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1) The Graduate(1967)
2) The wild bunch (1969)
3) Bonnie and Clyde (1967)

Cover of the popular movie, "The Graduate".

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The American television industry grew rapidly during the postwar years.

“Improvements in Television Technology.” Television in American Society Reference Library, Encyclopedia.com, 2 Apr. 2020, www.encyclopedia.com/arts/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/improvements-television-technology.

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Although television sets first became available to the American people in the late 1930s, sales did not really begin to take off until after World War II ended in 1945. The following year, industry leader RCA (Radio Corporation of America) introduced the 630-TS set, a black-and-white model with a ten-inch screen. RCA sold ten thousand units in the first year, at a price of $385 each. In 1947 sales jumped to two hundred thousand units. In fact, the 630-TS became so popular that it was often referred to as the "Model T" of television (after the hugely successful early Ford automobile, which brought car ownership to many people).

The American television industry grew rapidly during the postwar years. TV ownership increased from 10 percent of American homes in 1950 to 67 percent in 1955, then reached 87 percent in 1960 and 94 percent in 1965. The number of commercial television stations grew rapidly as well-from nine immediately after the war ended in 1945 to five hundred by 1960. Continuing improvements in television technology-including the development of color TV, the use of satellite transmission systems, the invention of videotape technology, and the introduction of high-definition TV-helped fuel this remarkable growth.

Color TV makes its debut

After electronic systems overtook mechanical systems to become the television technology of choice, the next major technical challenge involved developing color TV sets. The Scottish inventor John Logie Baird (1888-1946) demonstrated the first color television as early as 1928. His mechanical system used a spinning disk with three colored filters on it. The disk rotated behind the TV screen, and the filters corresponded with special gas-filled cells that lit up to provide colors for viewers. The following year, Bell Laboratories, a communications research company, demonstrated the first color television system in the United States. Like Baird's invention, it was a mechanical system that displayed a crude image on a screen the size of a postage stamp.

The first real breakthrough in color television technology took place shortly before the United States entered World War II (1939-45) in 1941. The main figure behind the development of color TV was Peter Gold-mark (1906-1977), an engineer who worked for the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS). CBS had been created in 1927 through the merger of two entertainment companies. Under the leadership of William S. Paley (1901-1990), CBS grew into a strong radio network by the mid-1930s. Around this time, Goldmark talked Paley into starting a small research department at CBS to focus on the emerging technology of television.

Goldmark first became interested in adding color to television in early 1940, when he saw the blockbuster movie Gone with the Wind. "For me it was a uniquely exhilarating experience, not because of the performers or the story, but because it was the first color movie I had seen, and the color was magnificent," he recalled in Tube: The Invention of Television. "I could hardly think of going back to the phosphor images of regular black-and-white television. All through the long, four-hour movie I was obsessed with the thought of applying color to television."

Upon returning to his lab at CBS, Goldmark spent the next six months working feverishly to develop a color television system. The method he came up with became known as a "field-sequential" color system. It involved two spinning wheels with red, blue, and green filters-one behind the lens of a TV camera and one in front of the cathode ray tube inside a TV set. The spinning wheel in the camera scanned the image in color, and the spinning wheel in the receiver reproduced the colors in sequence as they appeared in the original scene. In effect, the color TV set painted a black-and-white image in three colors in rapid succession. Goldmark's color system was a combination of mechanical and electronic TV systems because it used a mechanical spinning wheel to insert color into an electronic television system.

Goldmark had perfected his color television system by August 1940. That month, CBS sent him as a representative to the National Television System Committee (NTSC). This group of scientists and engineers studied television technology and made recommendations to help the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) establish national standards. (The FCC, a government agency, was created in 1934 to oversee and regulate all types of communications, including radio, television, telephone, and telegraph.) Since black-and-white electronic television systems had recently been perfected, the FCC was eager to set rules to guide manufacturers and broadcasters.

As the NTSC debated the benefits of various black-and-white systems, Goldmark got upset. He believed that his color television system was far superior to any existing black-and-white technology, so he felt it was pointless to spend a lot of time discussing black-and-white TV standards. He finally stood up and told the group that he had perfected color television broadcasting. "I calmly announced that we could transmit pictures in color, and I invited the assemblage to a demonstration in the CBS laboratory of a broadcast from the Chrysler Building [in New York City]," Goldmark remembered in his book Maverick Inventor: My Turbulent Years at CBS. NTSC attendees were eager to see Goldmark's technology.

Goldmark's demonstration impressed representatives of the FCC. According to Tube: The Invention of Television, seeing the CBS color system prompted FCC Chairman Lawrence Fly to rethink issuing black-and-white standards. "If we can start television off as a color proposition, instead of a black-and-white show, it will have a greater acceptance with the public," he declared. Although the FCC recognized the potential benefits of the CBS system, it ultimately decided that color television required further testing. When the FCC issued its first technical standards for commercial television broadcasting in April 1941, the rules only addressed black-and-white television systems. The FCC did allow CBS to begin experimental color broadcasts, but further development of the technology was suspended during World War II.

A "color war" pits RCA against CBS

David Sarnoff (1891-1971), the powerful president of RCA, had watched the development and testing of Goldmark's color television system with great interest. RCA had invested a great deal of time and money in developing black-and-white television systems and taking control of TV manufacturing. As soon as the ban on TV manufacturing was lifted following World War II, RCA emerged as the leading producer of black-and-white television sets in the United States. In fact, the company controlled 80 percent of the market. Sarnoff realized that his company stood to lose a fortune in sales if the FCC approved the CBS color system for commercial production.

In 1946 CBS invited FCC representatives to a formal demonstration of the Goldmark color system and once again asked for it to be adopted as a commercial standard. The new FCC chairman, Charles Denny, initially seemed as impressed with the system as Lawrence Fly had been in 1940. But Sarnoff and RCA immediately began working to turn the FCC and the public against the CBS color television system. Sarnoff argued that Goldmark's system relied upon lesser quality mechanical technology that RCA and other TV manufacturers had discarded years earlier. According to Kenneth Bilby in The General: David Sarnoff and the Rise of the Communications Industry, Sarnoff claimed that adopting the CBS system as a technical standard would "set back the cause of our technology by a generation." He also declared that "RCA will never allow this counterfeit scheme [false plan] to be foisted on the American people." Sarnoff requested that the FCC wait until an all-electronic color TV system could be perfected before adopting a color standard.

As sales of RCA's black-and-white TV sets grew rapidly during the postwar years, Sarnoff added another argument against the CBS color system. He pointed out that it was incompatible, or did not work properly, with the growing number of black-and-white sets on the market. He meant that anyone who had already purchased a black-and-white set-and 250,000 people had done so by the end of 1947-would see nothing but static during color broadcasts. Goldmark tried to overcome this argument by creating a converter that could be attached to black-and-white sets to allow them to receive color signals. CBS also took out advertisements telling consumers to wait for color to become available before purchasing a television set.

