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University of Maryland

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1996

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Learners lean a language in order to interact with each other

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University of Southern California

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1977

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University of Toronto

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Learners learn a language by first acquiring and comprehending input--that is, listening and mentally comprehending the target language

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Provide the learner with comprehensible input
Provide feedback
Prompting monitoring

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Learners might listen to target-language conversations or audiovisual materials without having to produce output (either written or spoken)

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1985

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Learners need opportunities to struggle with developing language. Learners need to produce pushed (incomprehensible) output on the way to syntactical processing.

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Students might listen to target-language conversations or audiovisual materials and respond to questions about said materials. He or she may not be fluent, which is a step in comprehension.

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Students need to develop input and produce output in order to effectively communicate. Students may not be initially effective, but will communicate in some form nonetheless.

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Individuals learn a language to interact, and also learn a language by interacting.

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Individuals may encounter problems communicating--there is a negotiation of meaning in which multiple parties attempt to resolve communication problems. (Long 1983b)

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Both comprehensible input and comprehensible output (both acquired through incomprehensible versions initially) are needed to achieve high accuracy.

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How can we monitor progress based on input alone?