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Formative Assessment Ideas for Reading Comprehension

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Teaching Reading Comprehension Full Webinar Education Scotland

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Teaching Reading Comprehension Full Webinar Education Scotland

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Teaching Reading Comprehension webinar - YouTube

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Explore this resource

How to use this learning and assessment resource to improve practice

These reading and writing resources have been developed to help with assessment, support and planning for literacy difficulties. The circles can be used in primary and secondary sectors and may also be beneficial for adults and for children and young people for whom English is not their first language.

The reading and writing circles provide:

Descriptions of the key areas involved in the acquisition of reading and writing skills;

A tool to identify areas of difficulty;

Approaches and strategies for each key area;

Support for appropriate planning.

The resources will help teachers understand the various key aspects which are involved in developing the skills to support reading and writing. They will also help teachers highlight strengths, difficulties and offer guidance to plan the next steps appropriately.

The circles, and particularly the practical planning tool, can be used to support:

professional learning and reflection;

dialogue with colleagues;

dialogue with the learner;

meetings when sharing information with parents/carers, the learner and colleagues;

collegiate groups and training.

Aims of the literacy circles:

Included within the Route Map for Dyslexia and Inclusive Practice, these resources will support practitioners develop a deeper learning and understanding of the acquisition of reading and writing skills.

To encourage practitioners to be familiar with, and make appropriate use of, the Addressing Dyslexia Toolkit.

To support teachers evidence and demonstrate their professional knowledge and understanding on literacy and contribute towards their Professional Update.

Reflective questions

Since literacy is a responsibility for all teachers, how do I know I that have an appropriate awareness of literacy development including reading and writing?

How effectively do I/we provide appropriate and effective planning of literacy support for children and young people with dyslexia and literacy difficulties?

How effectively do I/we provide appropriate and effective planning of support to secure improved achievement and attainment for children and young people with dyslexia and literacy difficulties?

How successfully are children and young people, teachers and parents/carers provided with appropriate information to support their understanding of effective strategies and support for literacy difficulties?

How effectively do I/we enable the participation of children and young people during the process of exploring their literacy difficulties?

How effective are I/we at helping them understand their strengths and areas of difficulties and supporting them to contribute to their support plan?

Download(s)
PDF file: Reading Circles - Summary (1.7 MB)PDF file: Writing Circles - Summary (1.7 MB)

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Literacy Circles - Reading and writing circles

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These reading and writing resources have been developed to help with assessment, support and planning for literacy difficulties. The circles can be used in primary and secondary sectors and may also be beneficial for adults and for children and young people for whom English is not their first language.

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Sharing Practice from Highland -  Comprehension Overview - Shared at our LECN network

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Sharing Practice from West Lothian -  Reading Reading Outline - Shared at our LECN network

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Sharing Practice from North Lanarkshire -  Reading Comprehension Outline - Shared at our LECN network

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Think-alouds | Classroom Strategies | Reading Rockets

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Conner, J. (2004). Using Think-Alouds to Improve Reading Comprehension.

Davey, B. (1983). Think-aloud: Modeling the cognitive processes of reading comprehension. Journal of Reading, 27(1), 44-47.

Gold, J., & Gibson, A. (2001). Reading Aloud to Build Comprehension.

Olshavsky, J. E. (1977). Reading as problem-solving: An Investigation of Strategies. Reading Research Quarterly, 12(4), 654-674.

Wilhelm, J. D. (2001). Improving Comprehension with Think-Aloud Strategies. New York: Scholastic Inc.

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Think-alouds have been described as "eavesdropping on someone's thinking." With this strategy, teachers verbalize aloud while reading a selection orally. Their verbalizations include describing things they're doing as they read to monitor their comprehension. The purpose of the think-aloud strategy is to model for students how skilled readers construct meaning from a text.

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Education Scotland Before, during and after reading strategies

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Comprehension Strategy Overview and Questions to ask

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Teaching Reading Strategies | Shanahan on Literacy

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Teaching Reading Strategies | Shanahan on Literacy

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Teaching reading comprehension strategies to on-grade level students between the ages of 8-10, we have a pretty good idea of how to do that successfully. The teaching of strategies is a good focus as well, given the large amount of research showing that strategy instruction can be beneficial.

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The Seven Step Model - Developing Independence in applying comprehension strategies

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The first tool provides more detail about each of the seven steps, while the second can be used to help practitioners explicitly plan how to approach deliberately shifting the responsibility from themselves to the pupil during a lesson, activity or over the course of a series of lessons:

Activating prior knowledge: Consider the key concepts that you have taught previously and what the pupils need to know to access the lesson. There will be differences in what and how much each child knows about the topic, but what is the essential knowledge and how will you ensure all pupils have it before you move on?

