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A law describes what happens; a theory explains why it happens

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This quote means that laws and theories have different purposes in science .I understood that a law tells us what happens — it simply describes a pattern or result we can always observe in nature. For example, it states the facts. But a theory goes deeper and explains why it happens — it gives reasons and understanding behind those facts. So, the author wanted to show that theories help us make sense of laws and find the meaning behind them.

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Waltz, K. N. (1979). Theory of International Politics.

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This quote means that theories do not simply come from collecting facts. Instead, they are created by the human mind through imagination and creativity. The author believes that developing a theory is not just about observing the world but about thinking in new and original ways to explain it. Facts provide information, but theories are built by people who use their creativity to connect those facts and give them meaning.

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Waltz, K. N. (1979). Theory of International Politics.

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Mearsheimer, J. J. (1994). The False Promise of International Institutions. International Security, 19(3), pp. 5–49.

📚📚📚

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Theories are not derived from facts. Theories are inventions - creative acts of the mind.

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John Mearsheimer presents a strong realist argument against the idealistic view of international institutions. He believes that organizations such as the United Nations or NATO do not truly change how states act because countries always think about their own national interests first. I agree that power politics still play a central role in international relations, and many institutions cannot stop conflicts if great powers are involved. For example, the war in Ukraine shows that global institutions have limits in influencing strong states. However, I also think institutions are not completely useless — they provide communication, norms, and a sense of cooperation, even if temporary. Mearsheimer’s argument reminds us that realism continues to explain many global events, but combining it with liberal ideas could give a more balanced understanding of world politics. 🌍

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The Value of Sociological Imagination

C. Wright Mills’ concept of the sociological imagination helps explain how personal lives are connected to society and history. Mills believed that to understand social and cultural realities, people’s attitudes, and their behavior, a sociologist should not only know theories and methods. It is also important to show originality of thought and a special interest in problems that seem ordinary or unimportant to most observers. When viewed through this lens, familiar things can take on a completely new meaning, and everyday situations may appear different from what they seem at first sight.

For Mills, this independent way of seeing was only the starting point of sociological research. The real task begins when a researcher develops and applies the sociological imagination — a quality of mind that makes it possible to link private experiences with wider social structures and historical change. Using this approach, people can understand how politics, economy, and culture influence their opportunities and choices.

The “promise” of the sociological imagination is still relevant today. It invites us to look at education, work, family, and other areas of life as part of a bigger picture. By connecting biography with history, individuals can better understand the forces that shape their world and find ways to respond to challenges more wisely. I see that sociological thinking is a skill I need to practice. It will help me make better decisions, understand social problems, and take part in improving my community. Learning to use this skill makes studying sociology more meaningful because it shows how knowledge can be applied to everyday life and to the search for positive social change.

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1. “Institutions have minimal influence on state behavior, and thus hold little promise for promoting stability in the post–Cold War world.”

2. “Realists maintain that institutions are largely reflections of the distribution of power in the world.”

3. “Cooperation is difficult to achieve and even harder to maintain in an anarchic international system.

Видео по запросу: "mirshaymer about realism" https://share.google/AX5IsqTNI54fOcXsq

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“International politics, like all politics, is a struggle for power.”

“The concept of interest defined in terms of power infuses rational order into the subject matter of politics.”

“Political realism refuses to identify the moral aspirations of a particular nation with the moral laws that govern the universe.”

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“The international structure is defined by the distribution of capabilities across units.”

“In anarchy, the units of the system—states—are compelled to rely on self-help.”

“The structure of a system changes with changes in the distribution of capabilities across a system’s units.”

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“One characteristic of complex interdependence is the absence of a hierarchy of issues.”

“Interdependence in world politics refers to situations characterized by reciprocal effects among countries or among actors in different countries.”

“In complex interdependence, military force is not the only instrument of policy and may not be the most useful one.”

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“Anarchy is what states make of it: the institutions and structures of international politics are social rather than material.”

“Structure has no existence or causal powers apart from process.”

“Self-help and power politics are institutions, not essential features of anarchy.”

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Morgenthau, H. (1948). Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace.

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Waltz, K. N. (1979). Theory of International Politics.

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Keohane, R. O., & Nye, J. S. (1977). Power and Interdependence. 

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Keohane, R. O., & Nye, J. S. (1977). Power and Interdependence. 

