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(By Aimee Tassoni)

It's been a trend to see more and more children show signs of mental illnesses in recent years. According to the CDC, "Occasionally being sad or feeling hopeless is part of every child's life. However, some children feel sad or uninterested in things that they used to enjoy, ... or [feel] hopeless in situations they are able to change" (cdc.gov/ChildrensMentalHealth/depression.html)

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A .gov cite is usually managed by the government. This means that this cite was very likely written by professionals that know what they're talking about.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

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Many children have fears and worries, and may feel sad and hopeless from time to time. Strong fears may appear at different times during development. For example, toddlers are often very distressed about being away from their parents, even if they are safe and cared for. Although fears and worries are typical in children, persistent or extreme forms of fear and sadness could be due to anxiety or depression. Because the symptoms primarily involve thoughts and feelings, they are sometimes called internalizing disorders.

Anxiety

When a child does not outgrow the fears and worries that are typical in young children, or when there are so many fears and worries that they interfere with school, home, or play activities, the child may be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder. Examples of different types of anxiety disorders include

Being very afraid when away from parents (separation anxiety)

Having extreme fear about a specific thing or situation, such as dogs, insects, or going to the doctor (phobias)

Being very afraid of school and other places where there are people (social anxiety)

Being very worried about the future and about bad things happening (general anxiety)

Having repeated episodes of sudden, unexpected, intense fear that come with symptoms like heart pounding, having trouble breathing, or feeling dizzy, shaky, or sweaty (panic disorder)

Anxiety may present as fear or worry, but can also make children irritable and angry. Anxiety symptoms can also include trouble sleeping, as well as physical symptoms like fatigue, headaches, or stomachaches. Some anxious children keep their worries to themselves and, thus, the symptoms can be missed.

Related conditions include Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.
Learn more about anxiety in children
Depression

Occasionally being sad or feeling hopeless is a part of every child's life. However, some children feel sad or uninterested in things that they used to enjoy, or feel helpless or hopeless in situations they are able to change. When children feel persistent sadness and hopelessness, they may be diagnosed with depression.

Examples of behaviors often seen in children with depression include

Feeling sad, hopeless, or irritable a lot of the time

Not wanting to do or enjoy doing fun things

Showing changes in eating patterns - eating a lot more or a lot less than usual

Showing changes in sleep patterns - sleeping a lot more or a lot less than normal

Showing changes in energy - being tired and sluggish or tense and restless a lot of the time

Having a hard time paying attention

Feeling worthless, useless, or guilty

Showing self-injury and self-destructive behavior

Extreme depression can lead a child to think about suicide or plan for suicide. For youth ages 10-24 years, suicide is among the leading causes of death. Read about youth suicide prevention.

Some children may not talk about their helpless and hopeless thoughts, and may not appear sad. Depression might also cause a child to make trouble or act unmotivated, causing others not to notice that the child is depressed or to incorrectly label the child as a trouble-maker or lazy.
Learn more about depression in children
Treatment for anxiety and depression

The first step to treatment is to talk with a healthcare provider such as your child's primary care provider, or a mental health specialist, about getting an evaluation. The United States Preventive Services Taskforce recommends screening for anxiety in children aged 8 to 18 years and for depression in adolescents aged 12 to 18 years. Some of the signs and symptoms of anxiety or depression in children could be caused by other conditions, such as trauma. Specific symptoms like having a hard time focusing could be a sign of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). It is important to get a careful evaluation to get the best diagnosis and treatment. Consultation with a health provider can help determine if medication should be part of the treatment. A mental health professional can develop a therapy plan that works best for the child and family. Behavior therapy includes child therapy, family therapy, or a combination of both. The school can also be included in the treatment plan. For very young children, involving parents in treatment is key. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is one form of therapy that is used to treat anxiety or depression, particularly in older children. It helps the child change negative thoughts into more positive, effective ways of thinking, leading to more effective behavior. Behavior therapy for anxiety may involve helping children cope with and manage anxiety symptoms while gradually exposing them to their fears so as to help them learn that bad things do not occur.

Treatments can also include a variety of ways to help the child feel less stressed and be healthier like nutritious food, physical activity, sufficient sleep, predictable routines, and social support.

Get help finding treatment

Here are tools to find a healthcare provider familiar with treatment options:

Managing Symptoms: Staying Healthy

Being healthy is important for all children and can be especially important for children with depression or anxiety. In addition to getting the right treatment, leading a healthy lifestyle can play a role in managing symptoms of depression or anxiety. Here are some healthy behaviors that may help:

Prevention of anxiety and depression

It is not known exactly why some children develop anxiety or depression. Many factors may play a role, including biology and temperament. But it is also known that some children are more likely to develop anxiety or depression when they experience trauma or stress, when they are maltreated, when they are bullied or rejected by other children, or when their own parents have anxiety or depression.

Although these factors appear to increase the risk for anxiety or depression, there are ways to decrease the chance that children experience them. Learn about public health approaches to prevent these risks:

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Anxiety and Depression in Children | CDC

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Although fears and worries are typical in children, persistent or extreme forms of fear and sadness could be due to anxiety or depression. Learn about anxiety and depression in children.

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(By Kat Rosalyn)

As we approach October, many people love to watch horror movies, but some wonder the extent of what watching scary movies does to you. Kim Mills hosts a podcast and invites Ph.D Colton Scrivner, a behavioral scientist at the Recreational Fear Lab at Aarhus University in Denmark, to speak with him on why people love scary movies and if there is anything psychologically wrong with it: "'I found is that people who are morbidly curious and people who enjoy horror movies tend to actually be lower in coldheartedness than those who don’t enjoy them. So that is, they have greater compassion'" (Mills). Scrivner conducted research on the psychological basis of watching horror movies and developed a conclusion that those who watch and like horror movies typically have more empathy and compassion than those that do not.

Mills, Kim. “Why Do We Love Scary Movies?” American Psychological Association, www.apa.org/news/podcasts/speaking-of-psychology/morbid-curiosity. Accessed 14 Oct. 2024.

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The American Psychological Association is the professional organization of psychologists in America that includes scientists, researchers, clinicians, and students. This source can be trusted as a scholarly source to use for writing.

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Coltan Scrivner, PhD, talks about why people are drawn to horror, true crime, and other scary genres.

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The concept of emotional intelligence has been linked to improved workplace performance, suggesting that individuals with higher emotional intelligence are better equipped to handle interpersonal relationships effectively (Goleman, 1995).

Citation:
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Bantam Books.

Allinah Mezquita

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Controlled hunting seasons can be used to allow for animals to increase their population over time while also allowing for the population for said game to be controlled so not to become damaging to the environment and prevent damage to manmade environments, such as causing car accidents.(Moore, 2021)

citation

Moore, Andrew. “How Hunting Contributes to Wildlife Conservation.” College of Natural Resources News, NC State University, 24 Feb. 2021, cnr.ncsu.edu/news/2021/02/hunting-wildlife-conservation-explained/.

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I found an article using Proquest to identify scholarly sources. The article is from the Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, a scholarly journal.

Test citation:

Transgender mental health providers are less available in states with more restrictive policies. (Hollinsaid et. al., 2024)

APA Bibliography citation:

Hollinsaid, N. L., Price, M. A., & Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2024). Transgender-Specific Adolescent Mental Health Provider Availability is Substantially Lower in States with More Restrictive Policies. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 53(5), 828-839. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2022.2140433

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Community College System of New Hampshire - Sign In

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In their article 'American's love free speech, survey finds- until they realize everyone else has it, too', Authors John Greer and Jacob Mchangama (2024) state that "With the 2024 election looming and polarization increasing among Americans, some people may want only those who agree with them to be allowed to speak" (p 1)

John G. Geer                          Senior Advisor to the Chancellor, & Jacob Mchangama                          Research Professor of Political Science and Executive Director of The Future of Free Speech. (2024, August 14). Americans love free speech, survey finds − until they realize everyone else has it, too. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/americans-love-free-speech-survey-finds-until-they-realize-everyone-else-has-it-too-234884

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In an article wrriten by Yuki Noguchi, explains how video games are different from social media and how the two easily get mixed up due to technology today and its impacts on our adoloscents. "...social media is primarily about marketing, or comparing oneself to others, gaming is generally about socializing with friends, solving a puzzle, or engaging in competition"(Noguchi, NPR).

Noguchi, Yuki. "Worried about Your Kids' Video Gaming? Here's How to Help Them Set Healthy Limits."      NPR, 31 may 2023, www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2023/05/31/1178977198/      video-games-kids-good-limits. Accessed 17 Oct. 2024.

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Friendship and love in Harry Potter Saga 

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Friendship and love in Harry Potter Saga 

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In both Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows and Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone, friendship is a crucial element in overcoming adversity. The bond between Harry, Ron, and Hermione provides them with the strength to face dangers together, from protecting the Sorcerer’s Stone to defeating Voldemort. Dumbledore emphasizes this by saying, “It takes a great deal of bravery to stand up to our enemies, but just as much to stand up to our friends” (Sorcerer’s Stone, p. 306). Furthermore, in Deathly Hallows, Dumbledore stresses the power of love, saying, “Do not pity the dead, Harry. Pity the living, and, above all, those who live without love” (Deathly Hallows, p. 722). These themes of love and friendship are central to the series.

References
Rowling, J. K. (1997). Harry Potter and the sorcerer’s stone. Scholastic.
Rowling, J. K. (2007). Harry Potter and the deathly hallows. Scholastic.