Due in part to Sarnoff's objections, in 1947 the FCC once again decided to postpone the adoption of a color television standard. The FCC claimed that adopting an incompatible color standard would place an unfair burden on the growing number of consumers who had already purchased black-and-white TV sets. If they wanted to receive color broadcasts on their existing sets, they would have to pay for converter units or expensive modifications. The FCC also claimed that it was trying to protect broadcasters with its decision. If television networks chose to broadcast in color, the FCC commissioners argued, they would lose the portion of the viewing audience that had not yet converted to color receivers. Finally, the FCC noted that RCA and several other competitors were working on experimental electronic color TV systems that would be compatible with existing black-and-white systems.

Goldmark and CBS were understandably upset with the FCC's decision. After all, it allowed RCA to rush ahead with its production of black-and-white sets and thus limit the future market for color televisions. CBS executives became even angrier six months later, when Charles Denny resigned as chairman of the FCC to take a job as vice president and general counsel for NBC, the broadcasting arm of RCA. CBS claimed that Denny's job change indicated that RCA had bribed him in order to gain favorable FCC decisions. But Denny and RCA denied the charges.

CBS wins a temporary victory

In 1949 Goldmark used an American Medical Association conference to demonstrate his color television system to the public. CBS set up a number of TV sets at the convention center in Atlantic City, New Jersey, and broadcast live surgical procedures from a nearby hospital. An estimated fifteen thousand people witnessed the demonstration, and a fair number of them passed out at the sight of the bright red blood. "We began to measure the impact of our television shows by the number of faintings we could count," Goldmark noted in Maverick Inventor. The success of these broadcasts created a growing public demand for access to color television technology. Legislators heard the call and began pressuring the FCC to remove the barriers keeping color TV from the American people.

Later that year, CBS once again petitioned the FCC to adopt its color television system as the technical standard for the United States. To help make its case, CBS arranged for a side-by-side test against RCA's best electronic color system, which was still in development at that time. The CBS system clearly outperformed RCA's system in the test. As cited in Tube: The Invention of Television, even Sarnoff admitted that, with the experimental RCA system, "The monkeys were green, the bananas were blue, and everybody had a good laugh." But Sarnoff claimed that RCA's scientists were on the verge of perfecting electronic color television, and he argued that the mechanical CBS system was inferior technology. "You are being urged to build a highway to accommodate the horse and buggy when already the self-propelled vehicle is in existence," he warned the commission.

Thanks to the test results and the increasing political pressure, however, CBS finally managed to convince the FCC that adopting its color system was in the public interest. The FCC established Goldmark's system as the color standard in 1950 and authorized commercial production of color TV sets to begin immediately. RCA objected to the decision, and appealed it all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court, the highest court in the United States. When the Court upheld the FCC's decision in 1951, it marked an important victory for CBS. "We had taken on the great Sarnoff, the king of Radio City, and won," Goldmark stated in Maverick Inventor.

CBS launched a regular schedule of color broadcasts in June 1951. The first program, called Premiere, featured Ed Sullivan and several other well-known entertainers. Unfortunately for CBS, almost no one saw the show. Of the twelve million TV sets in American homes at that time, only about two dozen could receive color broadcasts. CBS soon found that there was very little it could do about the lack of color TV receivers. CBS had come to prominence as a radio network, and it did not have the capacity to manufacture television sets. To complicate matters, the United States was involved in the Korean War (1950-53) at this time, so most of the nation's manufacturing plants were dedicated to making military equipment. As a result, CBS faced a long and expensive battle to produce a profitable line of color television sets. In October 1951 CBS was forced to discontinue its color broadcasts due to the limited number of viewers who could watch them.

Color TV slowly gains acceptance

In the meantime, Sarnoff became committed to developing a workable electronic color television system. He ordered RCA's engineers to spend as much time and money as necessary to perfect the technology. In 1951, shortly after the Supreme Court ruled in favor of CBS, RCA unveiled the result of this effort: an all-electronic color television system that was compatible with existing black-and-white broadcast standards (see sidebar "Electronic Color TV"). When RCA demonstrated the new system for the media, several reporters expressed the opinion that the FCC had made a terrible mistake by approving the CBS color system. As noted in Tube: The Invention of Television, Jack Gould of the New York Times wrote that RCA's successful development of electronic color TV "put the FCC on a spot which is certain to become controversial and embarrassing."

Both CBS and RCA put the development of color television on hold during the last two years of the Korean War. By the time the war ended in 1953, American consumers had purchased twenty-three million black-and-white TV sets. At this point, CBS gave up trying to manufacture its color system. CBS President William S. Paley decided that the large number of incompatible black-and-white sets in U.S. households would prevent Goldmark's mechanical color system from ever gaining a hold in the market. Later that year, the FCC reversed its earlier decision and established RCA's electronic color system as the commercial standard.

Electronic Color TV

Color television sets function in a very similar way to black-and-white sets, with a few important differences. Instead of a single electron beam within the cathode ray picture tube, for instance, a color TV set has three electron beams-one red, one green, and one blue. These beams move across the inside of the screen at the same time. Instead of a single sheet of phosphor that glows when struck by the electrons, the screen of a color TV set is coated with red, green, and blue phosphors arranged in a pattern of hundreds of thousands of tiny dots. As the three electron beams move across the screen and paint it with an image, the beam of each color strikes the phosphor dots of the same color, causing them to glow. If a portion of the picture was red, for example, then the red beam excites the red phosphor dots in that area of the screen.

The color TV camera also differs from a black-and-white one. When a color TV camera scans an image, it separates the light reflected off that image into its three color components before turning the information into electrical signals. A color TV signal is the same as a black-and-white signal except that it contains an additional element called chrominance. Black-and-white television sets simply ignore this part of the signal, while color TV sets use it to determine how to fire the three colored electron beams at the screen. This feature of electronic color television signals allows them to be viewed on older black-and-white sets, making the two systems compatible, or able to work together properly.

RCA began selling its all-electronic color TV sets to the public in 1954. Sarnoff predicted that sales would reach seventy-five thousand units in the first year, but only a few thousand of the sets actually sold. These figures prompted Time magazine to declare color television a "resounding industrial flop." American consumers were slow to accept color TV technology for a number of reasons. Prices of color sets were significantly higher than black-and-white sets, while the color screens were much smaller. Consumers often found it difficult to adjust the sets for proper color reception, and the sets required more maintenance than the time-tested black-and-white models. In addition, the public found little reason to buy color TV sets because the major broadcast networks did not offer much color programming in the early years. For instance, CBS offered only eight hundred hours of color programming in all of 1965, while ABC provided only six hundred hours.

NBC offered more color programming than the other major networks because it wanted to help its parent company, RCA, sell color TV sets. One of the first hit programs to be broadcast in color was Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color, which began airing on NBC in 1960. The show's success helped increase demand for color TV sets. After spending $130 million on product development and marketing, RCA announced that it had earned a profit on its color systems for the first time that year. By 1967 most television broadcasts were in color, and by 1972 half of the TV sets in American homes were color.

Improvements in TV transmission systems

Throughout the battle over the development of color television systems, scientists and engineers continued to improve upon broadcast technology. In 1945, for example, the Western Union telegraph company introduced the first experimental microwave relay system. This system consisted of a series of towers that relayed radio wave signals through the air between New York City and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Installing towers every few miles to carry broadcast signals cost considerably less than burying miles of coaxial cable to connect distant locations. (Coaxial cable-which consisted of copper wire surrounded by insulation, with an aluminum covering-could be used to transmit TV, telephone, and data signals.) As a result, microwave relay systems quickly grew in popularity, until by the 1970s they were used to carry most television broadcasts.

