instruction online is called "Breakout Rooms," virtual spaces in which a large group of participants in a virtual meeting are split into smaller groups temporarily. This feature is available through the Zoom and Microsoft Teams platforms. to read a comprehensive article on best practices for managing breakout rooms in Zoom, and for the same resource for Microsoft Teams. What routines and procedures are essential for small-group learning in your classroom?

Clear Instructions

Students need access to age-appropriate instructions to guide them in small-group learning. Depending on students' grade level, these instructions may come in writing, pictures/images, or even video. (Consider the impact of combining two or more of these formats for increased student comprehension through multimodal instruction , especially for students with special needs and students with language barriers!) Some best practices to consider in developing clear instructions include writing concisely, eliminating extraneous steps, and integrating flexibility by providing multiple options. Teachers must provide students with easy access to instructions for any small-group task. In the physical classroom, this might be done by providing small-group work binders with specific instructions and materials at the ready; however, in hybrid environments teachers might create tasks on Google Classroom or another learning platform that students can access from their personal computers or tablets. Then students can work in small groups through breakout rooms in Zoom or Teams meetings while the teacher monitors each group periodically. (Note that students can record their breakout rooms and upload them as evidence of their collaboration as permitted by school and district policies.) One way or another, students need access to clear and concrete instructions for small-group tasks that require little or no teacher involvement.

While step-by-step directions are essential for some tasks, teachers must also consider the ways in which clear instructions provide space for students to engage in higher-order tasks that might require collaborative problem solving, synthesis of knowledge and ideas, or even the creation of a new process or product. For this, teachers craft guiding questions that inspire students to engage deeply with the topic at hand by connecting to students' interests and passions or even allowing students to relate back to their own lives. Using guiding questions as a springboard, students become steadfast explorers and collaborators who are excited to learn. Below are examples of effective guiding questions for small-group learning:

Mathematics: How might you model (insert mathematical concept or theorem) using the materials and resources available at this workstation?

Social Science: What constitutes a good home? How can governments, charities, and other institutions contribute to people's access to good homes?

Language Arts: How is the theme of this text relevant and important to folks today? What can we learn and apply in our lives immediately from this text?

Physical Science: How is your life affected by the laws of motion? Provide examples for each law of motion.

Biological Science: What can we apply from our most recent unit of study to promote awareness of the importance of handwashing? How might you present this information to the general public?

World Languages: What are the keywords you would need to learn to communicate effectively about (insert topic) in our language of study? What strategies would best support you in learning those words?

Fine Arts: How do musicians improve the quality of their compositions and performances? What examples can you provide to support your analysis?

Physical Education: What routines and habits from your daily life contribute to your overall wellbeing and health? Conversely, what routines and habits might negatively impact your overall wellbeing and health?

While teachers may choose to develop a task aligned to a guiding question, they may also choose to allow students to be agents of their learning as they develop their own unique responses. In my Spanish classroom, students often developed innovative, creative, and unique projects in response to guiding questions I provided in each of their student-led small groups. Some examples of the types of tasks that students proposed and completed in Spanish class are a classroom newspaper, a hydroponic garden, a cooking show, and even a trip to a local Spanish mission. In the online Spanish classroom, students wrote dramatic skits, recorded group podcasts, and developed computer games in their small groups. Using these guiding questions as starting points for small-group work, students can tap into their own interests, opinions, and perspectives.

Student-Facing Rubrics

Rubrics are a powerful form of accountability that allow teachers and students to work from a shared understanding of the learning outcomes of any small-group learning opportunity. A rubric is an evaluative tool that includes a set of learning criteria and performance levels that are equally applied to all students in a given task. According to EdGlossary , an online resource defining common academic and school-improvement concepts, "In instructional settings, rubrics clearly define academic expectations for students and help to ensure consistency in the evaluation of academic work from student to student, assignment to assignment, or course to course." Rubrics clarify expectations and help create consistency within the evaluation process. Check out the resources below designed to help teachers create their own rubrics:

In the small-group learning environment, rubrics can be used throughout the learning process. Teachers must provide students with access to rubrics either in paper or electronic formats that are easily accessible throughout the learning process, not just at the end. Students at the start of an activity or assignment might be invited to review the rubric in order to plan their work and set collaborative goals as a team. While they work, students might refer to the rubric as a self-monitoring tool. Finally, rubrics allow teachers to provide data-rich feedback to students during and after small-group work by highlighting achievement and growth opportunities in alignment with performance levels detailed for each rubric criteria. The following is an example of a generic rubric I used in my Spanish classes for any small-group assignment students completed in both physical and virtual learning environments. I would make changes and adjustments for specific tasks. This rubric enabled me to create a student-c learning environment through small groups.

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Creating Accountability in Small-Group Learning - Moreland University

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For small groups to be effective in the classroom, there must be transparent tools of accountability including tight transitions, clear instructions, and accessible rubrics.

