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Abstract

Background

Older adults are at risk for loneliness, and interventions to promote social connectedness are needed to directly address this problem. The nature of interventions aimed to affect the distinct, subjective concepts of loneliness/social connectedness has not been clearly described. The purpose of this review was to map the literature on interventions and strategies to affect loneliness/social connectedness for older adults.

Methods

A comprehensive scoping review was conducted. Six electronic databases were searched from inception in July 2015, resulting in 5530 unique records. Standardized inclusion/exclusion criteria were applied, resulting in a set of 44 studies (reported in 54 articles) for further analysis. Data were extracted to describe the interventions and strategies, and the context of the included studies. Analytic techniques included calculating frequencies, manifest content analysis and meta-summary.

Results

Interventions were described or evaluated in 39 studies, and five studies described strategies to affect loneliness/social connectedness of older adults or their caregivers in a qualitative descriptive study. The studies were often conducted in the United States (38.6%) among community dwelling (54.5%), cognitively intact (31.8%), and female-majority (86.4%) samples. Few focused on non-white participants (4.5%). Strategies described most often were engaging in purposeful activity and maintaining contact with one's social network. Of nine intervention types identified, the most frequently described were One-to-One Personal Contact and Group Activity. Authors held divergent views of why the same type of intervention might impact social connectedness, but social contact was the most frequently conceptualized influencing factor targeted, both within and across intervention types.

Conclusions

Research to test the divergent theories of why interventions work is needed to advance understanding of intervention mechanisms. Innovative conceptualizations of intervention targets are needed, such as purposeful activity, that move beyond the current focus on the objective social network as a way to promote social connectedness for older adults.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12877-018-0897-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Keywords: Loneliness, Social connectedness, Intervention, Scoping review, Older adult

Background

The interplay of health and contextual factors puts older adults at risk for loneliness [ 1], a negative feeling resulting from a perceived deficit in companionship, quantity or quality in one's relationships with either an attachment figure or a community [ 2- 4]. Health factors include chronic disease experiences that interfere with functioning, and cognitive decline resulting in communication impairments [ 5] or inability to remember significant others or the recent interactions with them [ 6]. Contextual factors relate to lacking a confidant [ 7], relocation to a care facility as well as loss of loved ones due to death [ 2, 7, 8], and spending too much time alone [ 7] or idle [ 8], which yields feelings of separation from others. Loneliness may also be influenced by the number and structure of one's relationships (i.e. social network), frequency of interaction with others (i.e. social contact), or the types and amounts of assistance received from others (i.e. social support) [ 9, 10].

Lonely people are at risk for reduced health and well-being, including poor life satisfaction [ 11- 15], depression [ 16, 17], low self-esteem [ 13], reduced hope [ 13], negative affect [ 18, 19], and impaired function in activities of daily living [ 9, 17, 18]. The opposite of loneliness, social connectedness, is a basic human need [ 20] that may influence health and wellbeing for older adults, more than social contact, network or support [ 9]. Social connectedness is a positive subjective evaluation of the extent to which one has meaningful, close, and constructive relationships with other individuals, groups, or society indicated by: (1) feelings of caring about others and feeling cared about by others, such as love, companionship or affection and (2) feeling of belonging to a group or community [ 1].

Interventions to promote social connectedness/reduce loneliness among older adults have been analyzed and described in previous literature reviews in concert with interventions aimed at the distinct, but related, concept of social contact/isolation [ 21- 26]. Intervention types were described by Dickens et al. (2011) based on their component activities and included "activities (social or physical programmes), support (discussion, counseling, therapy or education), internet training, home visiting, and service provision" [ 21] (p. 5). Other reviews categorized interventions based on a combination of the activities offered and the mode of delivery (e.g. group or one-to-one) [ 22- 25]. Cattan et al. (2005) [ 22] described group (including activities of educational input or social support), one-to-one (including activities of home visits or telephone contact to provide information, services, or support), service provision (e.g. transport, medical intervention), and community development (e.g. social activities) interventions. Hagan et al. (2014) described group (including activities such as cognitive enhancement workgroups, adult day centre attendance, and gender-based social groups) and one-to-one interventions (including activities like befriending and mentoring programs, animal-assisted therapy, use of the internet, and contact with family or friends using a variety of technological approaches) [ 24]. Cohen-Mansfield et al. (2015) described group (educational, shared activity, or specific therapy techniques) and one-to-one activities (educational, sensory technological aids, and specific therapy techniques) [ 25]. Windle et al. (2011) described one-to-one interventions (befriending, mentoring, and gatekeeping), group services (day-centre services and social group schemes), and wider community engagement (participation in existing activities, outreach programmes, or volunteer schemes) [ 26]. Similarly, Findlay et al. (2003) identified group (tele-conferencing or discussion/support groups) and one-to-one (telephone support and gatekeeper programmes that connect socially isolated older adults with support services) interventions, as well as service provision (community support services) and use of the Internet.

Because interventions aimed to affect loneliness/social connectedness and isolation/social contact among older adults were reviewed and analyzed together in these previous reviews [ 21- 26], which interventions actually addressed loneliness/social connectedness for this population is unclear. Isolation/social contact and loneliness/social connectedness are different concepts, the former objective and the latter subjective: one may be alone (i.e. isolated) and still feel a sense of social connectedness, or be surrounded by people (i.e. have social contact) and feel lonely [ 4, 8, 27]. The components and activities of interventions designed to target loneliness/social connectedness may differ in important ways from those designed to reduce isolation/increase social contact [ 28]. Furthermore, how the interventions addressed either the indicators of loneliness/social connectedness or its possible influencing factors is unclear. Conceptualization of the mechanisms by which interventions address loneliness/social connectedness, as opposed to isolation/contact, is needed [ 27, 29], responding to calls for theory-based interventions that are problem-specific [ 21, 22]. The purpose of this scoping review was to identify and describe the number and features of interventions that were designed to address loneliness/social connectedness among older adults. The aims were to: (1) describe and clarify the interventions' goals, components, activities, mode and dose of delivery and (2) shed light on the theoretical underpinnings of these interventions by assessing the extent to which their hypothesized mechanisms of effect mapped to factors that may influence social connectedness.