In 1948, as the major broadcast networks were busy starting television stations in large cities across the country, some rural communities began testing cable television. Since the FCC limited the number of television stations it licensed, most stations were concentrated in cities with large populations. This strategy allowed the stations to reach more viewers with their broadcasts and thus attract more money for advertisers. One negative consequence, however, was that the residents of many rural areas did not enjoy good network TV reception. To address this problem the idea arose to run cables from the rural areas to television stations in nearby large cities.

Two of the first communities to test cable television transmission systems were the mountainous cities of Lansford, Pennsylvania, and Astoria, Oregon. Unlike the cable TV systems available in the 2000s, the pioneer cable providers did not offer a wide assortment of different channels. Instead, they mainly re-transmitted signals from the broadcast networks so that rural residents could get better reception. Cable television service grew slowly until the 1960s, when increasing numbers of local providers appeared. In 1960 there were 640 cable TV systems nationwide, with 650,000 subscribers. By 1970 these figures had increased to nearly 2,500 cable systems with 4.5 million subscribers.

The major broadcast networks began pushing the FCC to regulate, or make rules to control, cable television as early as the mid-1950s. At first, however, the commissioners claimed that they did not have the authority to regulate cable systems since the technology did not use the air waves. In 1962, however, the FCC reconsidered and claimed jurisdiction (authority or command) over cable providers. The commissioners decided that they did have the authority to regulate cable TV because it had the capacity to affect broadcast networks.

Satellite broadcasting

Another significant development in the transmission of television signals took place in 1962, with the world's first satellite broadcast of a TV program. Satellites are like giant antennas that orbit around Earth and can be used to relay communications signals. The development of satellite television capability grew out of an agreement between two American communications companies (AT&T and Bell Labs), the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the British Post Office, and the French National Post Office. These institutions led an international effort to develop, launch, and transmit signals using telecommunications satellites. The first satellite, called TELSTAR, was launched into orbit around Earth from the Kennedy Space Center. The following day saw the first live television program ever transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean, between Andover, Maryland, and Pleumeur-Bodou, France.

The introduction of satellite technology marked a major development in television history. Satellite transmission made it possible for American TV viewers to see events elsewhere in the world as they occurred. Before this time, it could take days or even weeks for people in the United States to learn about events in distant countries. Some historians claim that satellite transmission of television signals helped increase Americans' understanding of other nations and cultures. It certainly enabled Americans to witness exciting and momentous events in their nation's history as they happened. In 1969, for example, an estimated 600 million people around the world watched live via satellite as American astronaut Neil Armstrong (1930-) became the first human being to set foot upon the Moon.

Fiber-optic cable

Another major development in the delivery of television signals came in 1970, when a group of researchers for the Corning chemical company invented fiber-optic cable. This type of cable consists of clear rods of glass or plastic. They transmit TV signals or other types of information using rapid pulses of light. Fiber-optic cable can carry sixty-five thousand times more information than traditional copper wires. The technology led to significant improvements in the delivery of television programming to American households.

Impact of videotape technology

Meanwhile, the process of creating television programs also changed technologically. In 1956 a company called Ampex introduced the videotape recorder (VTR). Up to this time, most television programs were broadcast live, as they happened. The only way to preserve video images for later viewing was through a process called kinescope recording, in which a special movie camera recorded what was displayed on a television monitor. Kinescopes were a kind of film, and they required several hours to develop. In contrast, the VTR captured live images directly from TV cameras, converted them into electrical signals, and saved them onto reels of magnetic tape. The broadcast industry immediately recognized the VTR as vastly superior to the kinescope film system that had been used to record television programs. Videotape technology also provided much better visual and audio quality on home television sets.

The introduction of videotape also led to a shift in the relationship between broadcast networks and the advertisers who sponsored programs. Before the mid-1950s, the sponsor of a television program usually developed and produced that program. This gave advertisers a great deal of control over the content of TV programming. The sponsor could approve the script, select the actors, and even insert positive messages about its products into the stories.

When sponsors produced programs, they usually were broadcast live from network studios in New York City. Once videotape technology became available, however, television programs could be recorded almost anywhere. Within a few years, most of the artistic and technical parts of the TV industry moved to California in order to take advantage of the film talent and production expertise in Hollywood. The role of corporate sponsors gradually decreased, and the networks gained the power to develop their own programming.

VCRs make their debut

Nearly two decades later, videotape technology once again led to important changes in the television industry. In 1972, the Phillips Corporation introduced the first video cassette recorder (VCR) for TV viewers to use at home. VCRs allowed viewers to record television programs for later viewing. They used magnetic videotape enclosed in a plastic cassette. Competing companies soon offered similar machines that used cassettes of different shapes and sizes. In 1976, for instance, Sony introduced the Betamax format of home VCR. The following year, RCA released its VHS format VCR, which became the standard that is still used in the 2000s.

The earliest VCRs were large, expensive, and the subject of serious debate. In fact, shortly after home videotaping technology became available, several major Hollywood movie studios joined in a lawsuit, or court case, against the companies that manufactured the machines. The studios argued that VCRs should be outlawed because their main purpose was making illegal copies of television shows and movies. The studios felt that people who used home VCRs to tape movies were stealing copyrighted material (a copyright is a form of legal protection for creative works-including books, pictures, music, films, and software-that prevents others from using the works without the creators' permission). The studios worried that widespread use of VCRs would reduce the income they earned from their movies.

The legal dispute over VCRs resulted in Sony Corporation v. Universal City Studios (more commonly known as the Betamax case), which went all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court. In 1984 the Court ruled in favor of Sony, the VCR manufacturer. The justices said that using a VCR to tape a television program or movie did not violate the studios' copyright protection, as long as the tape was intended for personal use at home rather than for commercial (moneymaking) purposes. As soon as it became clear that home VCR use was legal, sales of VCRs increased sharply.

As it turned out, VCRs did not cause harm to the movie industry. In fact, the popularity of home video actually led to an overall increase in income for the movie studios. "The studios have come to enjoy greater revenue from cassette sales and rentals than from theatrical exhibition, and must look back in wonder at their temporary insanity when the player-recorders first were sighted in North America," Michael Couzens explained in the Museum of Broadcast Communications publication Networks.

The impact of home VCR use on the broadcast TV networks has not been as positive as it has been on the movie industry. The most frequent use of the VCR draws viewers away from network television to watch movies that played in theaters. Many people also use their VCRs to record television programs for later viewing. When they watch these programs, however, they often use the VCR's fast-forward feature to skip the commercials. As of the early 2000s, the networks have been allowed to count the viewers who record programs in their audience totals. These figures are used to determine the rates networks can charge companies to advertise on certain programs. The larger the audience for a program, the higher the rates a network can charge for commercial time during that program. If studies continue to show that VCR users bypass commercials, however, advertisers may demand changes in the way audience numbers are calculated.