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(By Alison Crowley)

In Practice Change Is Needed for Dialysis Decision Making with Older Adults with Advanced Kidney Disease by Jennifer S. Scherer, she brings light to issues that limit the effectiveness of dialysis treatments for older adults. She goes into detail about how other diseases can decrease efficacy of treatments, that the choice to begin dialysis is often made without fully reflecting what patients prefer, and how the way we approach decision making should be changed.

Scherer, Jennifer S. And Moss, Alvin H. Clinical journal of the American Society of Nephrology : CJASN [Clin J Am Soc Nephrol] 2016 Oct 07; Vol. 11 (10), pp. 1732-1734. Date of Electronic Publication: 2016 Sep 22,

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With the beginning of the pandemic in 2020, The United States suffered massive economic losses and disruptions such as increased unemployment, leading to supply issues and inflation, just to name a few consequences. In the first quarter of 2020, the United States GDP saw a decline of -5.5% from the baseline, amounting to a total decrease of -8.3% from the previous quarter. In the second quarter of 2020, this decrease became -28.1% with a total decrease of -22.6% from the first quarter ("United States GDP Growth Rate").

Works Cited

“United States GDP Growth Rate.” Trading Economics, Trading Economics, tradingeconomics.com/united-states/gdp-growth.

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While staying in Portland, Oregon, I have noticed a lot of homeless people who are constantly on drugs. Because of this, I found an article called, Oregon pioneered a radical drug policy. Now it's reconsidering. In November of 2020, the state of Oregon passed a law decriminalizing possession of small amounts of hard drugs: meth, heroin, and fentanyl. This means that instead of arresting drug users, police officers will instead give them a citation and point to them on how to get treatment. They called this law Measure 110; the reason they passed this law was to help drug users get treatment and deal with substance use in a healthcare setting instead of the criminal justice system. They wanted to treat drug users as an addiction than criminals, but has this helped? "So far, police have handed out more than 7,000 citations, but as of December, only a few hundred people had called the hotline to get assessed for a substance use disorder. And even fewer accessed treatment through the citation system." (Wilson, 2024). However, with all this said, this law, Measure 110, was under debate for its future. "Oregon Senate Majority Leader Kate Lieber – who co-chaired the legislature's addiction committee – told Oregon Public Broadcasting that she's not advocating for Measure 110 to be repealed. But she and other top lawmakers have said they support recriminalizing drug possession so long as there are ways for the criminal justice system to direct people into the treatment programs Measure 110 has helped to expand." (Wilson, 2024).

References

Wilson, C. (2024, February 7). Oregon pioneered a radical drug policy. now it's reconsidering. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2024/02/07/1229655142/oregon-pioneered-a-radical-drug-policy-now-its-reconsidering

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The concept of social capital, which refers to the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, is crucial for understanding community dynamics and social cohesion.

Citation: Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. Simon & Schuster.

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As an animal lover myself, it's easy for me to believe that dogs are more than just great pets. In fact, according to Cara Dudley and Denise Knight, "Therapy dogs positively impact students mental and emotional well-being, which can improve the student's academic performance" (59).

Work Cited:

Dudley, Cara, and Denise Knight. “Impact of Therapy Dogs on Student Achievement in Rural Math Classrooms.” Alabama Journal of Educational Leadership, vol. 10, Jan. 2023, pp. 59–86. EBSCOhost, research.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/plink?id=64ecbb55-40b8-36a5-b530-f3e08ba70755.

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Timely access to care is a cornerstone of a well-functioning healthcare system. However, long wait times and staff shortages are making it increasingly difficult for people to get the care they need when they need it. We find this pressure on access to care in remote and rural regions and even in metropolitan areas. More than 3 in 4 healthcare leaders (77%) in this year’s Future Health Index say delays in care delivery are an issue. This dovetails with other reports, which show that in the UK for example, the length of time patients are forced to wait for diagnostic tests and treatments such as surgery and cancer care are the worst on record.

References

Philips. (2024, June 19). Bridging gaps in healthcare: three key takeaways from the 2024 Future Health Index. https://www.philips.com/a-w/about/news/archive/blogs/innovation-matters/2024/bridging-gaps-in-healthcare-three-key-takeaways-from-the-2024-future-health-index.html?utm_source=search&utm_medium=paid&utm_campaign=fhi-search-virtual-care&utm_content=rsa-ad-1&utm_term=virtual-care-us&gad_source=1&gbraid=0AAAAA-EHpPnhJ8orvW--eJqOD6Tg42Snl&gclid=Cj0KCQjwsc24BhDPARIsAFXqAB1CjCIVyTEgeTy4VLEM8QDIx_fwQuR3ulWookPfByYCmHdXeiarx6saArYqEALw_wcB

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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10612137/

This article is a Scholarly Reference because it has information about anxiety disorder and has a lot of facts about it. It is from a reliable source which is a .gov website, it is up to date with information and the article is written in september 28th, 2023 which is pretty new. It also has up to date references that the author who wrote it uses in the article.

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"Sleep is essential to every process in the body, affecting our physical and mental functioning the next day, our ability to fight disease and develop immunity, and our metabolism and chronic disease risk."

Jansen, E. (2020, March 2). Sleep 101: Why sleep is so important to your health: The pursuit: University of Michigan School of Public Health: Adolescent Health: Child Health: Chronic Disease: Epidemic: Mental Health: Obesity. The Pursuit | University of Michigan School of Public Health | Adolescent Health | Child Health | Chronic Disease | Epidemic | Mental Health | Obesity. https://sph.umich.edu/pursuit/2020posts/why-sleep-is-so-important-to-your-health.html

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Erica Jansen

Research Assistant Professor of Nutritional Sciences
March 2, 2020
What is sleep exactly, and how does it help us stay healthy?

Sleep is an altered state of consciousness where we have limited interactions with our surroundings and are relatively quiet and still (depending on the stage of sleep). Contrary to our quiet physical state, the brain is very active during sleep, carrying out many important functions. Sleep is essential to every process in the body, affecting our physical and mental functioning the next day, our ability to fight disease and develop immunity, and our metabolism and chronic disease risk. Sleep is truly interdisciplinary because it touches every aspect of health.

Sleep is essential to every process in the body, affecting our physical and mental functioning the next day, our ability to fight disease and develop immunity, and our metabolism and chronic disease risk.

How does what we eat impact our sleep?

It is well-known that certain substances, such as caffeine, can affect the onset of sleep in a negative way. On the other hand, evidence is growing that shows how other foods like tart cherries, kiwi, fatty fish (like salmon and tuna), and malted milk may have beneficial effects on sleep. More recently, studies have shown that healthy dietary patterns overall-not just specific foods-could be associated with longer sleep duration and shorter time to fall asleep.

Why is sleep so important for young children, and what are some of the common negative effects of poor sleep?

Sleep is important for every part of the body, and it is especially important for young children as their bodies and minds develop. In young children, lack of sleep or poor quality sleep can be associated with difficult behaviors, lower capacity to learn and retain information, and a propensity for poor eating patterns and weight gain.

What sleep needs do adolescents have, and what does this mean for the current conversations we're having around school-day start times?

Adolescents need around 8-10 hours of sleep per night, but a high proportion do not get that amount. For example, recent estimates suggest that 60 percent of middle schoolers and 70 percent of high schoolers don't get adequate sleep on school nights. This figure is even higher for Michigan high schoolers, which is at 80 percent. One of the main reasons adolescents are so sleep-deprived is that biological changes in their brain affect when they feel sleepy. So even if they are sleep-deprived, they often can't go to bed early because their brain is not yet prepared to sleep.

In school districts that have enacted later school start times, research is consistently showing that students get more sleep and as a result have fewer motor vehicle accidents, better grades, and improved mental health.

The problem with these delayed bedtimes is that school or before-school activities often start very early, so adolescents may end up chronically sleep deprived. In school districts that have enacted later school start times, research is consistently showing that students get more sleep and as a result have fewer motor vehicle accidents, better grades, and improved mental health.

Every spring and fall we change our clocks by an hour. What health impacts does this change have on individuals and on the public's health?

There are many calls from the sleep-research community to eliminate daylight savings time. When our clocks are pushed forward, people lose one hour of sleep. This one-hour sleep loss is associated with significantly more motor vehicle accidents as well as cardiac events. When our clocks move backward, we might think that extra hour helps us. But our sleep patterns are disrupted by any change like this, so the fall time change may also lead to negative health impacts. In general, these universal time changes create a significant and negative burden on the public's health.

How important is sleep for our mental health?

Sleep and mental health go hand-in-hand. Good sleep is essential for maintaining our baseline mental health, as one night of sleep deprivation can dramatically affect mood the next day. Chronic exposure to poor sleep quality is associated with depression, anxiety, and other conditions. There are also bidirectional associations-meaning that experiencing anxiety and depression very often affects sleep, which then impacts our ability to cope with the anxiety and depression, and so on.

How does alcohol impact sleep?

Although alcohol may help a person fall asleep quickly, it hinders sleep quality, often causing fragmented (interrupted) sleep. When consuming alcohol, it is recommended to do so several hours before bedtime so that the alcohol is completely out of the system before sleep.

Does screen time really affect our sleep?

