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New right theorists argue that the absence of a male role model in matrifocal lone parent families leads to boys turning to criminal street gangs as a source of status and identity

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What: unstructured tape record interview of 39 15-46yesr old wc women who had been convicted of crimes .( 20 were in custody / prison at time of interviews )
Carlin argues that most convicted female criminals are wc.
Carlin uses HIRSCHI’s control theory to explain female crime:
Hirschi argues that people will turn to crime if they do not believe the rewards will be fourthcoming, and if the rewards of crime appear greater than the risks.
Carlin argues that wc women are led to conform thru the promise of 2 types of rewards :
1) THE CLASS DEAL- women who work will be offered material rewards , with a decent standard of living and leisure opportunities
2) THE GENDER DEAL- patriarchal ideology promises women material and emotional rewards from family life by conforming to the norms of a conventional domestic gender role .
If these rewards are not available or worth the effort, crime becomes more likely. Carlin argues that this was the case with the women in her study .

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She criticised 🤬 role theory for its biological assumptions. She says that Parsons assumes that because women have the biological capacity to bear children, he presumed that they are best suited to the expressive role.

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mothers housework and childcare means she has restricted time and stays in the house for long periods - reduces opportunity to offend

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if women reject their domestic role their partners will try and impose it through domestic violence. Dobash and Dobash 1979 - many violent attacks are as a result of men not being satisfied with women’s performance of domestic duties

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- Women’s behaviour controlled by male supervisors and managers.
- Sexual Harassment widespread; keeps women in their place.
- Women’s Subordinate position reduces opportunities to engage in crime; for example the glass ceiling prevents senior positions and therefore prevents white collared crime, such as fraud.
- However the patriarchy in the workplace can also push women into crime, for example become poor through gender inequality and turn to theft.

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Gender role socialisation explains gender differences in crime 

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Gender role socialisation explains gender differences in crime 

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it is focused on differences in socialisation of males and females. Eg boys are encouraged to be tough, aggressive, risk taking, which means that they are more disposed to commit acts of violence or take criminal opportunities

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Crime done by females will be as frequent and as serious as the crimes committed by men. As the opportunities in education and work have risen for women they begin to adopt more Male roles, these include illegitimate roles too.

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daughters less likely to stay out late so develop a ‘bedroom culture’ = staying at home and socialising rather than going out leaving them less opportunity to engage in deviant behaviour on the street

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Evaluation : Carlin shows the failure of patriarchal society to deliver the promised ‘deals’ to some women removes the controls that prevent them from offending

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The overall rate of females offending has increased in the second half of the 20th century, there has been a rising level of female participation in male crimes such as embezzlement and armed robbery, and there is social media talk of girl gangs, similar to those of violent male gangs.

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Parsons - gender roles in the nuclear family

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Parsons - gender roles in the nuclear family

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Men take breadwinner role outside of the home, leaving women to perform expressive role in the home where their main responsibility is socialising the children.

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In terms of class deal, women had failed to find a legitimate way of earning a living.
They felt oppressed, powerless and victims of injustice.

In Carlen's study she found:
. 32 of the women had always been in poverty
.Some had gained qualification and/or did training courses but still couldn't get a job
. Many left humiliated trying to claim benefits

They gained no rewards from class deal and because they had nothing to lose they used crime as a way out of poverty. This was a major reason for female criminality.

Additionally, in terms of gender deal, most women had not got the opportunity to make the deal or found no rewards with family life. Some had been abused sexually and physically by their fathers or partners; over half spent time in care and most in care continuously ran away leaving them poor and homeless

The conclusion came to be:
"Crime was the only route to a decent standard of living. They had nothing to lose and everything to gain"

The main causes for female criminality was down to poverty and growing up in such an oppressive and abusive family.

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control theory can be accused of seeing women’s behaviour determined by external factors, ignores importance of free will and choice

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Means that boys are more likely to turn to all male street gangs as a source of masculine identity

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The female crime rate has been on the rise before the liberation of women began,most crimes are committed by working class females, this social class is the least likely to be influenced by the liberation, offences such a drug use are linked to prostitution (an offence that is very unliberating) furthermore, there is little evidence in support of professional crime for women.

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Evaluation p2:

Critics argue that this underplayed the importance of free will and choice in offending.

Additionally, Carlens sample was small - therefore unrepresentative

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Women are controlled in public by the threat of male violence, especially sexual violence. The Islington crime survey found that 55% of women avoid going out after dark, compared to only 14% of men.

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The media portrays the typical rapist as a stranger who attacks randomly, which scares women into staying in. Women are also controlled through their appearance, by makeup clothing and how they act.