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Tips for Great Group Work in the Classroom

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Learning leaders share responsibility for all students

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If I am continually vexed by any one question in education it is ' how can we enhance student motivation? ' Of course, I do not have the answer, and if there is one it is multi-faceted, complex and, frankly, not going to be solved in this blog post.

From my position as a classroom teacher, I am always on the look out for those strategies that create a state when students are motivated and in their element, where they work furiously without even realising they are doing so, without realising the clock is ticking down to the end of the lesson. There is no better compliment than when students question how long there is left and express genuine surprise at how fast time has passed, and that they have actually enjoyed that lesson.

My, admittedly non-scientific, observations are that many of the times students are in ' flow ', or their element, in my lessons is when they are collaborating in group work.

Why is this then? I believe that we are obviously social beings and we naturally learn in such groups (not always effectively it must be said), but that, more importantly, when working in a group we are able to correct, support, encourage, question and develop ideas much more effectively. The power of the group, guided by the expertise of the teacher, accelerates learning, makes it richer and demands a learning consensus that can push people beyond their habitual assumptions.

Don't get me wrong, there are pitfalls and obstacles to group work. This constructivist approach should build upon expert teacher led pedagogy - ensuring that students have a good grounding in the relevant knowledge before undertaking in-depth group work. Group work can also be beset by issues in many nuanced forms: whether it is subtle intellectual bullying, where the student who shouts loudest prevails; or the encouragement of mediocrity and laziness, as students let others do all the work; or simply by poor, distracting behaviour.

Another issue is 'group think' miscomprehension - indeed, how does prejudice flourish if not in social groups? Yet, this failure is often great for learning as long as the teacher can illuminate the error of their ways. Of course, no teaching strategy is foolproof and plain good teaching should remedy many of the potential ills of group work, just as good teaching can make more traditional teacher-led 'direct instruction' wholly engaging and effective.

I am intrigued by the idea of ' social scaffolding ' (Vygotsky) - the concept that most of our learning is undertaken in group situations, where we learn through dialogue and debate with others, not simply by listening to that voice in our head! That being said, I am not talking teachers out of a classroom here.

The role of the teacher in devising and planning a successful group task takes skill, rigour and utter clarity and precision. Students need to be clear about a whole host of things: from their role, to the purpose of the task and the parameters of expected outcomes to name but a few. Teachers need to keep groups on track, intervene appropriately to improve learning and regularly regain student focus. Teachers have a pivotal role in guiding the group work at every stage.

Group work certainly isn't the lazy option: it takes skill in the planning and the execution, and sometimes, despite our best laid plans, it still fails. That shouldn't put us off - aren't all teaching and learning strategies subject to such risks?

If I was to define a simple and straight-forward basis for the rules for group work it would be:
- Have clearly defined tasks, with sharp timings and with the appropriate tools organised
- Have clearly defined group roles
- Have clear ground rules for talk, listening and fair allocation of workload etc.
- Target your support and interventions throughout the task, but make them interdependent of one another, not dependent upon you
- Always be prepared to curtail group work if students don't follow your high expectations.
So here it is, my entirely subjective top 10 strategies for group work that I believe to be effective (ideas for which I must thank a multitude of sources):
1. 'Think-pair-share' and 'Think-pair-square'.
Well, no-one said this top ten had to be original! This strategy is one of those techniques that we employ so readily that we can almost forget about it, it is simply so automatic for most teachers; yet, because of that we can easily forget it in our planning. We need to use it regularly because it is the very best of scaffolded learning; it almost always facilitates better quality feedback by allowing proper thinking time and for students to sound out their ideas and receive instantaneous feedback from peers. 'Think-pair-square' adds a touch of added flavour, involving linking two pairs together (to form the 'square' to share their ideas before whole class feedback). I defer to this blog post by @headguruteacher for the skinny on 'Think-pair-share' here.
2. Snowballing or the Jigsaw method
Similar to the 'square' approach mentioned in 'Think-Pair-Square', the 'snowballing' activity is another simple but very effective way of building upon ideas by starting with small groups and expanding the groups in a structured way. As the metaphor of the snowball suggests, you can begin with an individual response to a question; followed by then pairing up students up; then creating a four and so on. It does allow for quick, flexible group work that doesn't necessarily require much planning, but does keep shaping viewpoints and challenging 'answers' is a constructive fashion.