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Wendt, A. (1992). Anarchy is what states make of it: The social construction of power politics. International Organization, 46(2), 391–425

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Morgenthau’s statement that “Political realism refuses to identify the moral aspirations of a particular nation with the moral laws that govern the universe” reflects his belief that power is separate from morality. For him, states often use moral language to justify political actions, but their real motivations come from national interests and the desire to maintain or increase power. This quote shows that, in Morgenthau’s view, power is grounded in practical calculations, not in universal moral principles. It helped me understand that realism treats power as something objective and strategic, which states pursue regardless of idealistic values or ethical claims.

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Waltz writes that “The structure of a system changes with changes in the distribution of capabilities across a system’s units.” This means that power is not only about the decisions of individual states but also about how capabilities—such as military strength or economic resources—are distributed in the international system. For Waltz, even if states want peace, the system can force them to behave competitively if power becomes unbalanced. This quote reinforces the idea that power is structural: when capabilities shift, the entire international order transforms. It made me see power as something dynamic that depends on the overall balance, not only on state intentions.

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Keohane and Nye argue that “One characteristic of complex interdependence is the absence of a hierarchy of issues.” This means that, unlike realism, modern international relations are not dominated only by military security. Instead, economic cooperation, environmental issues, technology, and institutions can all shape outcomes. Power becomes more multidimensional, because influence can come from negotiation, networks, and even global rules. This quote helped me understand that in today’s world, states cannot rely only on military force; they must also manage different types of connections and vulnerabilities. As a result, power becomes more flexible and less centered on force.

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Wendt’s line “Structure has no existence or causal powers apart from process” highlights the constructivist idea that international structures, such as anarchy or alliances, exist only because states continuously reproduce them through interaction. In other words, power is not predetermined by material conditions; it is shaped by the meanings states create together. This perspective shows that ideas, identities, and social practices can be sources of power just like armies or institutions. The quote helped me see international politics as something socially constructed, where power emerges from the way states perceive each other and the norms they follow.

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“Nothing human beings do, and nothing that takes place in the natural world, occurs in isolation.”

“Whales maintain the populations of their prey.”

“The way in which whales change the composition of the atmosphere provides yet another refutation of the idea that we can manipulate the living world with simple, predictable results.”

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The central insight of Everything Is Connected lies in the radical interdependence of ecological systems: “nothing human beings do … occurs in isolation.” As Monbiot illustrates using whales, the removal of a single species can cascade through entire ecosystems — whales do not simply vanish: they “maintain the populations of their prey,” and thereby influence food webs, nutrient cycles, and even carbon sequestration. Crucially, their activity also reshapes atmospheric composition, challenging the simplistic notion that nature can be managed through controlled, predictable interventions. In essence, this reveals how deeply entangled human actions are with planetary health — destabilizing one node in the ecological web risks unraveling vast systems.

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Monbiot, G. (2014) Everything Is Connected. Available at: https://www.monbiot.com/2014/12/12/everything-is-connected/ (Accessed: 7 December 2025).

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The richest 1% of the world’s people burn more carbon than the poorest 66%.”

“Money buys isolation … Great wealth … allows people to wall themselves off from others … not just physically but also cognitively.”

“The fight against environmental breakdown is … also a fight against the great maldistribution of wealth and power that blights every aspect of life on planet Earth.”

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In Billionaires Are Bad for Us, Monbiot argues that extreme wealth is not just a social injustice — it is deeply environmental. He notes that “the richest 1% … burn more carbon than the poorest 66%,” which means that a tiny elite exerts outsized pressure on our planet’s climate. Beyond consumption, wealth “buys isolation” — fostering detachment not only physically (yachts, private jets, mansions) but cognitively, blinding its holders to the wider consequences of their lifestyle. Ultimately, Monbiot casts environmental degradation as inextricably linked to systemic inequality: the struggle to protect the Earth must also be “a fight against the great maldistribution of wealth and power.”

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Monbiot, G. (2023) Billionaires Are Bad for Us. Available at: https://www.monbiot.com/2023/12/13/billionaires-are-bad-for-us/ (Accessed: 7 December 2025).

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Waltz, K. N. (1979) Theory of International Politics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

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Waltz, K. N. (1979) Theory of International Politics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

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Kenneth Waltz’s Theory of International Politics offered me a new way of looking at world politics by showing how much state behavior is shaped not by leaders or national character but by the structure of the international system itself. What I found most impactful is Waltz’s idea that anarchy—defined as the absence of a central authority—creates similar incentives for all states, pushing them toward self-help, power balancing, and competition even when they might prefer cooperation. This perspective made me rethink the limits of foreign policy: states may want peace, but the system often forces them to prioritize security over idealism. Although structural realism can feel overly deterministic, Waltz’s explanation of recurring patterns—arms races, alliances, rivalry—helped me see why international politics often seems to repeat itself. Overall, the book encouraged me to look beyond individual actions and to examine how systemic pressures shape outcomes on a global scale.