There is evidence to show that screen use right before bed could impact sleep. One reason is that the blue light emitted from these devices can affect the secretion of melatonin, the hormone that helps signal to the body that it is time to fall asleep. Other reasons include the content of what is on the screen. If you watch a scary movie, read an emotionally-driven article, or consume any other anxiety-producing content on your screen, it can affect your ability to fall asleep. Sleep clinicians recommend putting away all screens at least one hour before bed and to instead do some light reading or other relaxing activity.

About the Author

Dr. Erica Jansen is a nutritional epidemiologist who focuses on diet and sleep in relation to pediatric health. Her research covers how early nutritional environments affect childhood obesity and the timing of puberty, how various aspects of sleep-duration, timing, and quality-affect development of cardiometabolic risk, the bidirectional associations between sleep and diet, and epigenetic markers that underlie relationships between sleep and cardiometabolic health.

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Sleep 101: Why Sleep Is So Important to Your Health

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What is sleep and how is it related to our overall health? How much sleep do we need? When should the school day begin? As we approach daylight saving time 2020, nutritional sciences expert Erica Jansen talks about sleep, nutrition, mental health, and how to catch more ZZZs.

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depression as a dysfunction of the immune system

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depression as a dysfunction of the immune system

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The brain and body are very often tied together, and one can easily affect the other. Rises in concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines and glucocorticoids are very strongly associated with depression, as those are the main neurotransmitters involved in states of chronic stress (Leonard, 2010). By analyzing the "inflammatory hypothesis" deeper, a discovery for the usage of psychotropic medications for depression can be found.

Leonard B. E. (2010). The concept of depression as a dysfunction of the immune system. Current immunology reviews, 6(3), 205–212. https://doi.org/10.2174/157339510791823835

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A study I’m very fascinated in is the overprescribing of adhd medication to children. As a mother of an adhd child myself I find myself conflicted over giving my child stimulants. Almert Winterstein. Ph.D found in a study done by the University of Florida “There is a significant amount of ADHD drug treatment happening at a young age that is not supported by evidence,

https://pharmacy.ufl.edu/2017/08/07/uf-study-raises-questions-about-overmedicating-young-children-diagnosed-with-adhd/

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Psychiatry.org is managed by the American Psychiatric Association which is a professional organization including many of America's scientists, researchers, and other educated people in the field of psychology and thus can be trusted as a scholarly source.

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(by Liam Hayes)

Dissociative disorders are associated with problems in memory, perception, sense of self, and many other natural functions of the brain. These problems have the potential to disrupt all areas of mental functioning. Some examples of these dissociative symptoms include a feeling of detachment or a feeling like you’re outside of your body, loss of memory, and amnesia. These disorders are typically associated with previously received trauma. (Drescher, 2022)

Drescher, J. (2022). What Are Dissociative Disorders? Psychiatry.org; American Psychiatric Association. https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/dissociative-disorders/what-are-dissociative-disorders

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George Mwaura

Studies have recently shown that vaping continues to be a serious issue among youth, with about 7.8% of high school students and 3.5% of middle school students currently using e-cigarettes. Among those who vape, 63.9% reported wanting to quit, and 67.4% had tried to quit within the last year (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2024).

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Full citation (APA 7th edition):

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024, February 1). Youth and tobacco use. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. https://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/e-cigarettes/youth.html

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Learn how much youth in the United States use e-cigarettes.

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The quote “To the stars who listen—and the dreams that are answered” comes from A Court of Mist and Fury by Sarah J. Maas (chapter 34, p. 249). This line is spoken by Rhysand and has become one of the most recognized quotes from the series because it captures the story’s recurring themes of hope, healing, and freedom. Within the context of the novel, it symbolizes the quiet wish for better days after hardship and the belief that even the most distant dreams can come true if one dares to reach for them. Maas uses this simple yet poetic line to illustrate how the characters move from survival toward self-discovery and fulfillment.

(Maas, Sarah J. A Court of Mist and Fury. Bloomsbury, 2016.)

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Kennedy Daniels

The SMS is the safety management system used by the federal aviation administration. It maintains a safety standard for all involved in United States aviation. "An international best practice for the management of system safety, SMS provides a means for a structured, repeatable, systematic approach to proactively identify hazards and manage safety risk." (Federal Aviation Administration, 2024). This system is very important in all forms of the public transportation people utilize every day.

Citation

Federal Aviation Administration. (2024, August 2). Safety management system (SMS). https://www.faa.gov/about/initiatives/sms

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Everyone should have a dog in their lives. "Doges are like that one friend who's always up for anything... They don't care if you're a hot mess"(Crane). People need to have that unconditional love and companionship.

Work Cited

Crane, Elizabeth. “100 Good Reasons to Get a Dog: Why Your Life Needs a Pooch.” Dogs for Vets, 18 Mar. 2024, dogsforvets.com/good-reasons-to-get-a-dog/. Accessed 14 October 2025

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Firstly, we need to understand AI better before it can be regulated well. Many people either over or underestimate the ability of AI. People who are overestimating think AI is capable of solving the world's largest issues when AI is still experimental, and far from perfect. Underestimating people believe that AI won't have a large impact when it's impact on politics, education, jobs and more will be irrevocable.

Citation:

Ruschemeier H. (2023). AI as a challenge for legal regulation – the scope of application of the artificial intelligence act proposal. ERA Forum, 23(3), 361–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12027-022-00725-6

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The Transformative Power of Music in Mental Well-Being

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By listening to music, it helps us enter a safe environment to heal from mental wounds and trauma, as well as reducing anxiety levels and improving the functionality of depressed people. Music can also bring people together, create a community, and help bring out emotional competence.

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The patriots are the best NFL team to ever touch the gridiron. Directly from an ESPN article, Bill Barnwell states, "In an era in which the league's rules are designed to produce parity and short-term success, Belichick's New England teams went 266-121 and made it to nine Super Bowls, winning six; they had a stretch of 17 division championships in 19 seasons. We might never see another NFL coach put together a two-decade spell like his again." (Barnwell, 2024)

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Taylor Swift's New Album Dominates Charts

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Taylor Swift's New Album Dominates Charts

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(By Avery Dupont)

Pop-royalty Taylor Swift recently dropped a record-breaking album, "The Life of a Showgirl." Since the hour of its release, it has dominated every musical chart out there in 2025, breaking historical records that have been held for decades by other artists. "It was already established, before the chart week was even over, that Taylor Swift's "The Life of a Showgirl" would not just bow at No. 1 but set a record for the highest number of equivalent album units in a single week" (Willman). Swift's #1 album debut records only now trail behind the Beatles, who have 19.

Willman, C. (2025, October 13). Taylor Swift bows with 4 million album units as “the life of a showgirl” smashes records in its no. 1 debut. Variety. https://variety.com/2025/music/news/taylor-swift-debut-week-record-billboard-200-life-showgirl-1236547501/

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It is no secret that ultraprocessed foods line the aisles of grocery stores. We are all guilty of endulging in a frozen pizza, but ultraprocessed foods can be a detrement to a person's overall health. The researchers for the British Medical Journal stated, "A diet composed mainly of ultraprocessed foods also exposes people to unhealthy additives and increases the risk of chronic inflammatory diseases..." (MacMillan).

Works Cited

Macmillan, Carrie. “Ultraprocessed Foods: Are They Bad for You?” Yale Medicine, 10 July 2024, www.yalemedicine.org/news/ultraprocessed-foods-bad-for-you.

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Ultraprocessed Foods: Are They Bad for You?

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A Yale Medicine specialist talks about a review article that links ultraprocessed foods to 32 health conditions.

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Cats are the undisputed mascots of the internet, taking over social media by storm with their videos, memes, and gifs. In his Guardian article "Why the Internet Loves Cats – Not Dogs," journalist Jack Shepherd writes about how the internet is "one giant, virtual cat park," full of cat content that dominates the likes of YouTube and Twitter (Shepherd). He argues that cats are better than dogs because "dogs are trying too hard," while cats are “cool, and effortless, and devoid of any concern about what you might think about it" (Shepherd). That confidence, he states, is what makes those sorts of felines so entertaining to watch. Shepherd jokingly says that the amount of cat media is simply due to "the powerful cat lobby" ensuring these furry overlords remain the masters of the web (Shepherd).

Works Cited

Shepherd, Jack. “Why the Internet Loves Cats – Not Dogs.” The Guardian, 16 Mar. 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/mar/16/why-internet-loves-cats-not-dogs. Accessed 17 Oct. 2025.

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Caleb Brown: Regular physical exercise reduces risk of death  

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Caleb Brown: Regular physical exercise reduces risk of death  

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According to the World Health Organization, regular physical exercise reduces the risk of death. This specifically refers to death by "noncommunicable diseases". This risk of death can be reduced by "20 to 30 percent! (World Health Organization, 2024)

Source

World Health Organization . “Physical Activity.” World Health Organization, 2024, www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity.

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Key facts

Regular physical activity provides significant physical and mental health benefits.

In adults, physical activity contributes to prevention and management of noncommunicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer and diabetes and reduces symptoms of depression and anxiety, enhances brain health, and can improve overall well-being.

In children and adolescents, physical activity promotes bone health, encourages healthy growth and development of muscle, and improves motor and cognitive development.

31% of adults and 80% of adolescents do not meet the recommended levels of physical activity.

The global target set to reduce levels of physical inactivity in adults and adolescents is a 10% relative reduction by 2025 and 15% by 2030, from the 2010 baseline.

The global estimate of the cost of physical inactivity to public health care systems between 2020 and 2030 is about US$ 300 billion (approximately US$ 27 billion per year) if levels of physical inactivity are not reduced.