Explicit strategy instruction: What is the new knowledge or new technique that you are teaching? Ensure you are not teaching too much in one go as you don't want to overload pupils' working memory.

Modelling of learned strategy: Think about how you will model how to complete the task, but also how you will model your thought processes as you do this. Consider how you will explicitly demonstrate perseverance, resilience and learning from mistakes you have made in the past.

Memorisation of strategy: How will you check to see if pupils have understood what you have taught them? Avoid just asking one or two pupils and assuming that this reflects the understanding of the whole class.

Guided practice: What support will you put in place initially for all pupils? How will those in need of extra help be supported in a way which promotes and sustains their confidence and competence once the scaffold is removed?

Independent practice: Pupils will need varying amounts of guided practice, how will you plan for them all to have the opportunity to engage in independent practice, and what will this look like?

Structured reflection: Individually or in small groups, support pupils to think about what went well and what they would do differently next time. Also encourage them to reflect on how their emotions and motivation levels affected their performance in the task. [Notice the arrow on the ​'Seven-step Model' model, showing the importance of returning to this reflection when pupils do a similar task in the future.

Supporting pupils and scaffolding their learning in this way can help every pupil move from dependence to independence. Not only that, but by improving pupil performance, we can develop their belief in their own competence and in turn, their motivation to achieve. Whether it is improved homework, revision, or similar, the benefits are likely to pay off for our pupils.

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a lack of independence is related to many of the challenges teachers face each day. from the perennial challenges of homework and revision to tasks in the classroom

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we are always seeking to scaffold towards greater independence. it is important to avoid misconceptions around how best to cultivate children’s independence. it is key to recognise that pupils don’t just develop self-sufficiency by being given lots of tasks to work on alone. it is a process that is purposefully supported though explicit modelling and teaching. eventually

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novice pupils go on to develop strategies for themselves by recognising similarities and differences between things they have seen and done before. when this move from dependence to independence occurs

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pupils are more successful in our classrooms. it also means they are better equipped to face the challenges which life might throw at them outside of school

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which is exactly what we want for our pupils.   a framework to develop independence  the ‘seven-step model’ from the eef metacognition and self-regulated learning guidance report offers us a useful framework to support teachers in developing their pupils’ independence. we have developed this into two planning tools to help you consider how you can apply this in your own classroom and help your pupils to take more ownership of their learning.    metacognition: the seven-step model  the first tool provides more detail about each of the seven steps

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while the second can be used to help practitioners explicitly plan how to approach deliberately shifting the responsibility from themselves to the pupil during a lesson

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activity or over the course of a series of lessons:  activating prior knowledge: consider the key concepts that you have taught previously and what the pupils need to know to access the lesson. there will be differences in what and how much each child knows about the topic

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but what is the essential knowledge and how will you ensure all pupils have it before you move on?   explicit strategy instruction : what is the new knowledge or new technique that you are teaching? ensure you are not teaching too much in one go as you don’t want to overload pupils’ working memory.  modelling of learned strategy : think about how you will model how to complete the task

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but also how you will model your thought processes as you do this. consider how you will explicitly demonstrate perseverance

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resilience and learning from mistakes you have made in the past.  memorisation of strategy : how will you check to see if pupils have understood what you have taught them? avoid just asking one or two pupils and assuming that this reflects the understanding of the whole class.  guided practice : what support will you put in place initially for all pupils? how will those in need of extra help be supported in a way which promotes and sustains their confidence and competence once the scaffold is removed?  independent practice : pupils will need varying amounts of guided practice

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how will you plan for them all to have the opportunity to engage in independent practice

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and what will this look like?  structured reflection : individually or in small groups

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support pupils to think about what went well and what they would do differently next time. also encourage them to reflect on how their emotions and motivation levels affected their performance in the task. [notice the arrow on the ‘seven-step model’ model

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showing the importance of returning to this reflection when pupils do a similar task in the future.  supporting pupils and scaffolding their learning in this way can help every pupil move from dependence to independence. not only that

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we can develop their belief in their own competence and in turn

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their motivation to achieve. whether it is improved homework

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the benefits are likely to pay off for our pupils.  featured resources   seven-step model  seven-step model worksheet

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EEF blog: Modelling Independence - The 'Seven-step Model' planning...

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The EEF's Julie Kettlewell explains how to support pupils' independent learning using our seven-step model.