Improvements in picture and sound quality

By the turn of the twenty-first century, most television sets still worked on the same principles as the original sets that were invented in the 1930s. As described in Tube, both early and modern television systems "scan an image with a beam of electrons to create an electrical signal, and then re-create the image at the receiver by turning that signal back into an electron beam and bombarding a fluorescent screen." Despite using the same basic technology, however, television sets still underwent a number of technical improvements over the years. For instance, the first wireless TV remote control, a device that allows viewers to change channels from their seats, was introduced by Zenith in 1957. This futuristic technology, called the Space Commander, represented a vast improvement over earlier models, which were connected to the TV set by wires and did not function properly in direct sunlight.

The audio portion of television systems also improved over the years. The FCC authorized multichannel TV sound broadcasts for the first time in 1984. This meant that broadcasters could separate the sound portion of programs into different audio signals to create a more natural listening experience for people at home. Almost immediately afterward, new TV sets flooded into appliance stores offering stereophonic sound. Better known as stereo, this technology reproduced sound using two independent audio channels, which gave viewers the impression that the sounds on television programs came from various directions. The national television networks began broadcasting in stereo at this time, and within two years stereo TV broadcasts were available in all major U.S. population areas. In 1987, television sound improved further with the introduction of the Dolby noise reduction system for TV sets. This technology separated out high-frequency sounds, which could not be heard well over background noise on regular TV sets, and restored them to their proper balance with other parts of the audio signal. Again, viewers at home benefited from more pleasant and natural sound when watching television programs.

High-definition television

Perhaps the most significant improvement in picture quality came with the development of high-definition television (HDTV). The first HDTV systems were introduced in Japan in the 1980s. These systems marked a major improvement in the visual quality available on a television screen. In order to be scanned by a TV camera and reproduced on a TV screen, an image is divided into horizontal lines. The American technical standard, which was established by the FCC in 1941, dictates that TV screens have 525 lines. The HDTV systems developed in Japan featured more than twice as many lines on a screen, allowing for a much sharper picture.

In 1987 the Japanese national broadcasting company, NHK, demonstrated a 1,125-line HDTV system in the United States. The remarkable picture quality impressed the FCC, which soon launched a competition to create an American HDTV system. A number of American electronics firms joined in the race to develop the new technology. The FCC expected all of the proposed HDTV systems to be compatible with the existing U.S. broadcasting system, which used an analog signal (continuous, measurable electronic impulses carried on radio waves). Under this system, every television channel was allowed a certain amount of space on the airwaves-6 megahertz (MHz) of frequency bandwidth-to broadcast its signal. A standard-definition TV picture fit into this space, or bandwidth, but the Japanese high-definition picture did not: it required 20 MHz of bandwidth. The FCC felt that the U.S. airwaves were too crowded to allow TV stations to expand their signals for high-definition broadcasting. Instead, the FCC wanted to find a way to squeeze more detailed pictures into the existing bandwidth.

The FCC received a number of proposals for adjusting HDTV to analog broadcasting. But then, in 1990, a California-based company called General Instrument (GI) announced that it had developed the world's first all-digital television broadcasting system. Unlike analog signals, which transmit information through continuous, measurable electronic impulses, digital signals turn data into a binary code consisting of long strings of the digits zero and one (for example, 1010100010111). This code can be understood by computers and all other types of digital devices. The main benefit of digital over analog transmission is that it allows a great deal more data to be sent over the same amount of bandwidth. For television signals, this means that digital technology can provide better picture and sound quality, as well as interactive features like program menus and on-demand movies and games.

The engineer who led the development of digital HDTV at General Instrument was Woo Paik, a Korean-born graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. His team found a way to compress 1,500 megabytes per second (mbps) of information into 6 MHz of bandwidth, which can usually carry only about 20 mbps of data. Their system compares each frame of a visual image and only transmits the parts that move or change. In other words, it provides just enough detail to make the human eye perceive a continuous picture with nothing missing. "Today's analog television system transmits a complete picture frame thirty times a second. But since most of the picture is unchanged from one frame to the next, a lot of redundant [repetitive] information is transmitted," Tube explained. "GI's digital system only transmits what changes in the picture, once it has presented a complete frame."

The FCC established technical standards for HDTV in 1994. It also rolled out a plan for the United States to make a gradual switch from analog to digital television broadcasting by 2006, although completion date for the transition was later moved back to 2009. Digital technology is expected to bring many changes to the television industry. It promises to allow networks to broadcast high-definition pictures over regular channels and allow stations to engage in multicasting, which means offering several different programs on a single channel. Digital television sets are also expected to be more interactive, giving viewers greater ability to select, respond to, and even change the content of programs.

For More Information

BOOKS

Barnouw, Erik. Tube of Plenty: The Evolution of American Television. New York: Oxford University Press, 1975.

Bilby, Kenneth. The General: David Sarnoff and the Rise of the Communications Industry. New York: Harper and Row, 1986.

Fisher, David E., and Marshall Jon Fisher. Tube: The Invention of Television. Washington, D.C.: Counterpoint, 1996.

Goldmark, Peter C. Maverick Inventor: My Turbulent Years at CBS. New York: Saturday Review Press, 1973.

Hilliard, Robert L., and Michael C. Keith. The Broadcast Century: A Biography of American Broadcasting. Boston: Focal Press, 1992.

WEB SITES

"The FCC History Project: Historical Periods in Television Technology." Federal Communications Commission. http://www.fcc.gov/omd/history/tv (accessed on June 5, 2006)

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Improvements in Television Technology | Encyclopedia.com

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Although television sets first became available to the American people in the late 1930s, sales did not really begin to take off until after World War II ended in 1945. The following year, industry leader RCA (Radio Corporation of America) introduced the 630-TS set, a black-and-white model with a ten-inch screen.

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“History of Film: The Best Movies of the 1960s.” Movie Mezzanine, 4 June 2014, moviemezzanine.com/history-of-film-the-best-movies-of-the-1960s/.com

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It's been a little more than five months since the last installment of our History of Film series, and in that short time Movie Mezzanine has undergone some significant changes. This includes partnerships with Letterboxd and others, accreditation on Rotten Tomatoes, and the hiring of our first Reviews Editor in Josh Spiegel. What hasn't happened in 2014, however, is this ongoing feature. Today that's going to change.

For those who are new to this series, History of Film is designed to examine each decade of cinema, ten films at a time (see our results from the 00s, 90s, 80s and 70s). In an attempt to present a multiplicity of voices, we've reached out to a plethora of people in the film industry. Thankfully, a whole host of gifted and esteemed individuals responded rather enthusiastically, happy to contemplate the cineamatic greatness that was the 1960s for a moment. So what follows is a collection of ballots from Movie Mezzanine staff and friends - from filmmakers to film critics to festival programmers to a publicist (yes, even a publicist).