Overview

WHO defines physical activity as any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure. Physical activity refers to all movement including during leisure time, for transport to get to and from places, or as part of a person's work or domestic activities. Both moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity improve health. Popular ways to be active include walking, cycling, wheeling, sports, active recreation and play, and can be done at any level of skill and for enjoyment by everybody.

Physical activity is beneficial to health and well-being and conversely, physical inactivity increases risk for noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) and other poor health outcomes. Together, physical inactivity and sedentary behaviours are contributing to the rise in NCDs and placing a burden on healthcare systems.

Improving levels of physical activity will benefit health and well-being and contribute to attainment of global NCD targets and a number of the Sustainable Development Goals. However, this will require increased commitments and investments by Member States; innovation and contributions from non-state actors; cross sector coordination and collaboration; and ongoing guidance and monitoring from WHO.

Benefits of physical activity and risks of sedentary behaviour and inactivity

Physical inactivity is one of the leading risk factors for noncommunicable diseases mortality. People who are insufficiently active have a 20% to 30% increased risk of death compared to people who are sufficiently active. Regular physical activity is associated with:

in children and adolescents, improvedphysical fitness, cardiometabolic health, bone health, cognitive outcomes, mental health and reduced body fat;

in adults and older adults, reducedrisk of all-cause mortality, risk of cardiovascular disease mortality, incident hypertension, incident site-specific cancers, incident type-2 diabetes, and falls and improved mental health, cognitive health, sleep and measures of body fat; and

for pregnant and post-partum women, decreased risk of pre-eclampsia, gestational hypertension, gestational diabetes, excessive gestational weight gain, delivery complications, postpartum depression and newborn complications. Physical activity has no adverse effects on birthweight or increased risk of stillbirth.

Sedentary behaviour is any period of low-energy expenditure while awake such as sitting, reclining or lying. Lives are becoming increasingly sedentary through the use of motorized transport and the increased use of screens for work, education and recreation. Evidence shows higher amounts of sedentary behaviour are associated with the following poor health outcomes:

in children and adolescents, increased adiposity, poorer cardiometabolic health, fitness, and behavioural conduct/pro-social behaviour, and reduced sleep duration; and

in adults, increasedall-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease mortality and cancer mortality and incidence of cardiovascular disease, cancer and type-2 diabetes.

How much physical activity is recommended?

The WHO Global guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour provide recommendations for children (age 5 and up), adolescents, adults, older adults, pregnant and post-partum women, and people living with chronic conditions and disabilities. The recommendations detail the amount of physical activity (frequency, intensity and duration) required to offer significant health benefits and to reduce health risks. The guidelines highlight that any amount of physical activity is better than none; all physical activity counts; all age groups should limit the amount of time being sedentary; and muscle strengthening benefits everyone.

The WHO Guidelines on physical activity, sedentary behaviour and sleep for children under 5 years of age provide recommendations on the amount of time in a 24-hour day that young children, under 5 years of age, should spend being physically active or sleeping for their health and well-being, and the maximum recommended time these children should spend on screen-based sedentary activities or time restrained.

An infographic summarizes the current WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour for all age groups. WHO develops guidelines through an arduous process of reviewing scientific evidence and expert consultations. Preparations are already underway for the next guidelines, anticipated for publication in 2030.

Levels of physical inactivity globally

WHO regularly monitors trends in physical inactivity. A recent study (1) found that nearly one third (31%) of the world's adult population, 1.8 billion adults, are physically inactive. That is, they do not meet the global recommendations of at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity per week. This is an increase of 5 percentage points between 2010 and 2022. If this trend continues, the proportion of adults not meeting recommended levels of physical activity is projected to rise to 35% by 2030.

Globally, there are notable age and gender differences in levels of physical inactivity.

Women are less active than men by an average of 5 percentage points. This has not changed since 2000.

After 60 years of age physical inactivity levels increase in both men and women.

81% of adolescents (aged 11-17 years) were physically inactive (2).

Adolescent girls were less active than adolescent boys, with 85% vs. 78%, not meeting WHO guidelines.

Many different factors can determine how active people are and the overall levels of physical activity in different population groups. These factors can be related to the individual or wider social, cultural, environmental and economic determinants that influence access and opportunities to be active in safe and enjoyable ways.

How Member States can increase levels of physical activity

The WHO Global action plan on physical activity provides policy recommendations for countries and communities to promote physical activity and ensure everyone has more opportunities to be regularly active. Examples of these recommendations include policies that ensure access to walking, cycling and non-motorized transport; that increase physical activity opportunities in schools, workplaces, childcare centres and in healthcare service delivery; and that increase accessibility and availability of community sports and public open spaces.

Implementing effective policies to increase levels of physical activity requires a collective effort, coordinated across multiple government departments at all levels, including health, transport, education, employment, sport and recreation, and urban planning. It also demands national and local engagement from nongovernmental organizations, various sectors, stakeholders and disciplines to support the implementation of policies and solutions that are appropriate to a country's cultural and social environment. Priority should be given to policy actions that address disparities in levels of physical activity, promoting, enabling and encouraging physical activity for all.

WHO response

WHOsupports countries and stakeholders to implement the recommended actions by:

1. developing global policy guidance and guidelines, underpinned by latest evidence and consensus;

2. supporting countries to develop appropriate policies that promote physical activity and multisectoral collaborations;

3. conducting advocacy to raise awareness of the multiple benefits of increasing physical activity and support the development of economic analysis of the impact of increasing physical activity and return on investment of different policy interventions;

4. developing technical tools and training packages to help countries build capacity in the implementation of policy and programmes across key settings and innovations using digital platforms including through WHO Academy courses, multi-country workshops and other knowledge exchange activities;

5. convening, coordinating, and collaborating to strengthen partnerships across sectors and between policy makers, practitioners and researcher communities; and

6. undertaking global monitoring and reporting of progress on implementation of the Global action plan on physical activity, global levels of physical inactivity and progress towards a 15% relative reduction in the prevalence of physical inactivity by 2030.

WHOsupports countries and stakeholders to implement the recommended actions by developing global policy guidance and guidelines, underpinned by latest evidence and consensus, to help countries develop appropriate policies, investment cases and financing mechanisms.
References

1. Strain, T., Flaxman, S., et al. National, regional, and global trends in insufficient physical activity among adults from 2000 to 2022: a pooled analysis of 507 population-based surveys with 5·7 million participants. The Lancet Global Health (2024).

2. Guthold, R., Stevens, G., et al. Global trends in insufficient physical activity among adolescents: a pooled analysis of 298 population-based surveys with 1.6 million participants. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health Vol. 4 Iss. 1 (2019).

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WHO fact sheet on physical activity provides key facts and information on benefits, risks of inactivity, reasons for physical inactivity and how to increase physical activity, WHO response.

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Consistent low temperatures, result in detrimental toxic effects of pollution on the environment in Antarctica are widespread. Penguins are directly effected due to them being the most populated species on the continent (Puasa, et al.).

Citation: Puasa, Nurul Aini et al. “Effects of Diesel, Heavy Metals and Plastics Pollution on Penguins in Antarctica: A Review.” Animals : an open access journal from MDPI vol. 11,9 2505. 26 Aug. 2021, doi:10.3390/ani11092505

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Effects of Diesel, Heavy Metals and Plastics Pollution on Penguins in Antarctica: A Review

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Antarctica is contaminated by anthropogenic pollution. Due to the persistent low temperatures, the toxic impacts of pollution to the environment can be extensive. The severity of the effects varies according to the animal species, chemical type and…

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The Supreme Court rules that the 1st amendment DOES NOT in fact apply to private corporations as it does when an individual interacts with governmental institutions. https://www.scotusblog.com/2019/06/opinion-analysis-court-holds-that-first-amendment-does-not-apply-to-private-operator-of-public-access-channels/

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Opinion analysis: Court holds that First Amendment does not apply to private operator of public-access channels

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The First Amendment bars the government from restricting freedom of speech, but it does not generally apply to private actors, like corporations. However, private actors can be held liable for […]

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The Effect of Social Media on Mental Health

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The Effect of Social Media on Mental Health

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Social media platforms have become an crucial tool in individuals with mental illnesses to connect with others, share experiences, and access support that might be unavailable elsewhere. However, researchers caution that while these platforms can enhance mental health care, they also present potential risks that must be carefully managed (Naslund, et al., 2020).

Citation:

Naslund, J. A., Bondre, A., Torous, J., & Aschbrenner, K. A. (2020). Social media and mental health: benefits, risks, and opportunities for research and practice. Journal of technology in Behavioral Science, 5(3), 245-257, https://doi.org/10.1007/s41347-020-00134-x

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Movies has always been deemed as a media that is merely entertainment and distant from academic, athletic, etc. However there's an argument to be made hat movies have been made into its own therapuetic remedy that has shown signs of interpersonal improvment on mental health and self image. "[Cinematherapy] is used as a treatment for mental health struggles, as a means of encouraging reflection or (for example) boosting empathy. If you have ever felt that sense that anything is possible after watching a movie, you know that movies can be powerful vehicles for inspiration" (Banner).

“Can Movies Help You Become a Better Person?” Can Movies Help You Become a Better Person?, greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/can_movies_help_you_become_a_better_person. Accessed 19 Oct. 2025.