Methods

To identify and describe the nature of strategies and interventions designed to affect loneliness/social connectedness for older adults, scoping review procedures were applied to systematically search, screen, extract and synthesize this broad body of literature [ 30, 31]. Typical of scoping review methodology, quality appraisal was not conducted since our aim was not to assess intervention efficacy [ 30, 31]. Scoping review results are particularly useful to inform the design of future systematic reviews, which would include a transparent and rigorous quality appraisal process [ 30, 31]. The results of the current scoping review will identify types of interventions that are sufficiently homogenous in their components, activities, and theoretical underpinnings and evaluated across multiple studies, warranting assessment of their efficacy in future systematic reviews. Articles included in this scoping review reported on the: (i) design of an intervention; (ii) protocol or results of a quantitative study to evaluate an intervention; (iii) or findings of a qualitative study that explored older adults' or caregivers' strategies to promote social connectedness.

Search procedures

Six electronic databases-Psycinfo, Medline, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, Proquest Dissertations and Theses, Proquest Nursing, and Proquest Social Service Abstracts -were searched in July 2015 from inception. Search strategies, using keywords and database-specific subject headings, were designed to capture the concepts of 'social connectedness' (using terms identified in collaboration with a health sciences librarian like social connectedness, connectedness, lonely, or loneliness) and 'intervention' or 'strategy' (using terms identified from a previous systematic review [ 32] like therapy, treatment, strategy, or intervention studies). The results were exported to Refworks and duplicates removed prior to screening. See Additional file 1 for full details of database-specific search strategies.

Inclusion/exclusion criteria

Broad selection criteria were used to be comprehensive. Articles were included if they: (i) described an intervention evaluated using any quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods design, or explored in a qualitative study the strategies used by older adults or caregivers to promote social connectedness; (2) identified loneliness/social connectedness or its indicators (i.e. feelings of caring for/about others or feelings of belonging) as a primary goal or outcome of the intervention or strategies; (3) targeted adults 55 years of age or older; and (4) were available in full text in either English or French. Studies were not excluded based on year made available or publication status. Standardized criteria were developed to clarify the inclusion/exclusion criteria and to guide the selection of articles. Two independent reviewers applied the criteria to screen a random selection of 9% ( n  = 46) of the full text articles, which resulted in good inter-rater agreement (kappa = 0.784, SE = 0.119). Reviewer discrepancies were discussed until consensus was reached.

Data extraction

Detailed data extraction instructions were developed to maintain consistency. The instructions clarified the data to be extracted, their possible locations in the articles, and the way to document them; illustrative examples were provided. Multiple reports of a single study were grouped together in the data extraction tables so that they would be counted once in the analysis, and so that all data about a single intervention was in one place.

Data extracted from all articles included name of first author, year published, and whether it was a peer-reviewed article, book chapter, or dissertation. For empirical quantitative or qualitative studies, the following additional information was documented: study design; contextual details (i.e. target population, country that the study was conducted in, cultural background of participants, and setting based on descriptions of the recruitment sites); and information about the sample (i.e. sample size, age, gender, level of cognitive impairment, marital status).

Data extracted from articles that described or evaluated an intervention also included the theoretical underpinnings of the intervention (i.e. any explicit guiding framework or theory, and the authors' more implicit conceptualizations from the rationale provided for why the intervention may affect loneliness/social connectedness), and details of the intervention. Pertinent details of an intervention include its goal, components and activities, and mode of delivery and dose [ 28]. The goal referred to what the intervention was set to achieve. Active ingredients were the components and the activities required to implement each component, as operationalized in the study. Delivery mode was the format for giving the intervention, and dose was the amount of the intervention to which participants were exposed. Additional data extracted from qualitative studies that explored strategies to promote social connectedness among older adults were the results that identified and / or described strategies to affect loneliness/social connectedness, and supporting descriptions if needed to clarify the nature of the strategy.

Analysis

Frequencies were calculated to describe the context (i.e. target populations and settings) in which the intervention was implemented. Strategies to affect loneliness/social connectedness extracted from qualitative studies were analyzed as follows: (i) an initial list of two indicators of social connectedness/loneliness (i.e., caring for and about others and feelings of belonging) and nine modifiable influencing factors (i.e., social network, social support, self-reported health, technology use, formal group memberships, mental and emotional well-being, community-based social participation, religious affiliation, and use of services such as home care) identified from a previous review [ 1] was used as the initial coding framework; (ii) the studies' findings were coded and grouped together when similar (i.e. manifest content analysis), and new codes created as needed, thereby adding the factors of keeping busy/purposeful activity and personal development to the initial list; and (iii) the frequency of indicators and factors addressed across studies was assessed (i.e. metasummary [ 33]). The first author completed this analysis, and the last reviewed the findings.

To analyze the interventions, manifest content analysis was used to group similar types of interventions, and identify and describe their components. The first author completed this analysis and the last reviewed the findings. The first and second authors then independently assessed the extent to which the authors' hypothesized mechanisms of effect (i.e., the theoretical underpinnings of the intervention) mapped to the indicators of and the list of factors that may influence social connectedness. Factors were not always explicitly stated in the articles, so this mapping involved making low-level inferences based on a careful review of the authors' descriptions and definitions of hypothesized mechanisms of effect. Having two independent reviewers complete this analysis improved credibility of the findings. Discrepancies were resolved through discussion and review of coded data until consensus was reached on a final list of factors targeted by each intervention.