The 'jigsaw method' is slightly more intricate. David Didau describes here how it is the "ultimate teaching method", but that it benefits greatly from careful planning. Put simply, when researching a topic, like the causes of the Second World War, each member of a group is allocated an area for which they need to become the 'expert', such as 'the impact of the Treaty of Versailles', or 'issues with the dissolution of Austria-Hungary' for example. With five or six ' Home' groups identified, the ' experts' then leave that group to come together to pool their expertise on the one topic; they question one another and combine research, ideas and their knowledge. Then each ' expert' returns to their ' home ' group to share their findings. It is a skilful way of varying group dynamics as well as scaffolding learning.
3. Debating (using clear rules)
As you probably know, our own inspiring leader, Michael Gove, was the President of the Oxford Union. Clearly, these ancient skills of rhetoric and debate have seen him rise to dizzying heights. Perhaps we need to teach debating with great skill if we are to produce citizens who can debate with the best of them...and with Michael Gove. The premise of a debate, and its value in enriching the learning of logic, developing understanding and the simultaneous sharpening and opening our minds, is quite obvious so I will not elaborate. If you are ever stuck for a debate topic then this website will be of great use: http://idebate.org/debatabase. The Oxford rules model is an essential model for the classroom in my view. It provides a clear structure and even a level of formality which is important, provide coherence and greater clarity to the debate. The rules, familiar steps though they are for many, are as follows:

Four speakers in each team (for and against the motion)
First speaker introduces all the ideas that team has generated
Second speaker outlines two or three more ideas in some depth
Third speaker outlines two or three ideas in some depth
Fourth speaker criticises the points made by the other team
Each individual speaker has two minutes to speak (or more of course), with protected time of thirty seconds at the beginning or the end
The rest of the team is the 'Floor' and can interject at any time by calling out 'Point of Information' and standing. The speaker can accept or reject an interjection.

You may wish to have the other groups work as feedback observers on the debate being undertaking (a little like Socratic circles - number 8). This has the benefit of keeping the whole class engaged and actively listening to the debate.
4. Project Based Learning/Problem Based Learning
I have to admit I have only ever undertaken project style work on a small scale, but in the last year I have been startled by the quality of work I have observed in project based learning across the world. The principals of Project Based Learning are key: such as identifying real audiences and purposes for student work (a key factor in enhancing motivation); promoting interdependent student work, often subtly guided by the teacher at most stages; letting students undertake roles and manage the attendant challenges that arise; learning is most often integrated and spans subject areas; and students constructing their own questions and knowledge. Truly the best guide is to survey these great examples:

The Innovation Unit has also produced this brilliant must-read guide to PBL in great depth here.

'Problem based learning' is clearly related to the project model, but it explicitly starts with a problem to be solved. It is based primarily upon the model from medicine - think Dr House (although he is hardly a team player!). David Didau sagely recommends that the teacher, or students in collaboration, find a specifically local problem - this raises the stakes of the task. Clearly, in Mathematics, real problem based learning can be a central way to approach mathematical challenges in a collaborative way; in Science or Philosophy, the options to tackle ethical and scientific problems are endless. There is criticism of this approach - that students struggle with the ' cognitive load' without more of a working memory. Ideally, this learning approach follows some high quality direct instruction, and teacher led worked examples, to ensure that students have effective models to work from and some of the aforementioned working memory.
5. Group Presentations
I would ideally label this strategy: ' questions, questions, questions' as it is all about creating, and modelling, a culture of enquiry by asking students questions about a given topic, rather than didactically telling them the answer - then helping shape their research. The teacher leads with a ' big question '; then it is taken on by groups who (given materials, such as books, magazines, essays, iPads, laptops, or access to the library or an ICT suite etc.) have to interrogate the question, forming their own sub-set of questions about the question/ topic. They then source and research the key information, before finally agreeing to the answers to the questions they had themselves formed. The crucial aspect about presentations is giving students enough time to make the presentation worthwhile, as well as allocating clear roles. High quality presentations take time to plan, research and execute.

Personally, I find the timekeeper role a waste of time (I can do that for free!), but other roles, such as leader, designer and scribe etc. have value. Also, the teaching needs to be carefully planned so the entire presentation is not reliant solely upon any one person or piece of technology. Developing a shared understanding of the outcome and the different parameters of the presentation is key: including features like banning text on PowerPoints; or making it an expectation that there is some element of audience participation; to agreeing what subject specific language should be included. The devil is in the detail!
6. 'Devise the Display'
I have a troubled relationship with displays! I very rarely devise my own display as I think displays become wallpaper far too soon considering the effort taken to provide them - like newspapers, they become unused within days. I much prefer a ' working wall ', that can be constantly changed or updated (or a 'learning continuum' for an entire topic when can be periodically added to each lesson). That being said, I do think there is real high quality learning potential in the process of students devising and creating wall displays. It is great formative feedback to devise a wall display once you are well under way a topic. It makes the students identify and prioritise the key elements of their knowledge and the skills they are honing.

I find the most valuable learning is actually during the design ideas stage.You can 'snowball' design ideas with the students; beginning individually, before getting groups to decide collaboratively on their design; then having a whole class vote. I do include stipulations for what they must include, such as always including worked examples. Then, the sometimes chaotic, but enjoyable activity it to create the display. I always aim for the ' 60 Minute Makeover ' approach - quick and less painful (it also makes you less precious about the finer details)!