Of course, the most integral part of this process is you, the reader. Throughout the month of June we'll be accepting ballots from anyone and everyone interested in submitting their top ten list in the comment section. Come the end of the month we'll tally the ballots up and highlight the ten most popular films from the 1960s (as voted on by all of us). Those ten films will then each individually be written about by a writer on our staff. To see a past example of how we've done this, go here. We hope you enjoy.
Note: If you dig the original illustration above, check out Alexandra Kittle on her Etsy page and follow her on Twitter here.
Sam Fragoso, Founder

1.) The Apartment

2.) Breathless

3.) Lawrence of Arabia

6.) The Graduate

7.) Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid

8.) 2 or 3 Things I Know About Her

9.) To Kill A Mockingbird

10.) Cool Hand Luke

Tom Clift, Co-Founder

1.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

2.) The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

4.) Once Upon a Time in the West

6.) From Russia With Love

7.) Rosemary's Baby

8.) Bonnie and Clyde

9.) The Apartment

10.) Batman: The Movie

Jake Cole, DVD Editor

1.) Playtime

2.) Eros + Massacre

3.) The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

4.) 2 or 3 Things I Know About Her

5.) Repulsion

6.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

7.) Red Desert

8.) The Apartment

9.) The House is Black

10.) Chimes at Midnight

Josh Spiegel, Reviews Editor

1.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

2.) Lawrence of Arabia

3.) Peeping Tom

5.) The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

6.) The Producer

7.) The Apartment

8.) The Graduate

9.) Mary Poppins

10.) A Thousand Clowns

Colin Biggs, Newswire Editor

1.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

2.) Lawrence of Arabia

3.) The Graduate

4.) Night of the Living Dead

5.) The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

6.) La Dolce Vita

7.) The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

8.) The Apartment

9.) Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?

10.) Au Hasard Balthazar

Christopher Runyon, Assistant Editor

1.) Lawrence of Arabia

2.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

3.) To Kill a Mockingbird

5.) Jules et Jim

7.) The Exterminating Angel

8.) The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

Daniel Schindel, Reviewer

1.) The Apartment

2.) The Shop On Main Street

3.) The Pawnbroker

5.) Army of Shadows

7.) Once Upon a Time in the West

8.) The Umbrellas of Cherbourg

9.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

10.) Pierrot le Fou

Andrew Crump, Reviewer

3.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

4.) The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

5.) The Exterminating Angel

6.) Pierrot le Fou

7.) Cool Hand Luke

8.) Three Outlaw Samurai

9.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

10.) Village of the Damned

Monica Castillo, Reviewer

1.) Lawrence of Arabia

2.) Bonnie and Clyde

3.) The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

5.) Pierrot le Fou

6.) The Umbrellas of Cherbourg

7.) The House is Black

8.) Planet of the Apes

Kristen Sales, Reviewer

2.) Lawrence of Arabia

4.) Le Samourai

5.) Andrei Rublev

6.) Once Upon a Time in the West

7.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

8.) Pierrot le Fou

9.) The Exterminating Angel

10.) The Battle of Algiers

Amir Soltani, Reviewer

1.) The Leopard

3.) The House is Black

5.) Jules et Jim

7.) Eros + Massacre

8.) Titicut Follies

10.) Belle de Jour

Zeba Blay, Reviewer

2.) La Noire, de...

3.) What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?

4.) Come Back, Africa

5.) In Cold Blood

6.) Nothing But a Man

7.) Memories of Undevelopment

8.) Night of the Living Dead

9.) Black Sunday

10.) Valley of the Dolls

Matt Hughes, Essayist

1.) La Dolce Vita

2.) Playtime

3.) La Collectionneuse

4.) Winter Light

6.) L'avventura

7.) L'eclipse

8.) Marketa Lazarova

9.) Red Desert

10.) 2 or 3 Things I Know About Her

Noah Gittell, Editorialist

1.) The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

2.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

5.) The Sound of Music

6.) A Hard Day's Night

7.) Bonnie and Clyde

8.) The Apartment

9.) The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

10.) Charade

Jake Mulligan, Contributor

1.) The Saragossa Manuscript

2.) Jules et Jim

3.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

5.) Au Hasard Balthazar

7.) The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

9.) The Trial

Fernando Croce, Contributor

2.) Mouchette

3.) Viridiana

5.) Chimes at Midnight

6.) Once Upon a Time in the West

7.) Scorpio Rising

8.) The Color of Pomegranates

9.) The Naked Kiss

10.) 2 or 3 Things I Know About Her

Jesse Knight, Contributor

1.) Through a Glass Darkly

2.) The Graduate

4.) Pierrot le Fou

5.) Once Upon a Time in the West

6.) The Apartment

8.) 8 ½

9.) The Servant

10.) Au Hasard Balthazar

Brogan Morris, Contributor

1.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

2.) Point Blank

3.) Bande a Part

4.) Lawrence of Arabia

6.) The Trial

7.) Playtime

8.) Harakiri

9.) The Leopard

10.) The Hill

Michał Oleszczyk, Contributor

1.) Once Upon a Time in the West

2.) Night of the Living Dead

5.) In the Heat of the Night

6.) The Apartment

7.) Advise and Consent

8.) Lawrence of Arabia

10.) The Hill

Tina Hassannia, Contributor

1.) Playtime

2.) 2 or 3 Things I Know About Her

4.) Repulsion

5.) The House is Black

6.) Army of Shadows

7.) Cléo de 5 à 7

8.) The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

9.) Une Femme Mariée

Forrest Cardamenis, Contributor

1.) Last Year at Marienbad

3.) Dog Star Man

4.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

5.) Contempt

7.) The House is Black

8.) The Exterminating Angel

9.) The Birds

10.) Andrei Rublev

Charles Nash, Contributor

1.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

2.) Repulsion

4.) Pierrot le Fou

6.) Bonnie and Clyde

7.) Peeping Tom

8.) Eyes Without a Face

9.) High and Low

10.) Le Samourai

Ryan McNeil, Contributor

1.) The Apartment

3.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

4.) Rosemary's Baby

7.) Lawrence of Arabia

8.) Breathless

9.) Bonnie and Clyde

10.) West Side Story

James Berclaz-Lewis, Contributor

1.) Winter Light

2.) Le Mépris

3.) The Battle of Algiers

4.) Eyes Without a Face

5.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

6.) High School

7.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

8.) Peeping Tom

9.) Ivan's Childhood

10.) Late Autumn

Russell Hainline, Contributor

1.) Rosemary's Baby

2.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

3.) The Apartment

4.) The Wild Bunch

5.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

7.) A Shot in the Dark

8.) Lawrence of Arabia

9.) Mary Poppins

10.) Repulsion

Kyle Turner, Columnist

1.) Peeping Tom

2.) A Hard Day's Night

3.) The Innocents

5.) The Graduate

6.) The Manchurian Candidate

7.) Le Samourai

9.) Ivan's Childhood

10.) Vivre sa Vie

Scott Nye, List-Maker

1.) The Young Girls of Rochefort

2.) Last Year at Marienbad

4.) Le bonheur

5.) La Dolce Vita

6.) W hen a Woman Ascends the Stairs

9.) The Servant

10.) The Hawks and the Sparrows

Alexandra Kittle, Illustrator

1.) The Apartment

3.) The Haunting

4.) The Producers

5.) Barbarella

6.) Chitty Chitty Bang Bang

9.) Spider Baby, or The Maddest Story Ever Told

Michael Phillips, Chicago Tribune

1.) Breathless

3.) The Hustler

5.) The Manchurian Candidate

6.) A Hard Day's Night

7.) Titicut Follies

8.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

10.) Night of the Living Dead

Daniel Mecca, The Film Stage

2.) Cool Hand Luke

3.) Lawrence of Arabia

4.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

5.) The Leopard

6.) The Battles of Algiers

10.) La Jetée

Matthew Buchanan, Co-f ounder of Letterboxd

1.) The Graduate

3.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

4.) Night of the Living Dead

5.) Rosemary's Baby

6.) To Kill A Mockingbird

7.) The Wild Bunch

8.) Band of Outsiders

10.) The Great Escape

Nathaniel Rogers, The Film Experience

1.) West Side Story

4.) The Sound of Music

5.) Bonnie & Clyde

7.) They Shoot Horses, Don't They?