Results

Search results

From 5530 titles/abstracts (the number after removal of duplicates), 424 full text articles were reviewed, and 44 separate studies (reported in 54 articles) met the inclusion criteria (Fig. ). Studies were conducted primarily in the United States (38.6%) or in the Netherlands or other Nordic countries (22.7%). Most often, cultural background of the study sample or target population was not clearly reported (54.5%). Few studies included a majority of non-white participants (4.5%). Most of the studies focused on people who lived in the community, either independently, in assisted living, or 'living alone' (54.5%). The studies' samples were often described as cognitively intact (31.8%) or level of cognitive function was not reported (31.8%), and usually included a majority (i.e. ≥ 50%) of women (86.4%) (Table ). A few qualitative studies explored strategies to impact older adults' loneliness/social connectedness from the perspective of older adults or their caregivers (11.4%); most of the studies described or evaluated an intervention (88.6%). Study details can be found in Additional file 2. Next, the synthesis of strategies from the qualitative studies is discussed, followed by the description of the core features of the interventions.

Table 1

Strategies from qualitative studies

The most common strategies described were engaging in purposeful activity or keeping busy ( n = 5 studies) [ 6, 34- 38] and having contact with a social network [ 6, 34- 38] (n = 5). Purposeful activity/keeping busy was about engaging in pastimes or daily responsibilities, regardless of whether these involved contact with others and which were actually often solitary in nature, with the intent to pass the time or to accomplish something. Examples of activities included reading, listening to music, going for a walk, cleaning, cooking, and arts and crafts. All studies also described maintaining contact or interaction with a social network as an important strategy ( n = 5) [ 6, 34- 38]. Both in-person interactions and interactions occurring over the telephone or email were described. Of the five studies, three emphasized the importance of maintaining familiar relationships with family and friends, as opposed to making new contacts [ 6, 36, 37, 39].

Social participation, community-based activities that people choose and that have the potential to bring them into contact with others like volunteer work, joining clubs, or pursuing recreational activities [ 15], was discussed as a strategy in three studies [ 34, 35, 37- 39]. One study described how people who had led active lives joined groups [ 34, 35], while another described how community-dwelling older adults watched television to feel connected to and engaged in the social world [ 37, 39]. Another study described how older adults who were part of a senior's club joined groups, went on bus trips, went dancing, or attended a senior's centre [ 38].

Just two studies explicitly described strategies that directly targeted the need to feel cared for, described as needing to have satisfying emotional relationships that result in feeling valued or affection from others [ 36] or seeking companionship from pets [ 37, 39]. All studies did emphasize having contact with familiar people (i.e. existing friends and family), which suggests that older adults may seek out the type of contact that results in feelings of being valued or cared for [ 6, 36, 37, 39].

Two studies described a strategy of personal development to change one's outlook on life or social relationships. In one study, the people described how personal growth could result in reframing their outlook on solitude to prevent loneliness [ 38]. In the other, people would feel better about their own situation when comparing themselves to those perceived as being worse off or more lonely than they were [ 34, 35]. Social support, which refers to receipt of different types of assistance from others [ 9], was only explicitly described in one study [ 37, 39]. Interestingly, in this instance, it was not receiving social support, but providing social support that was described as a strategy to ameliorate loneliness, because helping others made people feel needed. Finally, having a religious affiliation and belief in a higher power, regardless of church attendance, was identified in one study to provide strength to combat loneliness [ 38].

Interventions

Nine different intervention types, classified based on their components (i.e. active ingredients), were identified in 39 studies (Table ). The mapping of theoretical underpinnings-the authors' descriptions or rationale for why an intervention would work-to indicators and factors that influence loneliness/social connectedness, by intervention type across all studies, is shown in Table and summarized in-text, following the descriptions of the interventions' components. One-to-One Personal Contact (21%, n = 8) and Activity Group (18%, n = 7 studies) were the interventions that were most frequently explored or evaluated. In One-to-One Personal Contact, participants were paired with another individual, either a family member, friend or a volunteer for those with a more limited social network, and given the opportunity to have scheduled contact and interaction with that person. One-to-One Personal Contact was conceptualized as targeting five different indicators/factors, but most often social network ( n = 8) and social support ( n  = 6), while caring, belonging, and technology use (e.g., phone, computer) were described in fewer than half of the studies.

Table 2

Intervention Type

Components & Activities

Mode of Delivery

Doses Described

Personal Contact [ 17, 44- 50]
(8 studies/reports)
Scheduled contact with another person.

1. Personal contact: Scheduled contact with someone from one's social network (e.g. a family member or friend) or a volunteer who may be similar to the recipient on some characteristics (e.g. age, gender, interests, culture). Discussions are unscripted and informal in nature. Personal contacts may be specifically trained to offer emotional support, and may or may not be permitted to provide instrumental support (e.g., transportation, shopping, minor housekeeping and repairs, letter writing/correspondence, or meal preparation).

* One-to-one
* Face-to-face, phone, email, or videoconference
* Researcher supports training with videoconference equipment

* Usually weekly
* 5 min to 1 h or more per interaction
* 3 to 36 months

1. Group Activity Participation: joining a new group, and engaging in an activity of interest (e.g. song-writing, gardening projects, painting, pottery, dance, music, poetry, drama, jewelry making, storytelling, therapeutic writing, exercise, etc.)
2. Group Discussion: joining a new group, and engaging in facilitated discussion focused on a pre-determined topic of interest to the participants (e.g. movie discussion, bible discussion, role of the retiree) sharing of personal experiences. Group members may be taught how to offer emotional support to one another.
All interventions of this type either addressed component 1 [ 57, 58], component 2 [ 54, 55, 57, 59- 61], or both components 1&2 [ 51- 53]

* Group of 5 to 9 people
* Face-to-face sessions held in a neutral location (e.g. an activity room).
* Facilitated (e.g. by a health care provider, researcher, university student, professional artist) who guides discussion and provides resources (e.g. songbooks, painting supplies).

* Sessions once or twice per week
* 90 min to 6 h per session
* 3 to 72 weeks

1. Animal Contact: contact with an animal, usually a cat or dogs; animal simulations have also been used (e.g. a robotic seal). Activity with the animal is self-guided and may include talking to, holding, petting, playing with, grooming, or walking the animal on a leash. A person's preference for animal type (e.g. cat or dog) as well as size (e.g. small or large) may be assessed in order to individualize the treatment. Sometimes, the person is assigned to one animal to have contact with for all sessions.