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Strategies that Promote Comprehension | Reading Rockets

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1. Cudd, E.T., & Roberts, L.L. (1987). Using story frames to develop reading comprehension in a first grade classroom The Reading Teacher, 41, 75-79.

2. Stauffer, R.G. (1975). Directing the reading-thinking process. New York: Harper & Row.

3. Ogle, D.M. (1986). K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text. The Reading Teacher, 39, 564-570. and Ogle, D.M. (1989). The know, want to know, learn strategy. In K.D. Muth (Ed.), Children's comprehension of text: Research into practice (pp. 205-233). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

4. Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., Hamilton, R.L., & Kucan, L. (1997). Questioning the author: An approach for enhancing student engagement with text. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

5. Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 2, 117-175.

6. Brown, R., & Coy-Ogan, L. (1993). The Evolution of transactional strategies instruction in one teacher's classroom. The Elementary School Journal, 94, 221-233; Pressley, M., El-Dinary, P.B., Gaskins, I., Schuder, T., Bergman, J., Almasi, L., & Brown, R. (1992). Beyond direct explanation: Transactional instruction of reading comprehension strategies. The Elementary School Journal, 92, 511-554.

7. Hoffman, J.V. (1992). Critical reading / thinking across the curriculum: Using I-Charts to support learning. Language Arts, 69, 121-127.Language Arts, 69, 121-127.

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Based on research and effective practice, these strategies help students learn how to coordinate and use a set of key comprehension techniques before, during, and after they read a variety of texts.

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The Prediction Collection - Once Upon a Picture

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Once Upon a Picture - Images to Inspire - Teaching Resources

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All of our children are expected to make predictions while reading. Here's a look at the curriculum objectives:

KS1: Predict what might happen on the basis of what has happened so far
KS2: Predict what might happen from details stated and implied

So, this can be as simple as asking the question, 'What do you think is going to happen next?', quickly followed with, 'Why?'.

However, we need to make explicit the additional skills needed to be able to do this. To be able to predict, you need to be able to read and understand what has happened, and is currently happening. You need to be able to retrieve and infer ('details stated and implied'), combine this with your knowledge of the world, weigh up probability, and make a sensible prediction of the next outcome. It might come naturally to many, but it's worth breaking it down to look at what's involved.

I've selected these images because they are 'in the heart of the action'. They allow for discussion around what has just happened, to use inference to work out additional information, and then a discussion of what might happen next. Here's a useful resource (aimed at Upper Key Stage 2, but could be used with children of all ages to introduce the language) for thinking about possibilities: Making predictions - modal verbs and adverbs. After teaching children how to predict, and how to answer questions, move them on to doing this with text.

When teaching prediction, it really does come back to the simple question:
What do you think is going to happen next, and why?
Just remember what else is needed to answer that question.
Note: In SATs papers, this question will come in several forms, such as, 'Will Taylor change his behaviour on future visits to the field?' or, 'Based on what you have read, what does the last paragraph suggest might happen to the explorers next? Use evidence from this paragraph to support your prediction.'

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The Prediction Collection - Once Upon a Picture

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All of our children are expected to make predictions while reading. Here's a look at the curriculum objectives: KS1: Predict what might happen on the basis of what has happened so far KS2: Predict what might happen from details stated and implied So, this can be as simple as asking the question, 'What do you think is going to happen next?', quickly followed with, 'Why?'.

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The Inference Collection - Once Upon a Picture

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Once Upon a Picture - Images to Inspire - Teaching Resources

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Inference is a tricky area of reading. Children don't always understand what it means to infer, and stumble on test questions demanding this of them. I've found that teaching the skill explicitly using a non-threatening stimulus has worked brilliantly. First, you develop the understanding of the skill, what is involved and what is required to answer questions. Then this is practised, and practised some more (justifying inferences, anyone?), before being applied to text. The joy lies in the depth of responses offered by all children taking part.

Here are some of my favourites for developing inference in the primary classroom. Let me know if you try any!

Click on the image to see the original post.
You can read more about the approach here, and ask me on Facebook or Twitter.

Note: Some of the questions below will include other skills, including prediction.

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The Inference Collection - Once Upon a Picture

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Inference is a tricky area of reading. Children don't always understand what it means to infer, and stumble on test questions demanding this of them. I've found that teaching the skill explicitly using a non-threatening stimulus has worked brilliantly. First, you develop the understanding of the skill, what is involved and what is required to answer questions.

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Suggested Short Films to support comprehension

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Using Short Films to Teach Comprehension Skills

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I love using short films to teach reading comprehension skills, and my students love watching them! Why do I love using them? Show a s...

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Using wordless picture books in schools and libraries - Scottish Book Trust

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Looking for more in Learning resources?