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Growing healthcare costs in the United States are a major cause of concern and hardship for many Americans. It is an especially troubling issue when comparing prices and outcomes to other first world countries who seem to beat us in both categories despite having smaller economies and spending less per capita on healthcare. This report does a cost breakdown analysis where the costs of American healthcare are going. In one cost analysis report the Commonwealth Fund found that administrative costs accounted for 39% of the cost difference between American and Canadian healthcare.(Turner et al.)

Work Cited

Turner, Ani, et al. “High U.S Healthcare Spending: Where is it all going?” The Commonwealth Fund, 2023. Commonwealth Fund, https://www.commonwealthfund.org/publications/issue-briefs/2023/oct/high-us-health-care-spending-where-is-it-all-going.

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Natalie Thomson academic citing practice 

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Natalie Thomson academic citing practice 

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I searched reports on critical thinking chose this one.

Critical thinking requires the ability to analyze arguments and identify logical fallacies (Facione, 2015)

Facione, P A(2015)Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction. The California Academic Press.

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When it comes to genetic diseases such as pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma, there is met challenges for tumor shrinking. According to an article published to the New England Journal of Medicine, "Belzutifan is a HIF-2α inhibitor that may provide antitumor activity in patients with advanced pheochromocytoma or paraganglioma." (Section: Background from article Belzutifan for Advanced Pheochromocytoma or Paraganglioma) These neoplasms cause tumors throughout the body and have a common factor of a lack of or dysregulation of hypoxia-induced factor 2α. This experimemt tests a treatment and the study proved positive outcomes and how Belzutifan can treat the tumors.

Works Cited:

The New England Journal of Medicine | Research & Review Articles ... (n.d.-a). https://www.nejm.org/doi/abs/10.1056/NEJMoa1406192

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People tend to say misinformation when referring to information that is false and attempting to mislead those being informed; this is actually disinformation. Misinformation is information that isn't true, and disinformation is misinformation with the intent to deceive the informed (APA, 2025).

Works Cited

American Psychological Association. (2025). Misinformation and Disinformation. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/topics/journalism-facts/misinformation-disinformation

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Misinformation is false or inaccurate information—getting the facts wrong. Disinformation is false information which is deliberately intended to mislead—intentionally making the misstating facts.

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Daniella Hart

For as long as we can remember they has been solar rains, but we have never figured out how and why it happens until now.

"It rains on the sun, and thanks to researchers at the University of Hawaiʻi Institute for Astronomy (IfA), we finally know why." (University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2025)

Manoa, University of Hawaii at. “Solar Rain Mystery Solved by Researchers.” Phys.Org, 1 Oct. 2025, phys.org/news/2025-10-solar-mystery.html.

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CRISPR is an exciting technology that offers great promises. The technology can be used in gene therapy to repair defective genes or in cell therapy to help the body regenerate healthy cells (Prillaman).

Works Cited

Prillaman, McKenzie. “What Is CRISPR? A Bioengineer Explains.” Stanford Report, 10 June 2024,

news.stanford.edu/stories/2024/06/stanford-explainer-crispr-gene-editing-and-beyond#big-deal. Accessed 18 October. 2025.

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The gene-editing technology solves long-standing challenges in engineering, medicine, and environmental science.

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According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the national unemployment rate remained steady at 4.3% in August 2025, with the number of unemployed individuals holding at 7.4 million https://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/empsit.pdf?utm_source=.

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In the state of New Hampshire, there are 418 species of birds. Some of these can be found all year round, such as American Crows, Mourning Doves, and Red-bellied Woodpeckers, while others, like Cedar Waxwings, American Robins, and Purple Finches, migrate and are only seen in the summer.

Walker, Kathy. “35 Backyard Birds in New Hampshire.” Birdwatching Central, 26 Sept. 2022, www.birdwatchingcentral.com/birds-in-new-hampshire/. Accessed 9 Mar. 2026.

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Time management is important for students

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Time management is important for students

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Students must learn the skill of balancing their time and tasks. Time management is a crucial skill that involves the efficient and effective allocation of one's available time to accomplish tasks and achieve goals. (Zoloth) Procrastinating tasks or work may seem harmless in the moment, but as these tasks build, the more stress it will load onto the student, thus making it feel more stressful as they attempt to tackle the work. Many students will see the heap of work needing to be done and get so overwhelmed that they don't do the work. Learning how to manage time can create a less stressful environment surrounding class work, and will teach students how to have a balanced life in the future.

Zoloth, Sarah. “What Is Time Management and Why Is It Important?: NSHSS: National Society of High School Scholars.” NSHSS, 2 Dec. 2023, www.nshss.org/resources/blog/blog-posts/time-management-what-is-it-and-why-is-it-important/.

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Medication used to treat Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder is highly debatable. Normally, it's treated with stimulants. According to the CDC, 1 in 3 adults who have ADHD are on a stimulant medication ("Facts About ADHD"). Stimulants appear to improve focus in certain areas and are widely accepted as the best treatment option.

Works Cited

“Facts about ADHD in Adults.” CDC, U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 11 Oct. 2024, www.cdc.gov/adhd/php/adults/index.html. Accessed 10 Mar. 2026.

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Research shows that lack of sleep significantly affects college student's academic performance. According to the American Academy of Sleep Medicine, students who get fewer than seven hours of sleep per night have lower GPAs and higher levels of daytime sleepiness (American Academy of Sleep Medicine). Prioritizing consistent sleep schedules can improve focus, memory, and overall academic success.

American Academy of Sleep Medicine. “College Students: Getting Enough Sleep Is Vital to Academic Success.” AASM, 2024, Importance of Sleep & Effects of Sleep Deprivation on College Students

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Importance of Sleep & Effects of Sleep Deprivation on College Students

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Learn more about the effects of sleep deprivation on college students. The best way to maximize performance on exams is to study and get a good night’s rest.

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Nasa's mission to explore the planet mars may have found conclusive evidence that the red planet once held life. According to NASA "A sample collected by NASA’s Perseverance Mars rover from an ancient dry riverbed in Jezero Crater could preserve evidence of ancient microbial life." (Taveau, 2025)

Reference

Taveau, J. (2025, Sept 10). NASA Says Mars Rover Discovered Potential Biosignature Last Year. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-says-mars-rover-discovered-potential-biosignature-last-year/

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A sample collected by NASA's Perseverance Mars rover from an ancient dry riverbed in Jezero Crater could preserve evidence of ancient microbial life. Taken from a rock named "Cheyava Falls" last year, the sample, called "Sapphire Canyon," contains potential biosignatures, according to a paper published Wednesday in the journal Nature.

A potential biosignature is a substance or structure that might have a biological origin but requires more data or further study before a conclusion can be reached about the absence or presence of life.

"This finding by Perseverance, launched under President Trump in his first term, is the closest we have ever come to discovering life on Mars. The identification of a potential biosignature on the Red Planet is a groundbreaking discovery, and one that will advance our understanding of Mars," said acting NASA Administrator Sean Duffy. "NASA's commitment to conducting Gold Standard Science will continue as we pursue our goal of putting American boots on Mars' rocky soil."

Perseverance came upon Cheyava Falls in July 2024 while exploring the "Bright Angel" formation, a set of rocky outcrops on the northern and southern edges of Neretva Vallis, an ancient river valley measuring a quarter-mile (400 meters) wide that was carved by water rushing into Jezero Crater long ago.

"This finding is the direct result of NASA's effort to strategically plan, develop, and execute a mission able to deliver exactly this type of science - the identification of a potential biosignature on Mars," said Nicky Fox, associate administrator, Science Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters in Washington. "With the publication of this peer-reviewed result, NASA makes this data available to the wider science community for further study to confirm or refute its biological potential."

The rover's science instruments found that the formation's sedimentary rocks are composed of clay and silt, which, on Earth, are excellent preservers of past microbial life. They also are rich in organic carbon, sulfur, oxidized iron (rust), and phosphorous.

"The combination of chemical compounds we found in the Bright Angel formation could have been a rich source of energy for microbial metabolisms," said Perseverance scientist Joel Hurowitz of Stony Brook University, New York and lead author of the paper. "But just because we saw all these compelling chemical signatures in the data didn't mean we had a potential biosignature. We needed to analyze what that data could mean."

First to collect data on this rock were Perseverance's PIXL (Planetary Instrument for X-ray Lithochemistry) and SHERLOC (Scanning Habitable Environments with Raman & Luminescence for Organics & Chemicals) instruments. While investigating Cheyava Falls, an arrowhead-shaped rock measuring 3.2 feet by 2 feet (1 meter by 0.6 meters), they found what appeared to be colorful spots. The spots on the rock could have been left behind by microbial life if it had used the raw ingredients, the organic carbon, sulfur, and phosphorus, in the rock as an energy source.

In higher-resolution images, the instruments found a distinct pattern of minerals arranged into reaction fronts (points of contact where chemical and physical reactions occur) the team called leopard spots. The spots carried the signature of two iron-rich minerals: vivianite (hydrated iron phosphate) and greigite (iron sulfide). Vivianite is frequently found on Earth in sediments, peat bogs, and around decaying organic matter. Similarly, certain forms of microbial life on Earth can produce greigite.

The combination of these minerals, which appear to have formed by electron-transfer reactions between the sediment and organic matter, is a potential fingerprint for microbial life, which would use these reactions to produce energy for growth. The minerals also can be generated abiotically, or without the presence of life. Hence, there are ways to produce them without biological reactions, including sustained high temperatures, acidic conditions, and binding by organic compounds. However, the rocks at Bright Angel do not show evidence that they experienced high temperatures or acidic conditions, and it is unknown whether the organic compounds present would've been capable of catalyzing the reaction at low temperatures.