I think they also learn a whole host of valuable skills involving team work, empathy and not to annoy me by breaking our wall staplers! I think it is then important to not let any display fester and waste, but to pull it down and start afresh with a new topic. I know this strategy does put some people off, because it can be like organised chaos, but if everyone has a clear role and responsibility the results can be amazing. [Warning - some designs can look like they have been produced by Keith Richards on a spectacular acid trip!]
7. Gallery Critique
This stems from the outstanding work of on Berger. Both a teacher and a craftsman himself, Berger explains the value of critique as rich feedback in his brilliant book ' The Ethic of Excellence'. It can be used during the draft/main process or as a summative task. This strategy does have some specific protocols students should follow. The work of the whole group should be displayed in a gallery style for a short time. Students are expected to first undertake a short silent viewing (making notes to reflect is also useful here). The students make comments on the work - post it notes being ideal for this stage. Then the next step is a group discussion of ' what they noticed' in particular, with debate and discussion encouraged - of course, the feedback should be both kind and constructive. The next step for discussion is talking about ' what they liked ', evaluating the work. The final stage has the teacher synthesise viewpoints and express their own; before ensuring students make notes and reflect upon useful observations for making improvements.
8. Socratic Talk
I have spoken about this strategy before here. What is key is that like the debating rules above, a clear and defined structure is in place, particularly with ' Socratic circles ' which embeds feedback and debate in a seamless way. It takes some skill in teaching students how to talk in this fashion, but once taught, it can become a crucial tool in the repertoire. In my experience, some of the most sensitive insights have emerged from this strategy and the listening skills encouraged are paramount and have an ongoing positive impact. It also allows for every student to have a role and quality feedback becomes an expectation.
9. Talking Triads
Another simple, but highly effective strategy. It is a strategy that gets people to explore a chosen topic, but with a really rigorous analysis of ideas and views. The triad comprises of a speaker, a questioner and a recorder/analyst. You can prepare questions, or you can get the questioner and the analyst to prepare questions whilst the speaker prepares or reflects upon potential answers. This can be done in front of the class as a gallery of sorts, or you can have all triads working simultaneously. If they do work simultaneously, then a nice addition is to raise your hand next to a particular triad, which signals for other groups to stop and listen whilst that specific triad continues, allowing for some quality listening opportunities.
10. Mastery Modelling
This involves a form of formative assessment from students, whereat the teacher gives a group a series of models, both exemplar models and lesser models, including some with common errors that students would likely identify. The students need to do a critical appraisal of the these models as a group and identify their summary assessment of the models first, before then devising and presenting a 'mastery model' that is a composite exemplar model of work. This strategy works in pretty much every subject, with the subject being either an essay, a piece of art, or a mathematical problem. This presentation should include an explicit focus upon the steps taken leading to create the ' mastery model ' during the feedback - this unveils the process required for mastery for the whole class.
Useful links:
A great research paper that analyses group work and its importance:
'Toward a social pedagogy of classroom group work'
By Peter Blatchford, Peter Kutnick, Ed Baines, and Maurice Galton

An excellent National Strategies booklet from back in the day when the DfE was interested in pedagogy. I particularly like the ' different grouping criteria'/'size of grouping' tables:
Pedagogy and Practice: Teaching and Learning in Secondary Schools Unit 10: Group work

Nice step by step guide to the implementation and the delivery of group work
' Implementing Group Work in the Classroom '

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If I am continually vexed by any one question in education it is ' how can we enhance student motivation? ' Of course, I do not have the answer, and if there is one it is multi-faceted, complex and, frankly, not going to be solved in this blog post.

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Meeting Strategies for Group Work | Centre for Teaching Excellence

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Working in groups is quite different than working individually.

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The Graduate School of Education and Human Development

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Collaborative learning - the practice of breaking students into small groups to answer questions, work on projects and learn from one another - has become one of the strongest core philosophies operating in classrooms today.

The concept is not new; much of the early research on collaborative learning (also called cooperative learning) was done in the 1980s and 1990s when most classrooms favored the traditional teacher lectures and individual student work. But with the growth of technology and the increasing value society places on the ability to work in teams, collaborative learning has become more common. Here are 10 strategies for encouraging the success of collaborative learning:

1. Deliberately select which students will work together

Left to their own devices, students will sort themselves into groups of friends who share common bonds. However, when a teacher creates the groupings, he or she can match students by strengths and weaknesses, deliberately mixing ability, diversity and social capability.

2. Size the groups for maximum effectiveness

If a group is too small, ideas and discussion may not be diverse or energetic enough; if too large, some students won't get involved. Optimum group size tends to be four to five.