* Face-to-face
* One-to-one in a person's private room OR to a group (size has ranged from 2 to 13) in a common space of a long-term care facility (e.g. activity room, garden, etc.).
* A pet attendant brings and supervises animals

* 1 to 3 times per week
* 30 to 90 min per session
* 3 to 24 weeks
OR
* Animal lives at the long term care or assisted living facility and residents can seek out contact

1. Skills instruction: Instruction given to older adults to improve their ability to have contact with others and/or to enhance their existing friendships, or to make new friends. The activities differ depending on the type of skills that are taught. Skills taught have included: mindfulness-based stress reduction [ 76], use of a computer and internet [ 74, 75], those supporting friendship development (e.g. self-esteem, reflection on expectations of friendships, analysis of one's network, goal and boundary-setting) [ 69- 72], and self-management (to meet needs of comfort, stimulation, affection, behavioral confirmation and status [ 73]).

* Face-to-face
* Usually group (size has ranged from 5 to 15) (one study was one-to-one [ 75])
* Lead by trained clinicians, researchers, experienced instructors

* Usually weekly
* 2 to 4 h per session
* 3 to 12 lessons
* Some also include skills practice at home

Varied/Non-Specific [ 40, 41, 77- 80]
(5 studies, 6 reports)
Broad, multifaceted programs not focused on a single type of intervention

1. Service delivery or social assistance: These are usually multi-component interventions, but the different components are not clearly conceptualized or described, and are described broadly as improving service delivery within a community. Types of services offered in a single program to a community may be related to any combination of: increased fitness or arts programs, or other social/leisure activities; improved transportation; access to information or resources; and/or consultation with medical, nursing, counseling, financial or housing experts.

Unclear as to who delivered different services and/or how these were delivered

* Programs lasted for 6 months to 2 years
* Unclear what individuals within a community would have received

1. Increase spontaneous, resident-driven and purposeful interaction with plants, animals and children: the Eden philosophy is about creating a 'human habitat' by providing opportunity for residents to interact as desired with plants, animals and children in their daily life in order to address issues related to loneliness, boredom and helplessness experienced by residents of long-term care facilities. Both interventions described staff training to understand the philosophy.
One intervention also stated that work teams were formed to increase the number of plants, animals and involvement with children in the facility by opening a day-care program [ 81].

Unclear who was trained, and what implementation of this philosophy looked like in practice.

Unclear what facilities actually did to implement the philosophy

1. Reminiscence: A topic or theme is provided for the session (e.g. school days, holiday traditions, first house and anniversaries, family histories and life stories, etc.) and participants share with the group their recollections.

* Face-to-face in a comfortable setting
* Group (size not reported or ≤ 10)
* Lead by facilitators trained in reminiscence therapy and who may have experience working with older adults

* 1 to 2 times per week
* 1 to 1.5 h
* 4 to 8 weeks

1. Peer support group: Participants attend meetings where they select areas of discussion related to their needs and challenges that they face. Peer and professionals provide information resources and/or emotional support related to identified challenges.

* Face-to-face
* Group (size range from 5 to 12)
* Co-lead by peers who had strong interpersonal skills and professionals (e.g. nurse, minister, social worker, music therapist) experienced in working with older adults who face challenges (e.g. bereavement) or by staff who received training on the program components (e.g. activity aides)

* Weekly
* 0.75 to 1.5 h
* 12 to 20 weeks

Public Broadcast [ 87]
(1 study/report)
Listening to a generation-specific radio program.

1. Familiar music: Listening to music (primarily), serials and other segments of radio programs that were popular in the 1920-1950s.
2. Interactive style: programming delivered using a friendly and interactive style including birthday messages and 'cheerio' calls.

* to individuals
* via a community radio station; free radio receiver provided, operated by a simple on/off switch

Table 3

Proportion of studies targeting each factor/indicator

The components of Activity Group interventions included engaging in an activity of interest, and facilitated discussion aimed at promoting the development of relationships that may be characterized by support, friendship or companionship among group members. Many different activities were used, both within and across studies (e.g. arts and music, topical discussion, or exercise). Across the seven studies, Activity Groups were described as targeting six different indicators/factors including: caring, belonging, social support, and personal development (each described in less than half of the studies); and social participation ( n = 6) and social network ( n = 4) (each described in more than half of the studies).

Animal Contact (15%, n = 6), Skills Course (15%, n = 6), and Varied/Non-Specific (13%, n = 5) interventions were also explored in multiple studies. In Animal Contact interventions, most often referred to as 'Animal Assisted Therapy', participants were paired and allowed to interact with an animal, usually a dog or a cat, either at their own convenience or at a scheduled time. Animal Contact was described as targeting four indicators/factors, most often caring ( n = 4) and social network (n = 4); social support and keeping busy/purposeful activity were also described, but in fewer than half of the studies. Skills Course interventions promoted the development of the person's personal characteristics or skills in order to address loneliness/social connectedness. These involved training participants to obtain computer skills to increase access to resources or interpersonal contacts ( n = 2), to develop psychological skills, like expectations of friends, self-esteem, or self-management, needed to develop and maintain strong interpersonal relationships ( n = 3), or mindfulness skills to re-frame how one thinks about social relationships ( n = 1). Skills Course interventions were described as targeting seven indicators/factors, but most often social network ( n  = 4), personal development (n = 4) and caring (n = 3); the others described in less than half of the studies included social support, technology use, keeping busy/purposeful activity, and mental and emotional well-being (e.g., avoiding stress).