The discovery was particularly surprising because it involves some of the youngest sedimentary rocks the mission has investigated. An earlier hypothesis assumed signs of ancient life would be confined to older rock formations. This finding suggests that Mars could have been habitable for a longer period or later in the planet's history than previously thought, and that older rocks also might hold signs of life that are simply harder to detect.

"Astrobiological claims, particularly those related to the potential discovery of past extraterrestrial life, require extraordinary evidence," said Katie Stack Morgan, Perseverance's project scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California. "Getting such a significant finding as a potential biosignature on Mars into a peer-reviewed publication is a crucial step in the scientific process because it ensures the rigor, validity, and significance of our results. And while abiotic explanations for what we see at Bright Angel are less likely given the paper's findings, we cannot rule them out."

The scientific community uses tools and frameworks like the CoLD scale and Standards of Evidence to assess whether data related to the search for life actually answers the question, Are we alone? Such tools help improve understanding of how much confidence to place in data suggesting a possible signal of life found outside our own planet.

Sapphire Canyon is one of 27 rock cores the rover has collected since landing at Jezero Crater in February 2021. Among the suite of science instruments is a weather station that provides environmental information for future human missions, as well as swatches of spacesuit material so that NASA can study how it fares on Mars.

Managed for NASA by Caltech, NASA JPL built and manages operations of the Perseverance rover on behalf of the agency's Science Mission Directorate as part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program portfolio.

To learn more about Perseverance visit:
https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-2020-perseverance
-end-

Bethany Stevens / Karen Fox
Headquarters, Washington
202-358-1600
bethany.c.stevens@nasa.gov / karen.c.fox@nasa.gov

DC Agle
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.
818-393-9011
agle@jpl.nasa.gov

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NASA Says Mars Rover Discovered Potential Biosignature Last Year - NASA

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A sample collected by NASA's Perseverance Mars rover from an ancient dry riverbed in Jezero Crater could preserve evidence of ancient microbial life. Taken

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Gas prices are continuing to rise with talks of international conflict. Gas prices are currently at $3.45 per gallon, "That's compared to an average of $3.06 one week before and $2.84 one month ago." (Wilson 2026)

Citation: Wilson, Maria, and The Associated Press. “Gas Prices Continue to Rise in New Hampshire amid Conflict in Middle East.” WMUR, WMUR, 12 Mar. 2026, www.wmur.com/article/gas-oil-middle-east-iran-aaa-new-hampshire/70720509.

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According to Canogullari (2025), constant consumption of negative content on social media can lead to symptoms of distress, anxiety, and depression in adolescents.

Özge Canogullari. (2025). The Effect of Social Media Addiction on Psychological Stress: The Indirect Role of Doomscrolling. Journal of Theoretical Educational Sciences, 18(3), 491–508.

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By: Angelica Swenson

Many individuals across America have received a diagnosis of a mental health disorder. According to the National Institute of Mental Health, “more than one in five U.S. adults live with a mental illness each year” (Mental Illness).

Work Cited:

National Institute of Mental Health. Mental Illness. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/mental-illness

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National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)

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Mental illnesses are common in the United States. It is estimated that more than one in five U.S. adults live with a mental illness (57.8 million in 2021). Mental illnesses include many different conditions that vary in degree of severity, ranging from mild to moderate to severe. Two broad categories can be used to describe these conditions: Any Mental Illness (AMI) and Serious Mental Illness (SMI). AMI encompasses all recognized mental illnesses. SMI is a smaller and more severe subset of AMI. Additional information on mental illnesses can be found on the NIMH Health Topics Pages.

Definitions

The data presented here are from the 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). For inclusion in NSDUH prevalence estimates, mental illnesses include those that are diagnosable currently or within the past year; of sufficient duration to meet diagnostic criteria specified within the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV); and, exclude developmental and substance use disorders.

Any Mental Illness

Any mental illness (AMI) is defined as a mental, behavioral, or emotional disorder. AMI can vary in impact, ranging from no impairment to mild, moderate, and even severe impairment (e.g., individuals with serious mental illness as defined below).

Serious Mental Illness

Serious mental illness (SMI) is defined as a mental, behavioral, or emotional disorder resulting in serious functional impairment, which substantially interferes with or limits one or more major life activities. The burden of mental illnesses is particularly concentrated among those who experience disability due to SMI.

Prevalence of Any Mental Illness (AMI)

Figure 1 shows the past year prevalence of AMI among U.S. adults.

In 2021, there were an estimated 57.8 million adults aged 18 or older in the United States with AMI. This number represented 22.8% of all U.S. adults.

The prevalence of AMI was higher among females (27.2%) than males (18.1%).

Young adults aged 18-25 years had the highest prevalence of AMI (33.7%) compared to adults aged 26-49 years (28.1%) and aged 50 and older (15.0%).

The prevalence of AMI was highest among the adults reporting two or more races (34.9%), followed by American Indian / Alaskan Native (AI/AN) adults (26.6%). The prevalence of AMI was lowest among Asian adults (16.4%).

Figure 1

*Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race; all other racial/ethnic groups are non-Hispanic. NH/OPI = Native Hawaiian / Other Pacific Islander | AI/AN = American Indian / Alaskan Native

Mental Health Services - AMI

Figure 2 presents data on mental health services (including virtual services) received within the past year by U.S. adults aged 18 or older with any mental illness (AMI). NSDUH defines mental health services as having received inpatient treatment/counseling or outpatient treatment/counseling, or having used prescription medication for problems with emotions, nerves, or mental health.

In 2021, among the 57.8 million adults with AMI, 26.5 million (47.2%) received mental health services in the past year.

More females with AMI (51.7%) received mental health services than males with AMI (40.0%).

The percentage of young adults aged 18-25 years with AMI who received mental health services (44.6%) was lower than adults with AMI aged 26-49 years (48.1%) and aged 50 and older (47.4%).

Figure 2

*Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race; all other racial/ethnic groups are non-Hispanic. Note: Estimates for Native Hawaiian / Other Pacific Islander and, American Indian / Alaskan Native groups are not reported in the above figure due to low precision of data collection in 2021.

Prevalence of Serious Mental Illness (SMI)

Figure 3 shows the past year prevalence of SMI among U.S. adults.

In 2021, there were an estimated 14.1 million adults aged 18 or older in the United States with SMI. This number represented 5.5% of all U.S. adults.

The prevalence of SMI was higher among females (7.0%) than males (4.0%).

Young adults aged 18-25 years had the highest prevalence of SMI (11.4%) compared to adults aged 26-49 years (7.1%) and aged 50 and older (2.5%).

The prevalence of SMI was highest among AI/AN adults (9.3%), followed by adults reporting two or more races (8.2%). The prevalence of SMI was lowest among Asian adults (2.8%).

Figure 3

* Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race; all other racial/ethnic groups are non-Hispanic. NH/OPI = Native Hawaiian / Other Pacific Islander | AI/AN = American Indian / Alaskan Native.

Mental Health Services - SMI

Figure 4 presents data on mental health services received within the past year by U.S. adults 18 or older with serious mental illness (SMI). The NSDUH defines mental health services as having received inpatient treatment/counseling or outpatient treatment/counseling or having used prescription medication for problems with emotions, nerves, or mental health.

In 2021, among the 14.1 million adults with SMI, 9.1 million (65.4%) received mental health treatment in the past year.

More females with SMI (67.6%) received mental health treatment than males with SMI (61.3%).

The percentage of young adults aged 18-25 years with SMI who received mental health treatment (57.9%) was lower than adults with SMI aged 26-49 years (67.0%) and aged 50 and older (71.0%).

Figure 4

*Persons of Hispanic origin may be of any race; all other racial/ethnic groups are non-Hispanic. Note: Estimates for Asian, Native Hawaiian / Other Pacific Islander, and American Indian / Alaskan Native groups are not reported in the above figure due to low precision.

Prevalence of Any Mental Disorder Among Adolescents

Based on diagnostic interview data from National Comorbidity Survey Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A), Figure 5 shows lifetime prevalence of any mental disorder among U.S. adolescents aged 13-18.¹

An estimated 49.5% of adolescents had any mental disorder.

Of adolescents with any mental disorder, an estimated 22.2% had severe impairment and/or distress. DSM-IV based criteria were used to determine severity level.

Figure 5

Data Sources

1. Merikangas KR, He JP, Burstein M, Swanson SA, Avenevoli S, Cui L, Benjet C, Georgiades K, Swendsen J. Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication--Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010 Oct;49(10):980-9. PMID: 20855043

2. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2022). Key substance use and mental health indicators in the United States: Results from the 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (HHS Publication No. PEP22-07-01-005, NSDUH Series H-57). Rockville, MD: Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Retrieved from https://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/2021-nsduh-annual-national-report .

Statistical Methods and Measurement Caveats

National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH)

Diagnostic Assessment:

The NSDUH AMI and SMI estimates were generated from a prediction model created from clinical interview data collected on a subset of adult NSDUH respondents who completed an adapted (past 12 month) version of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I Disorders (Research Version, Non-patient Edition) (SCID-I/NP; First, Spitzer, Gibbon, & Williams, 2002), and was differentiated by level of functional impairment based on the Global Assessment of Functioning Scale (GAF; Endicott, Spitzer, Fleiss, & Cohen, 1976).