Wordless picture books are visually stimulating and can be used to develop reading and comprehension skills. They are especially useful for pupils for whom English is an additional language and pupils with additional support needs. This resource will:

Introduce you to wordless picture books

Explain the skills needed to read a wordless picture book

Show how wordless picture books can benefit pupils of a wide range of ages and abilities

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Using wordless picture books in schools and libraries

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Looking for more in Learning resources? Wordless picture books are visually stimulating and can be used to develop reading and comprehension skills. They are especially useful for pupils for whom English is an additional language and pupils with additional support needs.

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Teaching Comprehension Strategies - Teaching ideas and question prompts

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Reading Comprehension: What, Why and How?

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According to the recently updated EEF Toolkit, interventions based on reading strategies are now ranked as second in terms of the potential positive impact on students' progress. In fact, robust research indicates that primary students can make 6+ months progress, secondary students 7+ months and the impact on disadvantaged students can be even greater. However, whilst these statistics might seem simple, the reality, as we all know, is that reading is a complicated business, and teaching students how to do so is harder still.

What do we mean by reading comprehension?
Reading comprehension strategies are a range of techniques that support all students in understanding the meaning of what they read. In a nutshell, they are the techniques that expert readers use tacitly as they read to help them understand the text. These techniques often overlap with other areas of pedagogy, such as metacognition and oral language interventions, which are also ranked very highly in the EEF Toolkit. Five of the key reading comprehension strategies are:

1. Activating prior knowledge.
2. Prediction.
3. Questioning.
4. Clarifying.
5. Summarising.

Why can there be a greater positive impact on disadvantaged students?
As Caroline Bilton explains, many children come to school already honed to be strategic readers because they have experienced rich literacy interactions at home. These children expect to enjoy and learn from texts and have had early practice in doing so through a variety of methods - they have a sense of reading entitlement. For other children, however, these home experiences may be lacking or missing altogether. In these cases, the explicit teaching of reading comprehension strategies is fundamental if these children are to have a chance of accessing the texts that are part of the daily diet of lessons. Compounding this issue is the effect of the Covid-19 partial school closures, a time during which some children will have engaged with many texts and some none at all. Consequently, teaching reading is something that we must recognise as a priority irrespective of the phase or subject we teach.

How can schools use reading comprehension strategies effectively in the classroom?
To start, Bilton provides some very helpful ​'teacher prompts' to support classroom teachers with their explicit teaching of comprehension when reading fiction books:
Ask me questions about any part of the text you are unsure about.
What would you like to find out more about?
What questions would like to ask the main character?
I wonder why...

Activate Prior Knowledge
What do you know about where/​when this story is set or the characters in the book?
Have you ever been/​seen before?
Have we read any other books about this?
Does this book remind you of any other books we have read?
Look at the front cover and title. What do you think might happen in this story?
Let's look for clues. What do you think might happen next?
Why do you think that might happen?
That's not what we expected. What do you think now?
Could you take this story home and tell it to a grown up?
What are the most important things to remember?
It's important that you understand what we're reading. If you're not sure, we can go back and read it again.
Can you tell me what happened and why it might have happened?
Make a list of any words you are not sure about.

The research suggests that shorter-term interventions based the above techniques can be more effective than long-term approaches. For example, this could be a 10-week teaching period at the start of the year in which the comprehension strategies are taught through direct instruction, modelling and guided practice. Often, the strategies are explicitly taught to a class and then practised in pairs or small groups. Daniel Willingham suggests that a better long-term focus would then be increasing students' vocabulary and background knowledge.

How might this work in secondary schools and for non-fiction texts?
The strategies outlined above can be very effective when teaching reading through fiction books, but what about when students reach secondary school? In this context, the research tells us that a lot of changes take place in regards to students' reading requirements. Not only does the complexity of texts that the students encounter in class increase, but so does the quantity and type. Whilst on the surface this might seem like a barrier, the use of more challenging texts can actually be of benefit to comprehension teaching. This is because using more demanding academic texts means that students will need to bring to the fore the tools they use to read. Hence, what seems spontaneous for some will be revealed as strategies that are available and used by all.

Finally, in secondary schools, Bilton's prompts, with some subject-specific adaptation, could dovetail neatly with disciplinary reading approaches, which you can read about here and here.

It is irrefutable that reading is at the heart of educational success. Reading comprehension strategies means that the power to ensure all young people can experience this success is very much in the hands of all classroom teachers.
Fran Haynes To find out more about what the research evidence suggests about literacy teaching in secondary schools and how this can work in practice, join us at Durrington Research School for our training programme on secondary literacy. You can find out more details here.