8.) The Umbrellas of Cherbourg

9.) Belle de Jour

10.) The Manchurian Candidate

Calum Marsh, Everyone

1.) 2 or 3 Things I Know About Her

2.) An Autumn Afternoon

3.) The Bellboy

5.) The Exiles

7.) The Gospel According To Saint Matthew

8.) The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

9.) Playtime

10.) Point Blank

K.C. McLeod, Founder of Vyer Films

2.) The Virgin Spring

3.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

5.) Cool Hand Luke

6.) The Battle of Algiers

7.) Knife in the Water

8.) Bonnie and Clyde

9.) The Graduate

10.) Contempt

Joshua Moore, Filmmaker and Programmer for the San Francisco Jewish Film Festival

1.) The Graduate

2.) Cléo de 5 à 7

3.) The Misfits

4.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

5.) Vivre Sa Vie

6.) Repulsion

8.) The Apartment

9.) Jules et Jim

10.) The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

Nell Minow, The "Movie Mom"

1.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

2.) A Hard Day's Night

3.) Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid

4.) The Apartment

6.) In the Heat of the Night

7.) Two for the Road

8.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

10.) The Graduate

Adam Kempenaar, Host of "Filmspotting"

1.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

2.) Jules et Jim

4.) The Apartment

5.) The Man Show Liberty Valance

6.) The Graduate

7.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

8.) Rosemary's Baby

9.) The Wild Bunch

10.) Easy Rider

Susan Wloszczyna, RogerEbert.com

1.) Lawrence of Arabia

2.) Georgy Girl

4.) Spartacus

5.) Mary Poppins

6.) A Hard Day's Night

7.) Two for the Road

8.) The Graduate

9.) Bonnie and Clyde

10.) Night of the Living Dead

David Ehrlich, The Dissolve

1.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

3.) La Dolce Vita

4.) Jules et Jim

5.) Au Hasard Balthazar

6.) L'Eclisse

7.) Army of Shadows

9.) Woman in the Dunes

10.) The Boxer

Carrie Rickey, Philadelphia Inquirer

1.) The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

2.) The Miracle Worker

3.) The Manchurian Candidate

5.) Where the Boys Are

6.) The Parent Trap

8.) A Hard Day's Night

9.) The Leopard

10.) The Wild Child

Allison Loring, Film School Rejects

1.) The Graduate

2.) Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid

3.) A Hard Day's Night

4.) Bonnie and Clyde

5.) Breakfast at Tiffany's

6.) Goldfinger

7.) The Parent Trap

8.) Bye Bye Birdie

9.) Mary Poppins

10.) The Absent-Minded Professor

Christopher Campbell, Non Fics

1.) The Apartment

3.) One, Two, Three

4.) Don't Look Back

5.) To Kill a Mockingbird

6.) Medium Cool

7.) Lonely Boy

8.) The Battle of Algiers

9.) Pierrot le Fou

10.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

Scott Mendelson, Forbes

1.) From Russia With Love

2.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

4.) The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

5.) A Shot In the Dark

6.) Night of the Living Dead

7.) Midnight Cowboy

8.) The Manchurian Candidate

9.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

10.) Batman: The Movie

Peter Labuza, Author of "Approaching the End: Imaging Apocalypse In American Film"

1.) Zapruder Film

3.) Woman of the Dunes

4.) The Battle of Algiers

5.) Black Girl

6.) Charulata

7.) The Housemaid

9.) Memories of Underdevelopment

10.) Two Stage Sisters

Brandon Rohwer, A Great Publicist

1.) The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

2.) Dr. Stangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

4.) Two for the Road

5.) The Manchurian Candidate

6.) In the Heat of the Night

7.) Rosemary's Baby

9.) The Battle of Algiers

Bilge Ebiri, Vulture

1.) The Leopard

2.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

3.) Our Mother's House

5.) Hawks and the Sparrows

6.) Red Desert

8.) Last Summer

9.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

Sheila O'Malley, RogerEbert.com

4.) The Apartment

5.) Le Samourai

6.) Lawrence of Arabia

7.) The Graduate

8.) Live a Little Love a Little

9.) A Hard Day's Night

10.) Andrei Rublev

Erik Childress, WGN Radio

1.) Lawrence of Arabia

2.) Once Upon A Time In The West

3.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

4.) The Great Escape

6.) The Apartment

7.) Bonnie and Clyde

8.) The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance

9.) To Kill a Mockingbird

10.) Rosemary's Baby

Thomas Elrod, The Critical Press

2.) Chimes at Midnight

5.) Last Year at Marienbad

6.) Breathless

7.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

8.) The Apartment

9.) The Man Who Shot Liberty Valence

10.) Shoot the Piano Player

Kevin B. Lee, Video Essayist & Filmmaker

2.) A Touch of Zen

3.) The Hour of the Furnaces Part I: Neocolonialism and Violence

4.) The House Is Black

5.) The Color of Pomegranates

6.) L'Eclisse

7.) Pierrot le fou

8.) Au Hasard Balthazar

10.) Stage Sisters

Danny Bowes, RogerEbert.com

1.) Breathless

2) 2001: A Space Odyssey

3.) Once Upon A Time in the West

4.) Lawrence of Arabia

5.) Last Year at Marienbad

6.) Bonnie and Clyde

7.) Mughal-e-Azam

8.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

9.) Jewel Thief

10.) The Exterminating Angel

Alex Ross Perry, Filmmaker

2.) L'amour fou

3.) Jules and Jim

4.) High and Low

5.) Repulsion

6.) Dark of the Sun

8.) The World's Greatest Sinner

9.) Who are you, Polly Magoo?

10) Night of the Living Dead

Kenji Fujishima, In Review Online

2.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

3.) 2 or 3 Things I Know About Her

4.) Peeping Tom

5.) Andrei Rublev

7.) Dr. Strangelove: Or, How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

8.) Army of Shadows

9.) Au Hasard Balthazar

10.) Red Desert

Andrew Welch, To Be Cont'd

1.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

3.) Breathless

5.) Andrei Rublev

6.) Lawrence of Arabia

8.) Jules et Jim

9.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

10.) The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

Jordan Hoffman, ScreenCrush

1.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

2.) Winter Light

3.) Lawrence of Arabia

4.) Breathless

5.) One, Two, Three/From Russia With Love

6.) Take the Money and Run

7.) Shakespeare Wallah

8.) Ikarie XB-1

9.) King of Kings

10.) The Plot Against Harry

Alonso Duralde, The Wrap

1.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

4.) My Night at Maud's

5.) Two for the Road

6.) Belle de Jour

8.) The Apartment

10.) Valley of the Dolls

Keith Phipps, The Dissolve

1.) The Umbrellas Of Cherbourg

2.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

4.) Once Upon a Time in the West

8.) Point Blank

9.) Stolen Kisses

10.) Night Of The Living Dead

Brian Tallerico, RogerEbert.com

1.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

2.) The Apartment

3.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

4.) Once Upon a Time in the West

5.) Repulsion

6.) The Graduate

8.) Breathless

9.) Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?