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“It’s an experiment with 8 billion test subjects, no controls and no endpoint.”

“Agricultural land … has become a dumping ground for hazardous industrial waste.”

“A great acreage of both arable and pasture land is likely to have been contaminated with a vibrant cocktail of environmental toxins.”

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In Shitshow, Monbiot warns that our environmental management has become a reckless global experiment — one with “8 billion test subjects, no controls and no endpoint.” What once was farmland is now, in effect, “a dumping ground for hazardous industrial waste,” contaminated by sewage sludge laced with synthetic chemicals, microplastics, and other toxins. Vast tracts of arable and pasture land are therefore likely polluted with a “vibrant cocktail of environmental toxins,” undermining soil, food safety, and ecological health. The piece compels us to confront the fact that current waste and agricultural policies are not just irresponsible — they may irreversibly damage Earth’s life-support systems.

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Monbiot, G. (2023) Shitshow. Available at: https://www.monbiot.com/2023/11/24/shitshow/ (Accessed: 7 December 2025).

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“Bucolic fairytales are a threat to life on Earth.”

“Their solutions, such as pasture-fed meat … are impossible to scale without destroying remaining wild ecosystems: there is simply not enough planet.”

“Real solutions to our global food crises are neither beautiful nor comforting.”

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In Fantasy Farming, Monbiot challenges the nostalgic allure of pastoral-style agriculture, arguing that such “bucolic fairytales” are not harmless fantasies but “a threat to life on Earth.” The romantic ideal of pasture-fed meat and small-scale farms may comfort our conscience — but these models “are impossible to scale without destroying remaining wild ecosystems.” When we face the reality of feeding billions, Monbiot insists, the answers will be messy, unromantic, and industrial: “real solutions … are neither beautiful nor comforting.” Ultimately, clinging to agrarian idealism risks trapping us in ecological illusions that endanger both biodiversity and human survival.

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Monbiot, G. (2023) Fantasy Farming. Available at: https://www.monbiot.com/2023/05/28/fantasy-farming/ (Accessed: 7 December 2025).

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Monbiot, G. (2014) Everything Is Connected. 

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Monbiot, G. (2014) Everything Is Connected. 

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Reading Monbiot’s Everything Is Connected shifted the way I understand ecosystems by showing how deeply intertwined all living systems are. What struck me most is how small interventions—like the decline of whale populations—can trigger massive ecological consequences that reach as far as atmospheric composition. Monbiot’s argument made me question the human assumption that nature is predictable or easily manageable; instead, he reveals that the living world is complex, relational, and full of invisible feedback loops. This reflection left me with a stronger sense of ecological humility: we are part of a vast web we barely understand, and every action we take echoes far beyond what we can immediately see.

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Monbiot, G. (2014) Everything Is Connected. 

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Monbiot, G. (2014) Everything Is Connected. 

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Reading Monbiot’s Everything Is Connected shifted the way I understand ecosystems by showing how deeply intertwined all living systems are. What struck me most is how small interventions—like the decline of whale populations—can trigger massive ecological consequences that reach as far as atmospheric composition. Monbiot’s argument made me question the human assumption that nature is predictable or easily manageable; instead, he reveals that the living world is complex, relational, and full of invisible feedback loops. This reflection left me with a stronger sense of ecological humility: we are part of a vast web we barely understand, and every action we take echoes far beyond what we can immediately see.

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Monbiot, G. (2023) Billionaires Are Bad for Us. 

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Monbiot, G. (2023) Billionaires Are Bad for Us. 

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In Billionaires Are Bad for Us, Monbiot made me confront an uncomfortable reality: environmental destruction is not just a scientific issue but also a political and economic one. The idea that the richest 1% produce more carbon emissions than most of the world combined shows how inequality directly fuels planetary collapse. What resonated with me is his argument that extreme wealth creates distance—physical, social, and even cognitive—allowing the wealthy to remain untouched by the consequences of their choices. This reflection pushed me to rethink environmentalism not as an individual moral duty but as a systemic struggle against concentrated power. Monbiot ultimately argues that climate justice is impossible without economic justice, and this connection feels both urgent and impossible to ignore.