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Reading Comprehension: What, Why and How

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According to the recently updated EEF Toolkit, interventions based on reading strategies are now ranked as second in terms of the potential positive impact on students' progress. In fact, robust research indicates that primary students can make 6+ months progress, secondary students 7+ months and the impact on disadvantaged students can be even greater.

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Reading comprehension strategies focus on the learners' understanding of written text. Pupils learn a range of techniques which enable them to comprehend the meaning of what they read. These can include: inferring meaning from context; summarising or identifying key points; using graphic or semantic organisers; developing questioning strategies; and monitoring their own comprehension and then identifying and resolving difficulties for themselves (see also metacognition and self-regulation).

Strategies are often taught to a class and then practiced in pairs or small groups (see also collaborative learning approaches).

1. Reading comprehension strategies are high impact on average (+6 months). Alongside phonics it is a crucial component of early reading instruction.

2. It is important to identify the appropriate level of text difficulty, to provide appropriate context to practice the skills, desire to engage with the text and enough challenge to improve reading comprehension.

3. Effective diagnosis of reading difficulties is important in identifying possible solutions, particularly for older struggling readers. Pupils can struggle with decoding words, understanding the structure of the language used, or understanding particular vocabulary, which may be subject-specific.

4. A wide range of strategies and approaches can be successful, but for many pupils they need to be taught explicitly and consistently.

5. It is crucial to support pupils to apply the comprehension strategies independently to other reading tasks, contexts and subjects.

The average impact of reading comprehension strategies is an additional six months' progress over the course of a year. Successful reading comprehension approaches allow activities to be carefully tailored to pupils' reading capabilities, and involve activities and texts that provide an effective, but not overwhelming, challenge.

Many of the approaches can be usefully combined with Collaborative learning techniques and Phonics activities to develop reading skills. The use of techniques such as graphic organisers and drawing pupils' attention to text features are likely to be particularly useful when reading expository or information texts.

There are some indications that approaches involving digital technology can be successful in improving reading comprehension (although there are relatively few studies in this area), particularly when they focus on the application and practice of specific strategies and the use of self-questioning skills.

Supporting struggling readers is likely to require a coordinated effort across the curriculum and a combination of approaches that include phonics, reading comprehension and oral language approaches. No particular strategy should be seen as a panacea, and careful diagnosis of the reasons why an individual pupil is struggling should guide the choice of intervention strategies.

Shorter interventions of up to 10 weeks tend to be more successful. However, there are some examples of successful longer interventions.

Studies in England have shown that pupils eligible for free school meals may receive additional benefits from being taught how to use reading comprehension strategies. However, the UK evidence base is less extensive than the global average, and UK studies show lower impact for all pupils.

Reading comprehensions strategies involve the teaching of explicit approaches and techniques a pupil can use to improve their comprehension of written text. Many learners will develop these approaches without teacher guidance, adopting the strategies through trial and error as they look to better understand texts that challenge them. However, we know that on average, disadvantaged children are less likely to own a book of their own and read at home with family members, and for these reasons may not acquire the necessary skills for reading and understanding challenging texts.

Reading comprehension strategies work through a number of different mechanisms - all focused on improving the understanding of meaning of text effectively. Common elements include:

explicit teaching of strategies;

teachers questioning pupils to apply key steps;

summarising or identifying key points;

metacognitive talk to model strategies;

using graphic or semantic organisers;

using peer and self-questioning strategies to practice the strategies (such as reciprocal questioning); and

pupils monitoring their own comprehension and identifying difficulties themselves.

Reading comprehension strategy interventions are typically delivered between one to three terms of a school year, either by teachers within class settings, or by teaching assistants with smaller groups.

Evidence suggests that reading comprehension approaches need to be tailored to pupils' current reading capabilities, so it is important that teachers receive professional development in effective diagnosis as well as training in the use of particular techniques and materials.

The average cost of reading comprehension strategies is estimated as very low. The cost to schools is largely based on training and professional development, books and learning resources, the majority of which are initial start-up costs paid during the first year of delivery. Whilst the median cost estimate for reading comprehension programmes is very low, the range of prices between available programmes and the option to purchase additional ongoing training and support for teaching staff means that costs can range from very low to low.

Effective teaching of reading comprehension strategies will also require a moderate amount of staff time, compared with other approaches. Alongside time and cost, school leaders should consider how to develop teachers' ability to use specific techniques for particular pupils' needs and ensure they use texts that provide an effective challenge to readers.

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Reading comprehension strategies focus on the learners' understanding of written text.