The assessment included diagnostic modules assessing the following: mood, anxiety, eating, impulse control, substance use, adjustment disorders, and a psychotic symptoms screen.

The assessment did not contain diagnostic modules assessing the following: adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorders, schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders (although the assessment included a psychotic symptom screen).

People who only have disorders that are not included in these diagnostic modules may not be adequately detected. However, there are known patterns of high comorbidities among mental disorders; these patterns increase the likelihood that people who meet AMI and/or SMI criteria were detected by the study, as they may also have one or more of the disorders assessed in the SCID-I/NP.

Population:

The entirety of NSDUH respondents for the AMI and SMI estimates were the civilian, non-institutionalized population aged 18 years old or older residing within the United States.

The survey covered residents of households (persons living in houses/townhouses, apartments, condominiums; civilians living in housing on military bases, etc.) and persons in non-institutional group quarters (e.g., shelters, rooming/boarding houses, college dormitories, migratory workers' camps, and halfway houses).

The survey did not cover persons who, for the entire year, had no fixed address (e.g., homeless and/or transient persons not in shelters); were on active military duty; or who resided in institutional group quarters (e.g., correctional facilities, nursing homes, mental institutions, long-term hospitals).

Some people in these excluded categories had AMI and/or SMI, but were not accounted for in the NSDUH AMI and/or SMI estimates.

Data regarding sex of the respondent was assessed using male and female categories only. Gender identity information was not collected in the survey.

Survey Non-response:

In 2021, 53.0% of the selected NSDUH sample of people 18 or older did not complete the interview. This rate of non-response is higher than in previous years. Please see the Background on the 2021 NSDUH and the COVID-19 Pandemic section below for more information.

Reasons for non-response to interviewing include the following: refusal to participate (30.1%); respondent unavailable or never at home (18.8%); and other reasons such as physical/mental incompetence or language barriers (4.2%).

People with mental illness may disproportionately fall into these non-response categories. While NSDUH weighting includes non-response adjustments to reduce bias, these adjustments may not fully account for differential non-response by mental illness status.

Data Suppression:

For some groups, data are not reported due to low precision. Data may be suppressed in the above charts if the data do not meet acceptable ranges for prevalence estimates, standard error estimates, and sample size.

Background on the 2021 NSDUH and the COVID-19 Pandemic:

Data collection methods for the 2021 NSDUH changed in several ways because of the COVID-19 pandemic: the 2021 NSDUH continued the use of multimode data collection procedures (both in-person and virtual data collection) that were first implemented in the fourth quarter of the 2020 NSDUH. Overall, 54.6% of interviews were completed via the web, and 45.4% were completed in person. In 2021, the weighted response rates for household screening and for interviewing were 22.2% and 46.2%, respectively, for an overall response rate of 10.3% for people aged 12 or older.

Given the use of multimode data collection procedures throughout the entirety of the collection year and the rate of non-response, comparison of estimates from the 2021 NSDUH with those from prior years must be made with caution.

Please see the 2021 National Survey on Drug Use and Health Methodological Summary and Definitions report for further information on how these data were collected and calculated.

National Comorbidity Survey Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A)

Diagnostic Assessment and Population:

The NCS-A was carried out under a cooperative agreement sponsored by NIMH to meet a request from Congress to provide national data on the prevalence and correlates of mental disorders among U.S. youth. The NCS-A was a nationally representative, face-to-face survey of 10,123 adolescents aged 13 to 18 years in the continental United States. The survey was based on a dual-frame design that included 904 adolescent residents of the households that participated in the adult U.S. National Comorbidity Survey Replication and 9,244 adolescent students selected from a nationally representative sample of 320 schools. The survey was fielded between February 2001 and January 2004. DSM-IV mental disorders were assessed using a modified version of the fully structured World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview.

Survey Non-response:

The overall adolescent non-response rate was 24.4%. This is made up of non-response rates of 14.1% in the household sample, 18.2% in the un-blinded school sample, and 77.7% in the blinded school sample. Non-response was largely due to refusal (21.3%), which in the household and un-blinded school samples came largely from parents rather than adolescents (72.3% and 81.0%, respectively). The refusals in the blinded school sample, in comparison, came almost entirely (98.1%) from parents failing to return the signed consent postcard.

For more information, see PMID: 19507169 and the NIMH NCS-A study page.

Last Updated: March 2023

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An overview of statistics for mental illnesses. Mental illnesses are common in the United States. One in six U.S. adults lives with a mental illness (43.4 million in 2015). Mental illnesses include many different conditions that vary in degree of severity, ranging from mild to moderate to severe.

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By: Angelica Swenson

There are many clothing brands that are affordable while also being stylish. According to Penner the best budget-friendly clothing brand is Quince, as she states “it makes luxury quality minimalist staples, that offers  high-quality materials at a surprisingly affordable price”. (Penner)

Work Cited:

Penner, Elle. 30 Best Minimalist Clothing Brands for Every Budget. 14 Jan. 2026. https://modernminimalism.com/minimalist-clothing-brands/

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30 Best Minimalist Clothing Brands for Every Budget in 2026

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Upgrade your wardrobe this year with the best minimalist clothing brands offering timeless, high-quality, sustainable, and affordable pieces.

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Hildegard von Bingen was an Early music composer. She wrote Sacred music from the church that was considered controversial at the time. This website is devoted to her and her works and is considered a scholarly source.

“Welcome to the ISHBS.” International Society of Hildegard von Bingen Studies, www.hildegard-society.org/p/home.html. Accessed 10 Mar. 2026.

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Be sure also to visit our vibrant Facebook Group page at: https://www.facebook.com/groups/hildegardsociety/

New Resources

BOOK REVIEW (Sept. 2019): Sara Salvadori, Hildegard von Bingen: A Journey into the Images (Skira, 2019)

Music:
On-going publication of our online edition of Hildegard's musical corpus, the Symphonia. Recently added (July-August 2019):

62. Favus distillans (Responsory for St. Ursula and Companions)

63. Antiphons for the Lauds Office for St. Ursula and Companions:

Liber Divinorum Operum:
English translation of the chapter summaries (capitula) to Hildegard's Liber Divinorum Operum ("Book of Divine Works"), together with a gallery of the ten famous Lucca illustrations to that work. (May 2016)

About the ISHBS

Founded in 1983 by Professor Bruce Hozeski of Ball State University, The Interntational Society of Hldegard von Bingen Studies is comprised of scholars and enthusiasts interested in the promotion of the twelfth-century magistra, visionary, theologian, composer, healer, artist, leader of women, Saint and Doctor of the Church.

The purpose of the society is to promote study, criticism, research, and exchange of ideas related to all aspects of Hildegard von Bingen's work. Methods of achieving this purpose include but are not limited to: scholarly exchanges via open peer review, inter-institutional cooperation, annual meetings, participation in conferences, the publication of a newsletter, and the endorsement of other publications relating to Hildegard von Bingen studies. In particular, the Society is working to make high-quality resources for the study and appreciation of Hildegard available electronically here on its website, including a brand-new edition of the collection of her musical compositions, the Symphonia.

Qualelibet is the Society's bi-annual newsletter, which features articles touching on all aspects of Hildegard's life & reception - from in-depth scholarly source studies to modern-day reception history and concert reviews. As the ISHBS is an inclusive organization intended to promote dialogue among scholars and enthusiasts, Qualelibet welcomes studies from all perspectives and methodologies as we explore the life and works of Hildegard and related subjects.

Interested? Check out our Frequently Asked Questions about Hildegard to get started. Feel free to poke around and join the conversation! There is something for everyone, whether peer-reviewed scholar or casual enthusiast.

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Be sure also to visit our vibrant Facebook Group page at: https://www.facebook.com/groups/hildegardsociety/ BOOK REVIEW (Sept. 2019): Sara Salvadori, Hildegard von Bingen: A Journey into the Images (Skira, 2019) Music: On-going publication of our online edition of Hildegard's musical corpus, the Symphonia. Recently added (July-August 2019): 62. Favus distillans (Responsory for St.

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Insufficient sleep duration in early adolescents

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Insufficient sleep duration in early adolescents

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Research indicates that school related stress, especially in academic performance, is a primary factor in the development of insomnia and lack of sleep in early adolescents.

Trajectories of Insomnia Symptoms and Insufficient Sleep Duration in Early Adolescents: Associations with School Stress, 2022, www.proquest.com/docview/3191362143/A2E8C77109D84750PQ/1?sourcetype=Scholarly%20Journals.

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For 116 years France and England fought over disputed territory. this war was ultimately won by France, but influenced England in their effort of improving their maritime army and halting their attempts at continental land. This war was The Hundred Years' War (Nelson).

“The Hundred Years’ War, 1336-1453 | Lectures in Medieval History | Dr. Lynn H. Nelson, Emeritus Professor, Medieval History, KU.” Www.vlib.us, www.vlib.us/medieval/lectures/hundred_years_war.html.

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I absolutely love drawing mandalas because they are more than just art; they are a way to find peace. According to the website Art is Fun, creating these designs is a form of "spiritual enrichment" that allows you to "distil your thoughts and feelings" through the use of color and symbols (Smith, 2023). It is the perfect way to relax and let your creativity flow after a stressful day.