3. Teach your students how to listen to one another

Among young learners, active listening isn't a natural skill. Taking time to discuss and practice listening skills with your students - teaching them to make eye contact, avoid interruption and repeat important points - has both short and long term benefits.

4. Set the rules of language and collaboration

There will always be one or two students in each group who will be more likely to take the lead - or take over. Take the time to teach students how to clarify issues, how to paraphrase, how to disagree constructively and how to build on what others have contributed.

5. Make goals and expectations clear

Specific goals and expectations are important. If students are not clear on the goals they are expected to meet, group work has the potential to trail off into socialization or apathy.

6. Assign roles to the members of each group

With roles delineated, students are able to better understand what is expected of them. With roles like leader (directs the group's actions for the day), recorder (takes notes and does all writing), encourager (enables discussion and gives positive feedback) and checker (checks the work and hands it in), its clear how each student needs to fulfill his or her responsibilities.

7. Use real-world problems, not imaginary ones

With practical, real-world assignments, students find information through research and forming real opinions. If you find a scenario that they feel involved in - an environmental issue, a recent Supreme Court case, a complicated social issue - they will take more ownership of the project. Even better, select a problem from the students' own community and challenge them to solve it.

8. Consider giving each group a different task

Delegating tasks gives each group a sense of importance and emphasizes the fact that large problems are solved by people working together. By solving different pieces of an issue, your student groups will have a more personalized learning experience and will better refrain from ill-spirited competition or "borrowing" each other's work.

9. Play a game to get students warmed up

This is particularly helpful for younger students, who may not be sure of their roles in the group or the classroom. Cooperative games require children to use the same skills that they do in collaborative schoolwork, and they can see results quickly. For example, Teach Hub offers cooperative classroom games that are appropriate for grades 1-3, grades 4-6 and grades 7-8.

10. Evaluate each group on its own merit

If you judge groups in relation to each other, students will feel like their success or failure is not entirely in their own hands. Try a system where you can give grades per how well each group met its goals, and/or how each student performed the duties of their assigned role. You can also reward by category, as in best discussions, best research or most original solution.

The Changing Trends of Education

Collaborative learning is just one of the countless ways in which education is changing today. To learn more about how you can develop your leadership potential and enhance your career with a Master's in Educational Leadership and Administration, Education Specialist (EdS) and Post-Master's Certificate from the George Washington University, request information or call 202-994-9283.

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10 Strategies to Build on Student Collaboration in the Classroom | The Graduate School of Education and Human Development | The George Washington University

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Collaborative learning, breaking students into groups to work on projects and learn from one another, has become ! of the core philosophies in classrooms today.

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These strategies can help you increase student engagement with learning activities, build their confidence in their community of learning, and increase their comprehension of the course material.

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Effective facilitation of a discussion involves the recognition and employment of different perspectives and different skills to create an inclusive environment. In order to do so, it is important to consider the features of effective discussions, and conditions that promote small group interaction and engagement. Discussion is a powerful mechanism for active learning; a well-facilitated discussion allows the participant to explore new ideas while recognizing and valuing the contributions of others.

Roles of Discussion Leaders

adapted from Handelsman et al. 2006

1. Create an inclusive environment

Opportunities for reflection

What do the participants bring to the group? ("Characteristics that may give you a unique perspective")

Self-awareness; awareness of others

What do I bring to the group? What surprises or challenges me?

What behaviors am I most familiar or comfortable with?

What behaviors challenge me?

Allow participants to introduce themselves - you can even set up an ice breaker to have pairs of students introduce each other.

Be clear up front about expectations and intentions amongst participants and the facilitator.

Use inclusive language.

Ask for clarification if unclear about a participant's intent or question.

Treat participants with respect and consideration.

Develop an awareness for barriers for learning (cultural; social; experiential, etc).

Provide sufficient time and space for participants to gather their thoughts and contribute to discussions.

Provide opportunities for participants to pair-share.

Use certain conventions or language that will exclude certain groups from understanding the context of the discussion, or make them feel uncomfortable.

Assume participants all have the same expectations when the group first convenes.

Over-generalize behavior or have stereotypical expectations of participants (tokenism).

Use (or allow others to use) disrespectful language or tone, or disrespectful non-verbal communication.

Convey a sense of self-importance or superiority.

Allow only the dominant or more verbal participants to take over the conversation.

Discourage alternate views or counter-arguments.

Try to be someone else - be yourself.

2. Keep discussions constructive and positive

Make the discussion functional by clarifying the goals of each session to the group.

Establish ground rules:

Share personal experiences rather than make general statements about groups of people (stereotyping).

Ask dominant participants to allow others to speak.

Give all participants a voice- at the start highlight the value of a diversity of perspectives as an essential part of the process.

Go over constructive and destructive group behaviors at the start of the course / workshop.

Request that if participants challenge others' ideas, they back it up with evidence, appropriate experiences, and/or appropriate logic.