10.) The Wild Bunch

Jordan Raup, The Film Stage

1.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

2.) Au Hasard Balthazar

4.) High and Low

5.) Lawrence of Arabia

6.) Last Year at Marienbad

7.) The Umbrellas of Cherbourg

8.) Once Upon a Time in the West

10.) The Graduate

Ethan Anderton, First-Showing

2.) The Graduate

3.) Le Samourai

4.) La Dolce Vita

5.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

6.) The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

7.) The Odd Couple

8.) Breathless

9.) The Apartment

10.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

Matt Prigge, Metro US

1.) Pierrot le fou

3.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

4.) Two for the Road

6.) High and Low

7.) Heaven and Earth Magic

8.) The Leopard

9.) Marketa Lazarova

10.) Repulsion

A.A. Dowd, The AV Club

3.) 2001: A Space Odyssey

4.) Last Year At Marienbad

5.) Repulsion

6.) The Apartment

7.) The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

8.) The Manchurian Candidate

10.) Valentin de las Sierras

Matt Goldberg, Collider

1.) The Graduate

2.) The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

3.) Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb

4.) High and Low

5.) Rosemary's Baby

6.) Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid

7.) The Manchurian Candidate

9.) The Guns of Navarone

10.) Batman: The Movie

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History of Film: The Best Movies of the 1960s | Movie Mezzanine

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It's been a little more than five months since the last installment of our History of Film series, and in that short time Movie Mezzanine has undergone some significant changes. This includes partnerships with Letterboxd and others, accreditation on Rotten Tomatoes, and the hiring of our first Reviews Editor in Josh Spiegel.

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The Andy Griffith Show, American television comedy series that aired on the Columbia Broadcasting System (now CBS Corporation) from 1960 to 1968.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “The Andy Griffith Show.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 1 Aug. 2019, www.britannica.com/topic/The-Andy-Griffith-Show.

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The Andy Griffith Show, American television comedy series that aired on the Columbia Broadcasting System (now CBS Corporation) from 1960 to 1968. During its entire run, the show rated no worse than seventh in the seasonal Nielsen ratings and held the number one spot when it ended.

© Columbia Broadcasting System

The Andy Griffith Show takes place in the fictitious Mayberry, N.C., a sleepy rural town. Named after its star, the show centres on Sheriff Andy Taylor (played by Andy Griffith), whose prudent and common-sense approach to life and law enforcement never fails to thwart the petty criminals who make mischief in his jurisdiction. Much of the sheriff's energy is spent protecting the townsfolk from becoming victims of their own follies. The show plays upon popular stereotypes of rural and small-town life; Mayberry is almost entirely populated by simple (sometimes simple-minded) "country" people immortalized by the likes of gas station attendant Gomer Pyle (Jim Nabors) and the town drunk, Otis (Hal Smith), who locks himself in jail after his weekly bender and lets himself out upon sobering up. Taylor's hapless sidekick is his excitable cousin, Deputy Barney Fife ( Don Knotts), whose overly earnest and misguided tactics typically exacerbate the duo's problems. Knotts excelled at the role, picking up four Emmy Awards before quitting the show in 1965 and being replaced by Jack Burns. Other frequent story lines concerned Taylor's parenting of his fishing-enthusiast son, Opie ( Ron Howard), and worrying about the misadventures of his unmarried aunt and housekeeper, Aunt Bee ( Frances Bavier).

The Andy Griffith Show was part of a larger trend in 1960s television programming that focused on comedic and lighthearted country themes and characters. The series gave rise to two separate spin-offs, Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C. (1964-69) and Mayberry, R.F.D. (1968-71). Griffith, a one-time comic monologuist who had appeared in motion pictures such as A Face in the Crowd (1957) and No Time for Sergeants (1958), later had another long stay on television as a lawyer in the title role of Matlock (1986-92, 1993-95). Among the others in the cast who had later success were Knotts, who starred in a raft of motion-picture comedies; Nabors, a singer, who headlined the Gomer Pyle spin-off and hosted a television variety show; and Howard, the star of television's Happy Days (1974-80) before directing motion pictures such as Cocoon (1985) and A Beautiful Mind (2001).

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The Andy Griffith Show | American television program

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The Andy Griffith Show, American television comedy series that aired on the Columbia Broadcasting System (now CBS Corporation) from 1960 to 1968. During its entire run, the show rated no worse than seventh in the seasonal Nielsen ratings and held the number one spot when it ended. The Andy Griffith

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In 1962, Carroll won a Tony Award for best actress, a first for an African American woman.

“Diahann Carroll.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 21 Feb. 2020, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diahann_Carroll.

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Diahann Carroll (; born Carol Diann Johnson; July 17, 1935 - October 4, 2019) was an American actress, singer, model, and activist. She rose to prominence in some of the earliest major studio films to feature black casts, including Carmen Jones (1954) and Porgy and Bess (1959). In 1962, Carroll won a Tony Award for best actress, a first for an African American woman, for her role in the Broadway musical

Her 1968 debut in , the first series on American television to star a Black woman in a non-stereotypical role, was a milestone both in her career and the medium. In the 1980s, she played the role of Dominique Deveraux, a mixed-race diva, in the prime time soap opera . Carroll was the recipient of numerous stage and screen nominations and awards, including the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress In a Television Series in 1968. She received an Academy Award for Best Actress nomination for the film (1974). She died on October 4, 2019 after a battle with breast cancer.

Carol Diahann Johnson was born in the Bronx, New York City, on July 17, 1935, to John Johnson, a subway conductor, and Mabel (Faulk), a nurse. While Carroll was still an infant, the family moved to Harlem, where she grew up. She attended Music and Art High School, and was a classmate of Billy Dee Williams. In many interviews about her childhood, Carroll recalls her parents' support, and their enrolling her in dance, singing, and modeling classes. By the time Carroll was 15, she was modeling for . "She also began entering television contests, including Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts, under the name Diahann Carroll." After graduating from high school, she attended New York University, where she majored in sociology, "but she left before graduating to pursue a show-business career, promising her family that if the career did not materialize after two years, she would return to college."

Carroll's big break came at age 18, when she appeared as a contestant on the DuMont Television Network program, Chance of a Lifetime, hosted by Dennis James. On the show, which aired January 8, 1954, she took the $1,000 top prize for a rendition of the Jerome Kern/ Oscar Hammerstein song, " Why Was I Born?" She went on to win the following four weeks. Engagements at Manhattan's Café Society and Latin Quarter nightclubs soon followed.