Interventions that were classified as Varied/Non-Specific referred to the implementation, usually by a public health or community organization, of a large and multifaceted program that employed a combination of different types of interventions that were poorly specified. For example, the 'Healthy Aging' program [ 40, 41] was broadly conceptualized as addressing loneliness using any one of a variety of activities (e.g. reminiscence, skills course, or group activity). Each community involved in the program received a different type of intervention under the umbrella of 'Healthy Aging'. Varied/Non-Specific interventions were conceptualized as addressing four factors, most often social network ( n  = 5), and social support, personal development and social participation in less than half of the studies.

Reminiscence (5%, n = 2), Support Group (5%, n = 2), Model of Care (5%, n = 2), and Public Broadcast (3%, n = 1) were each explored or evaluated in just one or two studies. Reminiscence referred to an intervention where the primary component was to prompt participants to reflect on past memories or experiences. One of these interventions also had participants consider the future in light of insights gained, while the other described communication facilitation techniques aimed at promoting positive interactions between participants in a group setting. Reminiscence was conceptualized as targeting three factors: social network ( n  = 1), personal development (n = 1), and mental and emotional well-being (n = 1).

Support Group interventions involved bringing together a group of people who shared some common characteristics or life experiences, and facilitating group members to provide emotional, informational, or appraisal support through exploration of issues that members experienced. Support Groups differed from Activity Groups in that the focus was on the promotion of social support, not on engagement in an activity or building other types of relationships with others. Support Groups were described as targeting the indicator of caring ( n = 1) and the factors of social support ( n  = 2) and personal development (n = 1).

Model of Care interventions implemented a philosophy of care within a long-term care facility that was clearly described as targeting loneliness/social connectedness as a primary outcome. Both studies identified in this review described implementation of the Eden Alternative Model philosophy, which espoused development of close relationships between staff and long-term care residents, the integration of plants and animals into the everyday lives of residents, and promoting residents' active involvement in the day-to-day life at the long-term care facility. Model of Care interventions targeted the indicator of caring ( n = 2) and the factor of social network (n = 2). The final intervention type was a Public Broadcast. In this intervention, participants were asked to listen to a radio program that played music that may be familiar to participants based on their age, was presented by a friendly radio announcer, and included some programming that used an interactive style. The Public Broadcast intervention targeted the indicator of caring ( n  = 1), technology use (n = 1), and keeping busy/purposeful activity (n = 1).

Discussion

This review identified nine distinct intervention types, classified based on their active ingredients, developed to address loneliness/social connectedness among older adults. Within each of the nine types of interventions, the studies' authors had different theories about what factors were targeted, signaling inconsistency in the literature regarding the mechanisms by which the interventions have been conceptualized to affect loneliness/social connectedness. In addition, authors frequently conceptualized a single component of an intervention (e.g. contact with a relative or visitor) as targeting multiple factors (e.g. caring, belonging, social network, social support), but did not test the assumption that a single component affected multiple outcomes. Taken together, these two features of the literature make it unclear whether an intervention component really accomplishes all that it is theorized to. Research that would strengthen the evidence base includes theory-informed intervention evaluation that delineates the series of factors that are targeted by the intervention as immediate outcomes and examines effects of the intervention on each factor [ 28].

Findings from this review supported that the types of interventions that have been developed to date address, in theory, many of the key strategies identified by key stakeholders including contact, social participation, feeling cared for, personal development and social support [ 6, 34- 38]. Contact, or development of one's structural social network, was described as a target in all but two intervention types (the exceptions were 'Social Support' and 'Public Broadcast'). Social participation was described as a target in 86% of 'Activity Group' interventions. Feeling cared for was described as a target in 67% of 'Animal Contact' and 100% of 'Model of Care' interventions. Personal development was described as a target in 67% of 'Skills Course' interventions, and social support was described as a target in 75% of Personal Contact and 100% of Social Support interventions. Of note, none of the interventions directly targeted the strategy of purposeful activity/keeping busy, the importance of which was emphasized by key stakeholders in all five qualitative studies [ 6, 34- 38]. Development of interventions to address loneliness/social connectedness which target purposeful activity/keeping busy would address stakeholder priorities and is consistent with calls to develop a range of interventions that are responsive to characteristics of participants and to their needs and preferences [ 42].

Other reviews have found highly inconsistent results of intervention impact within each of the different categories of interventions, concluding that there was very limited evidence supporting effectiveness of the interventions [ 21- 24]. However, there are two key conceptual issues that may have affected these reviews' findings [ 43]: (1) mixing the findings of effectiveness of heterogeneous interventions, which will lead to inconsistent findings across studies; and (2) analyzing studies of an intervention delivered using a single mode of delivery, which will lead to an incomplete synthesis. The categories of interventions identified in the present review address the above issues in two ways and may be useful to guide future systematic reviews to establish efficacy. First, interventions were only analyzed if they targeted loneliness/social connectedness (not other social concepts like isolation/contact). Second, interventions were grouped according to their active ingredients, not the mode of delivery. While two of the intervention types referred to in the present review do specify whether the activity occurred in a group (i.e. Group Activity) or one-to-one (i.e. One-to-One Personal Contact), in these instances, group and one-to-one delivery represent an active ingredient (i.e. an element of the intervention hypothesized to affect the outcome) rather than simply a mode of delivery (i.e. how participants are given the intervention). Other intervention types described in the present review (e.g. Animal Contact) could be delivered in a group or to an individual. Mode of delivery should be considered in reviews of intervention effectiveness, but may be more appropriately examined as a secondary aim (e.g. is Animal Contact as effective when delivered in a group or one-to-one?), rather than as a primary aim (e.g. are interventions delivered to groups effective?).

Limitations of this study included that only studies in English and French were reviewed; other interventions and strategies have likely been described but the reports made available in other languages. Strengths of the review included a comprehensive search, transparent and standardized data extraction and screening procedures, in-depth description and synthesis of data, and independent reviewers for coding the interventions' theoretical underpinnings, which was the most subjective part of the analysis.