Try to keep the group on task without rushing them.

If the group starts to veer in the direction of negativity and/or pointless venting, ask them how they would like to address this.

Step back when a group is functional/functioning - help participants become independent learners; take control of their learning.

3. Encouraging participants

Encouraging participation can be accomplished by:

Writing participants' comments on the whiteboard.

Asking follow-up questions, and paraphrasing the comments for everyone to ponder. A combination of initiating and probing questions can be an effective approach to bring out participants' ideas further.

Asking the contributor for further clarification and/or elaboration.

Re-visiting past contributions and incorporating them into subsequent discussions.

Encouraging others to add their reactions or ideas to build on someone's comment.

Not being afraid to admit your own ignorance or confusion if you don't know something - invite others to provide resources, and use the opportunity to discuss with the group how one might go about researching the issue.

Discomfort and silence are ok, but balance with a clearly stated context and purpose.

Potential Problems in Discussions

adapted from: Center for Integration of Research, Teaching and Learning Handbook, accessed July 2008

Maintaining discussions often means dealing as smoothly as possible with the problems that arise. Here are some common problems with suggestions for how to deal with them.

The participant who talks too much:

A way to approach the dominant participant and pull in non-participants is to redirect the discussion to another person or another topic. Alternatively, you may wish to reframe their comments, making them viable additions to the discussion. Facilitators might also ask one or more members of the group to act as observers for a few sessions, reporting back their observations to the group. Perhaps assigning the avid talker to the observer role would help the person develop sensitivity. Another approach is to break down the group into still smaller task groups.

The member who will not talk:

A way to approach non-participants is to provide opportunities for smaller group discussions or pair-share discussions. Smaller groups may help put some students at ease. A second strategy is to ask opinion questions occasionally (e.g., "How do you feel about this?"). This may encourage participation by reducing participants' fear of answering incorrectly. Another strategy is to have participants write out their answers to a question. Having the words written out may make it easier for a shy or fearful person to speak up.

The discussion that turns into an argument:

In good discussions, conflicts will sometimes arise. If such conflicts are left ambiguous, they may cause continuing trouble. Here are some ways to resolve them:

If the solution depends on certain facts, the facilitator can ask participants to refer to the text or another authority.

If there is an experimentally verified answer, the facilitator can use the opportunity to review the method by which the answer could be determined.

If the question is one of values, the facilitator may use the occasion to help participants become aware of the values involved.

The facilitator can list both sides of the argument on the board.

The facilitator can take a strong position as moderator, preventing participants from interrupting each other or speaking simultaneously. She or he can lay ground rules for discussion, such as asking participants to focus conflict on ideas rather than people and to resist being judgmental.

Unclear or hesitant comments:

The facilitator can encourage participants making unclear contributions to give examples and factual evidence of their points. The facilitator can also restate points for verification or rejection by the participants, or give enthusiastic nonverbal cues and patience.

The discussion that goes off track:

Some facilitators keep discussions on track by listing the questions or issues they want to cover on the board or summarizing the discussion on the board as it proceeds. Stopping and asking a participant to summarize where the discussion is at the point it appears to go off track may also help.

The student who attacks the facilitator:

When participants argue for the sake of argument, facilitators will usually lose if they take the bait. Participants or students who attack often want attention, so simply giving them some recognition while firmly moving on often takes care of the problem. If participants are simply trying to embarrass the facilitator, they may seek to make him or her defensive with such comments as, "How do you really know that...?" or "You're not really saying that...?" Such questions can be handled by playing boomerang. The facilitator might say, "What I'm saying is..., but now I'd like you to share your perspective." Turning the question back to the questioner forces him or her to take responsibility for his or her opinion. Other ways to handle these situations include:

Confrontation - Facilitators can confront the questioner with their reactions to his or her behavior. "I'm uncomfortable with the imprecision of your questions. What I really hear you saying is..."

Active listening - Facilitators can paraphrase the message they heard and check out the accuracy of their assumptions before responding.

Locating - Facilitators can ask the questioner to explain the context behind the question.

Reframing - The focus can be on clarifying the assumptions behind the person's argument and then inviting her or him to see alternative possibilities.

Deferring - Often, the best strategy is to invite participants to come up after the session and arrange for a time to talk about the disagreement further, and then move the discussion on to another topic.

References

Boice, R. (1996) First-Order Principles for College Teachers: Ten Basic Ways to Improve the Teaching Process (Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing Co.)

Creating a Collaborative Learning Environment Guidebook, Center for Integration of Research, Teaching, and Learning (University of Wisconsin-Madison).

Feito, J. (2007) Allowing Not-Knowing in a Dialogic Discussion. The International Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, accessed July 2008. http://academics.georgiasouthern.edu/ijsotl/v1n1/feito/ij_feito.htm

Gelula, M.H. (1997) Clinical discussion sessions and small groups. Surgical Neurology, 47:400-403.