Carroll's film debut was a supporting role in Carmen Jones (1954), as a friend to the sultry lead character played by Dorothy Dandridge. That same year, she starred in the Broadway musical, House of Flowers. A few years later, she played Clara in the film version of George Gershwin's Porgy and Bess (1959), but her character's singing parts were dubbed by opera singer Loulie Jean Norman. The following year, Carroll made a guest appearance in the series , in the episode "Sing a Song of Murder" (1960). In the next two years, she starred with Sidney Poitier, Paul Newman, and Joanne Woodward in the film Paris Blues (1961) and won the 1962 Tony Award for best actress ( the first time for a Black woman) for portraying Barbara Woodruff in the Samuel A. Taylor and Richard Rodgers musical . Twelve years later, she was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress for her starring role alongside James Earl Jones in the film (1974), which part had been written specifically for actress Diana Sands (who had made guest appearances on Julia as Carroll's cousin Sara), but shortly before filming was to begin, Sands learned she was terminally ill with cancer. Sands attempted to carry on with the role, but as filming began, she became too ill to continue and recommended her friend Carroll take over the role. Sands died in September 1973, before the film's release in April 1974.

Carroll is known for her titular role in the television series Julia (1968), which made her the first African-American actress to star in her own television series who did not play a domestic worker. That role won her the Golden Globe Award for "Best Actress In A Television Series" for its year, and a nomination for an Emmy Award in 1969. Some of Carroll's earlier work also included appearances on shows hosted by Johnny Carson, Judy Garland, Merv Griffin, Jack Paar, and Ed Sullivan, and on The Hollywood Palace variety show. In 1984, Carroll joined the nighttime soap opera as the mixed-race jet set diva Dominique Deveraux, Blake Carrington's half-sister. Her high-profile role on Dynasty also reunited her with her schoolmate Billy Dee Williams, who briefly played her onscreen husband Brady Lloyd. Carroll remained on the show until 1987, simultaneously making several appearances on its short-lived spin-off, . She received her third Emmy nomination in 1989 for the recurring role of Marion Gilbert in A Different World.

Carroll portrayed Eleanor Potter, the doting, concerned, and protective wife of Jimmy Potter (portrayed by Chuck Patterson), in The Five Heartbeats (1991), a musical drama film also featuring actor and musician Robert Townsend, and Michael Wright. In a 1995 reunion with Billy Dee Williams in Lonesome Dove: The Series, she played Mrs. Greyson, the wife of Williams' character. In 1996, Carroll starred as the self-loving and deluded silent movie star Norma Desmond in the Canadian production of Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical version of the film Sunset Boulevard. In 2001, Carroll made her animation début in The Legend of Tarzan, in which she voiced Queen La, ruler of the ancient city of Opar.

In 2006, Carroll appeared in the television medical drama Grey's Anatomy as Jane Burke, the demanding mother of Dr. Preston Burke. From December 2008, she appeared in USA Network's series White Collar as June, the savvy widow who rents out her guest room to Neal Caffrey. In 2010, Carroll was featured in UniGlobe Entertainment's breast cancer docudrama titled and she appeared as Nana in two Lifetime movie adaptations of Patricia Cornwell novels: and The Front.

In 2013, Carroll was present on stage for the 65th Primetime Emmy Awards, to briefly speak about being the first African-American nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award. She was quoted as saying about Kerry Washington, nominated for , "she better get this award." Washington erroneously stated that Carroll was the first Black performer ever to be nominated for an Emmy. In fact, at least three Black performers were nominated before Carroll ( Ethel Waters for a guest appearance on Route 66, in 1962; Harry Belafonte, who was nominated in 1956 and 1961, and won in 1960; and Sammy Davis Jr., who was nominated in 1956 with Belafonte), who was first nominated in 1963.

Carroll was married four times. Her father boycotted the ceremony for her first wedding, in 1956, to record producer Monte Kay, which was presided over by Adam Clayton Powell Jr. at the Abyssinian Baptist Church in Harlem. The marriage ended in 1962. Carroll gave birth to her daughter, Suzanne Kay Bamford (born September 9, 1960), who became a journalist and screenwriter.

In 1959, Carroll began a nine-year affair with the married actor Sidney Poitier.. In her autobiography, Carroll said Poitier persuaded her to divorce her husband and said he would leave his wife to be with her. While she proceeded with her divorce, Poitier did not keep his part of the bargain. Eventually he divorced his wife. According to Poitier, their relationship ended because he wanted to live with Carroll for six months without her daughter present so he would not be "jumping from one marriage straight into another." She refused.

Carroll dated and was engaged to British television host and producer David Frost from 1970 until 1973. In 1973, Carroll surprised the press by marrying Las Vegas boutique owner Fred Glusman. After four months of marriage Glusman filed for divorce in June 1973. Carroll filed a response, but did not contest the divorce, which was finalized two months later. Glusman was reportedly physically abusive.

On May 25, 1975, Carroll then age 39, married Robert DeLeon, the 24-year old managing editor of magazine. They met when DeLeon assigned himself to a cover story on Carroll about her 1975 Oscar nomination for Claudine. DeLeon had a child from a previous marriage. Carroll moved to Chicago where Jet was headquartered, but DeLeon soon quit his job so the couple relocated to Oakland. Carroll was widowed two years later when DeLeon was killed in a car crash. Carroll's fourth marriage was to singer Vic Damone in 1987. The union, which Carroll admitted was turbulent, had a legal separation in 1991, reconciliation, and divorce in 1996.

Charitable work

Carroll was a founding member of the Celebrity Action Council, a volunteer group of celebrity women who served the women's outreach of the Los Angeles Mission, working with women in rehabilitation from problems with alcohol, drugs, or prostitution. She helped to form the group along with other female television personalities including Mary Frann, Linda Gray, Donna Mills, and Joan Van Ark.

Illness, death, and memorial

Carroll was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1997. She said the diagnosis "stunned" her, because there was no family history of breast cancer, and she had always led a healthy lifestyle. She underwent nine weeks of radiation therapy and had been clear for years after the diagnosis. She frequently spoke of the need for early detection and prevention of the disease. She died on October 4, 2019, in Los Angeles, aged 84.

Carroll was saluted in a star studded memorial on November 24, 2019 at the Helen Hayes Theater in New York City where she was lauded for her trailblazing work in entertainment. Among those paying tribute were Laurence Fishburne, Phylicia Rashad, Vanessa Williams, Lynn Whitfield, Judith Jamison, Valerie Simpson, Lenny Kravitz, Angela Bassett, Cicely Tyson and Jasmine Guy.

Television

Carroll, Diahann (2009). The Legs Are the Last to Go: Aging, Acting, Marrying, Mothering, and Other Things I Learned Along the Way. New York: HarperPaperbacks. ISBN 9780060763275.

Carroll, Diahann, with Ross Firestone (1987). Diahann: An Autobiography (1st Ivy Books ed.). New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0804101310.

Plowden, Martha Ward (2002). Famous Firsts of Black Women. Illustrated by Ronald Jones (2nd ed.). Gretna, LA: Pelican Pub. Co. ISBN 9781565541979.

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Diahann Carroll (; born Carol Diann Johnson; July 17, 1935 - October 4, 2019) was an American actress, singer, model, and activist. She rose to prominence in some of the earliest major studio films to feature black casts, including Carmen Jones (1954) and Porgy and Bess (1959).