Conclusion

The findings from this review identified the interventions that have been designed to address loneliness/social connectedness for older adults, and described their key features as well as the influencing factors that they have been conceptualized to target. As such, the findings provide a strong foundation for future research to advance theory-informed design and evaluation of interventions to affect loneliness/social connectedness. The interventions identified also aligned with many of the strategies that have been used by older adults or caregivers to address loneliness/social connectedness among older adults, highlighting their relevance to key stakeholders. Future research should include systematic reviews to examine effectiveness of the distinct types of interventions that target loneliness/social connectedness, studies to test the interventions' theorized mechanisms of action, and development of interventions that target purposeful activity as a way to ameliorate loneliness among older adults.

Additional files
Additional file 1: Additional file 2:(47K, docx) (18K, docx)
Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge Jhonna Collins for her support to develop the standardized inclusion/ exclusion criteria.

Funding

The primary author was supported by a postdoctoral fellowship (Canadian Institutes of Health Research) to complete this work.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Authors' contributions

HMO conceptualized and designed the study, completed the search, screening of titles and abstracts, data extraction, and analysis, and wrote the manuscript. SS provided methodological expertise to design the study, assisted in the analysis of intervention components and features, and provided critical intellectual content during manuscript writing. LC completed the intervention mapping analysis, helped conceptualize the results and discussion sections of the manuscript, and provided critical feedback on the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Notes

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

References

1. O'Rourke HM, Sidani S. Definition, determinants and outcomes of social connectedness for older adults: a scoping review. J Gerontol Nurs. in press [ PubMed]

37. Smith J. An exploration of loneliness in community dwelling older adults: Saint Louis University; 2010.

38. Hooper K. Perceptions of loneliness and strategies used by community-dwelling older adults who are also part of a seniors' club to prevent loneliness: Dalhousie University; 2003.

46. Moses B. Technology as a means of reducing loneliness in the elderly: Walden University; 2003.

62. Banks M. The effects of animal-assisted therapy on loneliness in an elderly population in long-term care facilities: Louisaiana State University Medical Center; 1998. [ PubMed]

65. Wright P. The effects of animal-assisted therapy on loneliness in elderly residents of a long-term care facility utilizing Roy's adaptation model: University of Southern Mississippi; 1995.

66. Reed M. The mascot model of human/companion interaction: its effects on levels of loneliness and depression among residents of a nursing home: Western Seminary; 1986.

76. Creswell JD, Irwin MR, Burklund LJ, Lieberman MD, Arevalo JMG, Ma J, et al. Mindfulness-based stress reduction training reduces loneliness and pro-inflammatory gene expression in older adults: a small randomized controlled trial. Brain. Behav. Immun. 2012;26:1095-1101. [[ PMC free article] [ PubMed] Google Scholar]

82. Parsons M. The impact of the Eden alternative on quality of life of nursing home residents: University of Nebraska; 2004.

84. Dammeyer M. Does social isolation among facility-dwelling elderly decrease using a reminscence group intervention? University of Wyoming; 2004.

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Interventions to address social connectedness and loneliness for older adults: a scoping review

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Older adults are at risk for loneliness, and interventions to promote social connectedness are needed to directly address this problem. The nature of interventions aimed to affect the distinct, subjective concepts of loneliness/social connectedness has not been clearly described. The purpose of this review was to map the literature on interventions and strategies to affect loneliness/social connectedness for older adults.

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inclusion and cultural competency strategies

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The Community Tool Box is a service of the Center for Community Health and Development at the University of Kansas.

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plan for healthy people 2030 looking into loneliness

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Relationships are important for physical health and psychosocial well-being. Relationships are conceptualized through terms such as social cohesion, social capital, social networks, and social support. Social cohesion refers to the strength of relationships and the sense of solidarity among members of a community. One indicator of social cohesion is the amount of social capital a community has. Social capital deals with shared group resources, like a friend-of-a-friend's knowledge of a job opening. Individuals have access to social capital through their social networks, which are webs of social relationships. Social networks are sources of multiple forms of social support, such as emotional support (e.g., encouragement after a setback) and instrumental support (e.g., a ride to a doctor's appointment). This summary will review the positive and negative health effects social cohesion has on an individual's life.

Social capital is an important marker of social cohesion, and it has significant ramifications for health. For example, one study examined the link between 4 measures of social capital (perceived fairness, perceived helpfulness, group membership, and trust), income inequality, and mortality. The authors found that all 4 measures of social capital were associated with mortality. They also found that the relationship between income inequality and mortality may be partially explained by reductions in social capital as income inequality increases.

Collective efficacy, an aspect of social capital and social cohesion, is grounded on mutual trust and describes a community's ability to create change and exercise informal social control (i.e., influence behavior through social norms). Collective efficacy is associated with better self-rated health, lower rates of neighborhood violence, and better access to health-enhancing resources like medical care, healthy food options, and places to exercise. Social institutions like religion and the family are common sources of social capital and social control, as well as social networks and social support.

Social networks spread social capital, but they can also spread health behaviors and outcomes, a phenomenon known as "social contagion." For example, if an individual's friend, sibling, or spouse is obese, the individual's likelihood of also becoming obese increases. Similar patterns are seen for smoking and drinking behaviors.

High levels of social support can positively influence health outcomes through behavioral and psychological pathways. For example, social support may help people stick to healthier diets and reduce emotional stress. Both of these pathways can affect biological functioning in the cardiovascular, neuroendocrine, and immune systems. Social support can therefore both directly benefit people and indirectly buffer them from risk factors that might otherwise damage health. In a study conducted on the relationship between social support and atherosclerosis (plaque in the arteries), social support contributed to lower atherosclerosis levels in women at high risk for heart disease. The protective nature of social support may be especially important for minority populations. One study of Mexican-origin adults in California found that social support acted as a barrier against the harmful health effects of discrimination.