Handelsman, J., Miller, S., & Pfund, C. (2006) Scientific Teaching: Diversity, Assessment, Active Learning (New York: W.H. Freeman & Co.)

Sellers, S.L., Roberts, J., Giovanetto, L., Friedrich, K. & Hammargren, C. (2007) Reaching All Students-A Resource for Teaching in Science, Technology, Engineering & Mathematics (Second Edition) (Madison, WI: Center for the Integration of Research, Teaching, and Learning)

Steinert, Y. (2004) Student perceptions of effective small group teaching. Medical Education, 38:286-293.

Tuckman, B. & Jensen, M. (1977) Stages of Small Group Development. Group and Organizational Studies, vol. 2, pp.419-427.

University of Queensland: Designing Culturally Inclusive Environments, accessed July 2008. www.tedi.uq.edu.au/cdip

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Tips on Facilitating Effective Group Discussions

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Effective facilitation of a discussion involves the recognition and employment of different perspectives and different skills to create an inclusive environment. In order to do so, it is important to consider the features of effective discussions, and conditions that promote small group interaction and engagement.

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The tradition of cooperative learning in higher education can be traced back thousands of years ago, when the Talmud recommended using "learning partners" to understand the legal codes and when Socrates engaged students in the "art of discourse" (Johnson, Johnson & Smith, 1998). Today's cooperative learning involves students working in groups to accomplish shared learning goals (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). It is seen as an active learning strategy situated in a collaborative environment where students "discuss, debate, build, and present their understanding and hear the perspectives of their peers" (Tien, Roth & Kampmeier, 2002, p. 608).

More specifically, it uses small groups so that students can "maximize their own and each other's learning" (Johnson, Johnson & Smith, 1991, p. 5). However, cooperative learning is not about simply putting students together in groups, but about incorporating five essential elements into the group learning process: clear positive interdependence, members promoting learning and success face to face, individual accountability for work and contribution, use of interpersonal skills, and group processing (Johnson, Johnson & Smith, 1991).

Student-led learning stands out in cooperative learning approaches as students collaborate on problems not under the instruction or facilitation of teachers, but that of peers. Implementation in university classrooms has been seen for over 40 years-such as in physiology (Clement, 1971), psychology (Castell & Bridges, 2007), accounting (Adler, Whiting & Wynn-Williams, 2004) and law classes (Greig, 2000). In the last decade, this approach gained new momentum as innovative variations emerge, including Peer-Led Team Learning (PLTL) (Gosser et al, 2001) and near-peer instruction, most extensively researched in the teaching of chemistry (Tien, Roth & Kampmeier, 2002), among other undergraduate sciences, mathematics, engineering, and technology courses (Seymour, 2002). Besides student-led learning strategies, a variety of techniques can be used to promote the five cooperative learning elements, such as jigsaw, debate, and discussion.

Early implementation of cooperative learning encountered resistance from both teachers and students, as it contrasts sharply with traditionally passive learning experiences; its efficacy was also doubted under the "pooling-of-ignorance" assumption that student as instructors with less knowledge would result in lower achievement (De Volder, De Grave & Gijselaers, 1985). Nonetheless, the student-centered, cooperative approach has been validated in over 40 years' research as valuable for students' academic performance, relationship with peers and faculty, and attitude toward the college experience (Johnson, Johnson & Smith, 1998).

Placing students as leaders of the classroom can encourage greater participation and more responses (Collier, 1980), making the classroom a "dynamic and exciting learning environment" (Greig, 2000, p. 82). This is because students feel more relaxed to discuss, raise questions, and put forth opposing ideas or challenging statements. They are more willing to admit their confusions or need for more help to peers compared to professors (Beach, 1974).

Not only does student-led discussion facilitate "sharing, clarifying, and distributing knowledge among peers" (Rivard & Straw, 2000, p. 585), it also enables course materials to be translated into the words that are more familiar to the fellow students, generating examples more relevant to their lives (Collier, 1980). Similarly, in near-peer instruction, the peer leader as a near equal can be closer to students' abilities to comprehend and solve problems (Tien, Roth & Kampmeier, 2002), allowing them to interact in more natural and relevant ways.

It is through open and candid discussions that conceptual understanding takes root, and cooperative, student-led discussions can address both cognitive and non-cognitive education goals (De Volder, De Grave & Gijselaers, 1985). Better performance is a result of the "positive interdependence" (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991, p. 28), as students work through problems in a collaborative setting; the peer leaders, in particular, are prompted to explain their understanding to a classmate (Tien, Roth & Kampmeier, 2002)-a process of elaboration and reiteration to reinforce comprehension and thinking.