While social ties sometimes transmit negative health behaviors or add stress, social isolation is usually detrimental to health and increases mortality. Social isolation is a special concern for older adults, as contact with friends decreases with age. Older individuals in long-term care facilities or with conditions that interfere with daily activities, like arthritis, may suffer from loneliness and a lack of social cohesion, which may negatively impact health. For example, one study conducted among older adults found an association between reduced neighborhood social cohesion and a heightened likelihood of insomnia, which can have negative health effects. Similarly, during natural disasters like heat waves, elderly individuals living in neighborhoods with low social cohesion may lack social support from concerned neighbors who will check on them, and they have fewer safe communal areas where they can seek refuge.

Given the complex nature of the association between social ties and health, social interventions designed to improve health vary significantly. These interventions can occur at multiple levels (e.g., family, group, neighborhood) and sometimes require cross-sector collaboration (e.g., education, public health, housing) to foster community building and improve health. Further research is needed to better understand how social cohesion affects health, as well as how it can be used to reduce health disparities. This evidence will facilitate public health efforts to address social cohesion as a social determinant of health.

Disclaimer: This summary of the literature on social cohesion as a social determinant of health is a narrowly defined examination that is not intended to be exhaustive and may not address all dimensions of the issue. Please keep in mind that the summary is likely to evolve as new evidence emerges.

Endnotes

Terminology used in the summary is consistent with the respective references. As a result, there may be variability in the use of terms, for example, black versus African American.

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Relationships are important for physical health and psychosocial well-being. Relationships are conceptualized through terms such as social cohesion, social capital, social networks, and social support. Social cohesion refers to the strength of relationships and the sense of solidarity among members of a community. One indicator of social cohesion is the amount of social capital a community has.

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possible solutions

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There are many health benefits of owning a pet. They can increase opportunities to exercise, get outside, and socialize. Regular walking or playing with pets can decrease blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and triglyceride levels. Pets can help manage loneliness and depression by giving us companionship. Most households in the United States have at least one pet.

Studies have shown that the bond between people and their pets can increase fitness, lower stress, and bring happiness to their owners. Some of the health benefits of having a pet include:

Decreased blood pressure

Decreased cholesterol levels

Decreased triglyceride levels

Decreased feelings of loneliness

Increased opportunities for exercise and outdoor activities

Increased opportunities for socialization

However, pets can sometimes carry harmful germs that can make us sick even when the pet appears healthy. The diseases people get from animals are called zoonotic (zoe-oh-NOT-ic) diseases. Below are some tips to help you and your family stay healthy while enjoying pets.

Pick the Right Pet

Before adopting a new pet, make sure that it is the right one for you and your family. Do some research beforehand about the specific needs of the animal. Ask yourself these questions before getting a pet:

How long will this animal live?

What does the pet eat?

How much exercise does the pet need?

How large will it become?

How much will it cost for veterinary care?

Do I have enough time to properly care for and clean up after the pet?

What type of habitat does this pet need to be healthy?

What type of exercise does this pet need?

Are pets allowed in my house, apartment, or condominium?

Are there young children, older people, or people with weak immune systems who will care for or be around the pet?

Children 5 years of age and younger, people with weakened immune systems, and people 65 years of age and older are more likely to get diseases spread between animals and people (also known as zoonotic diseases). Pregnant women are also at a higher risk for certain animal-related diseases. Before getting a new pet, keep the following in mind:

Households with children 5 years of age and younger should not have pet reptiles (turtles, lizards, snakes), amphibians (frogs, toads), or backyard poultry because of the risk of serious illness from harmful germs spread between these animals and young children.

People with weakened immune systems should take extra precautions when choosing and handling pets. Talk to your veterinarian for help picking the best pet.

Pregnant women should avoid adopting a new cat or handling stray cats, especially kittens. Cats can carry a parasite that causes toxoplasmosis-a disease that can cause birth defects. If you are pregnant, you do not need to give up your current cat, but you should avoid changing cat litter.

Pregnant women should avoid contact with pet rodents to prevent exposure to lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, which can cause birth defects. If you're pregnant and have a pet rodent, avoid direct contact and have someone else clean its habitat.

Stay Healthy Around Pets

Wash Your Hands

Whether you are playing with, feeding, or cleaning up after your pet, it is important to wash your hands to help reduce the risk of getting sick from germs pets can carry. If you or a family member are concerned about illness, talk to a doctor and mention the animals you've had contact with recently.

Always wash hands:

After touching or playing with your pet

After feeding your pet or handling pet food

After handling pet habitats or equipment (cages, tanks, toys, food and water dishes, etc.)

After cleaning up after pets

After leaving areas where animals live (coops, barns, stalls, etc.), even if you did not touch an animal

Before eating and drinking

Before preparing food or drinks

After removing soiled clothes or shoes

Running water and soap are best for hand washing, but you can use hand sanitizer until running water and soap are available. Adults should always assist young children with hand washing.

Keep Your Pet Healthy

Whether you have a dog, cat, horse, parakeet, gerbil, bearded dragon, or other fun pet, providing regular, life-long veterinary care is important for keeping your pet and family healthy. Regular veterinary visits are essential to good pet health. Talk to your pet's veterinarian about how to keep your pet healthy. Provide your pet with a good diet, fresh water, clean bedding, and plenty of exercise. Keep up with your pet's vaccines, deworming, and flea and tick control. Some pets can carry ticks that can spread serious diseases like Lyme disease and Rocky Mountain spotted fever to people. In areas with plague-including some rural areas in the western US-fleas can be a risk to both animals and their owners.

By keeping your pet healthy, you help to keep yourself and your family healthy. Contact your veterinarian if you have any questions about your pet's health or if you think your pet may be sick.

Practice Good Pet Hygiene

In addition to hand washing, practicing good pet hygiene can help prevent the spread of germs between pets and people. Keep pets and their supplies out of the kitchen, and disinfect pet habitats and supplies outside the house when possible. Never clean supplies in the kitchen sink, food preparation areas, or the bathroom sink. Pets can contaminate surfaces in your home with germs-you don't have touch pets to get sick from their germs.