While many cognitive benefits can be generated by traditional discussion, especially in non-STEM courses-such as case studies in accounting and business-student-led discussions have proven to be more effective than teacher-led ones at fostering generic interpersonal and critical-thinking skills that are transferrable across academic disciplines and in the workplace (Adler, Whiting & Wynn-Williams, 2004). Besides attaining a higher level of reasoning (Hogan, Nastasi, & Pressley, 2000), creative problem solving, and communication skills (Greig, 2000), students gain a sense of autonomy and more confidence in a teamwork environment, starting to appreciate different learning styles (Gafney & Varma-Nelson, 2007). Ultimately, this translates into better student achievement, attitudes, and persistence, in addition to improved higher-order thinking and problem solving ability (Springer, Stanne, & Donovan, 1999). Cooperative learning also results in more positive relationships among students (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991).

It is worth noting, however, that students from certain cultures or disciplines might find themselves reliant on passive learning and not accustomed or trained to take initiative in a student-centered setting. Some students find group discussions a "superficial learning process" and "prefer assessment-oriented learning" (Kommalage & Imbulgoda, 2010, p. 68). It is thus important to revise assessments so that expressing ideas is encouraged and evaluated instead of the accurate memorization of knowledge.
Written by Danxi Shen, Ed.M., Harvard Graduate School of Education References:
Adler, R. W., Whiting, R. H., & Wynn-Williams, K. (2004). Student-led and teacher-led case presentations: empirical evidence about learning styles in an accounting course. Accounting Education, 13(2), 213-229.

Beach, L.R. (1974). Self-directed student groups and college learning. Higher Education, 3, 187-199.

Casteel, M. A., & Bridges, K. R. (2007). Goodbye lecture: A student-led seminar approach for teaching upper division courses. Teaching of Psychology, 34(2), 107-110.

Clement, D.E. (1971) Learning and retention in student-led discussion groups, Journal of Social Psychology, 84, 279-286.

Collier, K. G. (1980). Peer-group learning in higher education: the development of higher order skills. Studies in Higher Education, 5(1), 55-62.

De Volder, M. L., De Grave, W. S., & Gijselaers, W. (1985). Peer teaching: Academic achievement of teacher-led versus student-led discussion groups. Higher Education, 14(6), 643-650.

Gafney, Leo & Varma-Nelson, Pratibha. (2007). Evaluating Peer-Led Team Learning: A Study of Long-Term Effects on Former Workshop Peer Leaders. Journal of Chemical Education, 84 (3), 535.

Greig, A. (2000). Student-Led Classes and Group Work: A Methodology for Developing Generic Skills. Legal Educ. Rev., 11, 81.

Gosser, D. K., Cracolice, M. S., Kampmeier, J. A., Roth, V., Strozak, V. S., & Varma-Nelson, P. (2001). Peer-Led Team Learning: A Guidebook.

Hogan, K., Nastasi, B. K., & Pressley, M. (1999). Discourse patterns and collaborative scientific reasoning in peer and teacher-guided discussions. Cognition and instruction, 17(4), 379-432.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. A. (1991). Cooperative Learning: Increasing College Faculty Instructional Productivity. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 4. Washington, D.C.: The George Washington University, School of Education and Human Development.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. A. (1998). Cooperative learning returns to college what evidence is there that it works?. Change: the magazine of higher learning, 30(4), 26-35.

Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1999). Making cooperative learning work. Theory into practice, 38(2), 67-73.

Kommalage, M., & Imbulgoda, N. (2010). Introduction of student-led physiology tutorial classes to a traditional curriculum. Advances in physiology education, 34(2), 65-69.

Rivard, L. P., & Straw, S. B. (2000). The effect of talk and writing on learning science: An exploratory study. Science Education, 84(5), 566-593.

Seymour, E. (2002). Tracking the processes of change in US undergraduate education in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology. Science Education, 86(1), 79-105.

Springer, L., Stanne, M. E., & Donovan, S. S. (1999). Effects of small-group learning on undergraduates in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology: A meta-analysis. Review of educational research, 69(1), 21-51.

Tien, L. T., Roth, V., & Kampmeier, J. A. (2002). Implementation of a peer‐led team learning instructional approach in an undergraduate organic chemistry course. Journal of research in science teaching, 39(7), 606-632.
Further Resources:

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R., and Smith, K. (1998). Active Learning: Cooperation in the College Classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Co.

Oakley, B., Felder, R. M., Brent, R., & Elhajj, I. (2004). Turning student groups into effective teams. Journal of student centered learning, 2(1), 9-34.

Roth, V., Marcus, G., & Goldstein, E. (2001). Peer-led team learning: A handbook for team leaders. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

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Group & Cooperative Learning; Students as Classroom Leaders

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The tradition of cooperative learning in higher education can be traced back thousands of years ago, when the Talmud recommended using "learning partners" to understand the legal codes and when Socrates engaged students in the "art of discourse" (Johnson, Johnson & Smith, 1998).