Always remove your dog's feces (poop) from your yard and public places by using a bag, and dispose of it in proper areas. Dog and cat poop can contain parasites and germs that can be harmful to people. Keep children away from areas that might contain dog or cat poop to prevent them from getting roundworms and hookworms. Cover sand boxes so cats don't use them as a litter box. Clean the cat's litter box daily to lower the chances of exposure to harmful parasites. Remember, pregnant women should avoid changing a cat's litter box if possible.

Teach Children How to Interact with Animals

Pets can teach children compassion and responsibility. However, children 5 years of age and younger should be supervised while interacting with animals to ensure the safety of the child and the pet. Teach children to wash their hands right after playing with animals or anything in the animals' environment (cages, beds, food or water dishes). Don't let children kiss pets or put their hands or other objects in their mouths after handling animals.

Adults should supervise and be extra cautious when children 5 years of age and younger have direct contact with farm animals, including animals at petting zoos and fairs.

Keep Wildlife Wild

Although they may look cute and cuddly, avoid touching wild animals to reduce the risk of illness and injury. Don't encourage wild animals such as raccoons, prairie dogs, or wild rodents to come into your home by feeding them. You might find a young animal that appears to be abandoned and want to rescue it, but often its parent is close by. If you are concerned about the safety of a wild animal, contact a local wildlife rehabilitation facility

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There are many health benefits of owning a pet. They can increase opportunities to exercise, get outside, and socialize. Regular walking or playing with pets can decrease blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and triglyceride levels. Pets can help manage loneliness and depression by giving us companionship.

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Loneliness in relation to serious health problems

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Loneliness in relation to serious health problems

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health risks

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Loneliness and social isolation in older adults are serious public health risks affecting a significant number of people in the United States and putting them at risk for dementia and other serious medical conditions.

A report from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM) points out that more than one-third of adults aged 45 and older feel lonely, and nearly one-fourth of adults aged 65 and older are considered to be socially isolated. ¹ Older adults are at increased risk for loneliness and social isolation because they are more likely to face factors such as living alone, the loss of family or friends, chronic illness, and hearing loss.

Loneliness is the feeling of being alone, regardless of the amount of social contact. Social isolation is a lack of social connections. Social isolation can lead to loneliness in some people, while others can feel lonely without being socially isolated.

Health Risks of Loneliness

Although it's hard to measure social isolation and loneliness precisely, there is strong evidence that many adults aged 50 and older are socially isolated or lonely in ways that put their health at risk. Recent studies found that:

Social isolation significantly increased a person's risk of premature death from all causes, a risk that may rival those of smoking, obesity, and physical inactivity.¹

Social isolation was associated with about a 50% increased risk of dementia.¹

Poor social relationships (characterized by social isolation or loneliness) was associated with a 29% increased risk of heart disease and a 32% increased risk of stroke.¹

Loneliness was associated with higher rates of depression, anxiety, and suicide.

Loneliness among heart failure patients was associated with a nearly 4 times increased risk of death, 68% increased risk of hospitalization, and 57% increased risk of emergency department visits.¹

Immigrant, LGBT People Are at Higher Risk

The report highlights loneliness among vulnerable older adults, including immigrants; lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) populations; minorities; and victims of elder abuse. It also points out that the literature base for these populations is sparse and more research is needed to determine risks, impacts, and appropriate actions needed.

Current research suggests that immigrant, and lesbian, gay, bisexual populations experience loneliness more often than other groups. Latino immigrants, for example, "have fewer social ties and lower levels of social integration than US-born Latinos." First-generation immigrants experience stressors that can increase their social isolation, such as language barriers, differences in community, family dynamics, and new relationships that lack depth or history, the report states. Similarly, gay, lesbian, and bisexual populations tend to have more loneliness than their heterosexual peers because of stigma, discrimination, and barriers to care.

What Can You Do If You Are Experiencing Loneliness?

Your doctor can assess your risk for loneliness and social isolation and get you connected to community resources for help, if needed. The following national organizations also offer helpful resources:

AARP -Provides helpful information to seniors to help improve quality of life and provides access to Community Connection Tools.

Area Agencies on Aging (AAA)-A network of over 620 organizations across America that provides information and assistance with programs including nutrition and meal programs (counseling and home-delivered or group meals), caregiver support, and more. The website can help you find your local AAA, which may provide classes in Tai Chi and diabetes self-management.

Eldercare Locator -A free national service that helps find local resources for seniors such as financial support, caregiving services, and transportation. It includes a brochure that shows how volunteering can help keep you socially connected.

National Council on Aging -Works with nonprofit organizations, governments, and businesses to provide community programs and services. This is the place to find what senior programs are available to assist with healthy aging and financial security, including the Aging Mastery Program® that is shown to increase social connectedness and healthy eating habits.

National Institute on Aging (NIA) - Provides materials on social isolation and loneliness for older adults, caregivers, and health care providers. Materials include health information, a print publication available to view or order no-cost paper copies, a health care provider flyer, and social media graphics and posts.

Health Care System Interventions Are Key

People generally are social by nature, and high-quality social relationships can help them live longer, healthier lives. Health care systems are an important, yet underused, partner in identifying loneliness and preventing medical conditions associated with loneliness.

Nearly all adults aged 50 or older interact with the health care system in some way. For those without social connections, a doctor's appointment or visit from a home health nurse may be one of the few face-to-face encounters they have. This represents a unique opportunity for clinicians to identify people at risk for loneliness or social isolation.

NASEM recommends that clinicians periodically assess patients who may be at risk and connect them to community resources for help. In clinical settings, NASEM recommends using the Berkman-Syme Social Network Index (for measuring social isolation) and the three-item UCLA Loneliness Scale (for measuring loneliness).

But patients must make their own decisions. Some people may like being alone. It is also important to note that social isolation and loneliness are two distinct aspects of social relationships, and they are not significantly linked. Both can put health at risk, however.

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Loneliness and Social Isolation Linked to Serious Health Conditions

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Older adults who are lonely or socially isolated are at greater risk for serious medical conditions. Here are resources to help you stay connected.