Smith, T. (2023, December 1). How to draw a mandala: Learn how to draw mandalas for spiritual enrichment and creative enjoyment. Art is Fun. https://www.art-is-fun.com/how-to-draw-a-mandala

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(By Daniel Wrona)

What is a common treatment for radicular back pain?

The most common treatment for radicular back pain is Epidural Steroid Injection(s) or ESI for short. According to the Cleveland Clinic "back pain is the fifth most common reason people seek medical care, and approximately 9% to 25% of people describe having low back pain with leg pain". (Lumbar Epidural Steroid Injections, my.clevelandclinic.org)

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Lumbar Epidural Steroid Injections: What It Is, Benefits, Risks & Side Effects

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A lumbar epidural steroid injection puts anti-inflammatory medicine in the epidural space around the spinal nerves in your low back to manage pain.

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Dementia is also just a term to cover mental decline. But there are many different types of dementia like for example Alzheimer's disease . In the United States it has been recorded that 5 million of over 65 year olds are estimated to already have dementia.

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Numbers of people with dementia

Someone in the world develops dementia every 3 seconds. There are over 55 million people worldwide living with dementia in 2020. This number will almost double every 20 years, reaching 78 million in 2030 and 139 million in 2050. Much of the increase will be in developing countries. Already 60% of people with dementia live in low and middle income countries, but by 2050 this will rise to 71%. The fastest growth in the elderly population is taking place in China, India, and their south Asian and western Pacific neighbours.
Click here to download the infographics
Demographic ageing is a worldwide process that shows the successes of improved health care over the last century. Many are now living longer and healthier lives and so the world population has a greater proportion of older people. Dementia mainly affects older people, although there is a growing awareness of cases that start before the age of 65.

There are over 10 million new cases of dementia each year worldwide, implying one new case every 3.2 seconds.

The World Alzheimer Report 2015 updates ADI's global estimates of the prevalence, incidence and costs of dementia based on systematic reviews. The report makes key recommendations to provide a global framework for action on dementia. The report also includes a review of the evidence for and against recent trends in the prevalence and incidence of dementia over time, as well as an analysis of the broader societal impact of dementia. The numbers in the report were updated in 2017 with recent global population estimates and the inclusion of new studies. Subsequently, in 2020, the World Health Organisation (WHO) released the Global Status Report on the public health response to dementia where these figures were further updated.

Economic impact of dementia

The total estimated worldwide cost of dementia was US$ 818 billion in 2015, which represented 1.09% of global GDP at that time. The annual global cost of dementia is now above US$ 1.3 trillion and is expected to rise to US$ 2.8 trillion by 2030

This figure includes costs attributed to informal care (unpaid care provided by family and others), direct costs of social care (provided by community care professionals, and in residential home settings) and the direct costs of medical care (the costs of treating dementia and other conditions in primary and secondary care).

Direct medical care costs account for roughly 20% of global dementia costs, while direct social sector costs and informal care costs each account for roughly 40%. The relative contribution of informal care is greatest in the African regions and lowest in North America, Western Europe and some South American regions, while the reverse is true for social sector costs.

This means that if global dementia care were a country, it would be the 14th largest economy in the world. More information is available in our World Alzheimer Report 2015.

Diagnosis

Research shows that most people currently living with dementia have not received a formal diagnosis. In high income countries, only 20-50% of dementia cases are recognised and documented in primary care. This 'treatment gap' is certainly much greater in low and middle income countries, with one study in India suggesting 90% remain undiagnosed. If these statistics are extrapolated to other countries worldwide, it suggests that approximately three quarters of people with dementia have not received a diagnosis, and therefore do not have access to treatment, care and organised support that getting a formal diagnosis can provide.

The World Alzheimer Report 2011 shows that earlier diagnosis and early intervention are important mechanisms by which the treatment gap can be closed.

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How many people have dementia worldwide? Are the numbers increasing? What is the cost of dementia care?

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Climate change is changing the Planet's rotation 

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Climate change is changing the Planet's rotation 

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Climate change is now affecting the Earths rotation. As the planet gets warmer, polar ice melts and redistributes large amounts of water across the oceans, which disturbs and distributes Earths mass and changing and slowing its rotation, causing the earth to increase the length of a day by tiny amounts over time (Nunn).

Nunn, Avery Schuyler. “Global Warming Is Slowing the Earth’s Rotation.” Scientific American, 27 Mar. 2024, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/earths-days-are-getting-longer-climate-change-is-to-blame/.

(Isabel Valenzuela)

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The environmental benefit of nuclear power is not something to be overstated. After all, nuclear energy is the most potent source of power on earth, according to the International Atomic Energy Agency “It takes the amount of uranium fuel the size of a chicken’s egg to equal the amount of energy produced by 88 Tonnes of coal”(Grossi Infographics: Nuclear Energy Compared)

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Nuclear energy compared to coal and other fossil fuels. How nuclear energy complements renewables also explained.

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Example of paraphrasing 2nd paragraph in article;

The concept of personality traits does not define who you are, despite what that ticcy tok ad will have you think. It's more akin to syntax in language. It helps us communicate the vast differences from human to human, while being on the same page. (Peterson et al., 2007)

Peterson, J. B., Deyoung, C. G., & Quilty, L. C. (2007, November). Between facets and domains: 10 aspects of the big five. Research Gate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5863998_Between_Facets_and_Domains_10_Aspects_of_the_Big_Five

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Michael Shanahan

I have been taking the amino acid L-Glutamine for many years as part of my post-workout routine. Glutamine is necessary to maintain muscle protein, which is why it's a popular sports supplement. There are many claims about its ability to speed muscle recovery and improve athletic performance. Some study results show that it reduces muscle fatigue and improves exercise recovery, but this has not been shown to translate into better athletic performance (McMillen).

Citation:

McMillen, Matt. "Health Benefits of Glutamine." 25 October 2024. WebMD Health & Diet Guide. Web. 15 March 2026. <https://www.webmd.com/diet/health-benefits-glutamine>.

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American Public University justifies that use of social media can led or is the fertile ground of cyberbullying, which happens “When someone repeatedly and intentionally harasses, mistreats, or makes fun of another person online or while using cell phones or other electronic devices.” (American Public University, n.d.).

Ashar, L. C. (2024, May 2). Social media impact: How social media sites affect society. American Public University. https://www.apu.apus.edu/area-of-study/business-and-management/resources/how-social-media-sites-affect-society/

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By Linda C. Ashar, J.D. | 05/02/2024

Once upon a time, social exchanges involved conversation around the kitchen table, on the front porch, over the back fence, and on the telephone's party line. Western Union was the original Twitter. Mail was sent by letter that went through the postal system, and news was published in print media.

The advent of radio and television sped things up. Later, the internet came, connecting people on the World Wide Web, and everything changed again.

What Is Social Media?

Social media now refers to web-based applications that promote the creation and exchange of user-generated content. Social media's range is global, with its scope of topic and type of user virtually unlimited. Social media includes internet sites such as Meta's Facebook® and Instagram®, X® (formerly Twitter), YouTube®, Yelp®, and countless blogs.

Social media has become a vast, informal network of online venues - public and private, paid subscription and free, large and small. It can be used for a variety of purposes, such as:

Family celebrations

Political campaigns

Charitable promotions

Health support groups

Sports clubs

Prayer circles

Hobbies and occupations

Fundraisers

Information sources

Social media wields cultural influence on fashion and food trends, family and adolescent health issues, world news and local events, political and community action events. Social media has spawned a new type of marketing through the use of a unique, virtual public personality: the social influencer.

Social media has become a complex phenomenon because it is much more than individuals exchanging words. Social media sites - the venues where communications happen - are controlled by their platform owners.

Conglomerates like Meta have come under fire with allegations of exerting censorship on the one hand and insufficient control of content on the other. In the U.S., these problems are considered under the First Amendment. Other countries' laws might differ.

According to a 2023 Surfshark article, people in China, Iran, and Turkmenistan have been denied access to Facebook, YouTube, and X for 14 years. YouTube has been blocked in Eritrea for almost 14 years, and most major social media sites have been barred in North Korea for up to 8 years.

As Surfshark notes, that means multiple generations of 1.6 billion people are cut off from social media. Those people are confined to a cloistered, narrow world, where they have limited access to each other, as well as to other nations' people and events. These nations' blocking of social media access to their populations is tacit testimony to the power of social media at the grassroots level of society.

Social media has clarified one aspect of human behavior that is above dispute. People enjoy:

Talking with like-minded people

Railing at each other

Sharing life's joys, interests, and grief

Spending time with each other

Watching each other

Technology has enabled the social media revolution. But from the beginning, its success has been driven by this human need this human need to communicate.

The History of Social Media

Humanity is a social species by nature. When the internet entered daily life around 1983, worldwide connections became an instant possibility.

Talking to the next-door neighbor became anyone on the planet, and the backyard fence was traded for a computer monitor. Whether for private purposes or business, communication is what humans do - not always gracefully or truthfully, but certainly continuously.

Social media had its first seeds in email. The pleasure of receiving a letter from a friend in a physical mailbox expanded to the computer.

"You've Got Mail!" became a daily electronic notice in business and personal correspondence. Then, technology proliferated from clunky desktop computers to sleek compact laptops and mobile phones.

With email came email groups organized on internet sites - electronic discussion groups for people with similar interests. A leading example was YahooGroups (which closed in 2020).

The internet enabled online bulletin boards and chat room forums for information exchange and group talk. In the 1990s, AOL Instant Messenger (AIM) and ICQ allowed real-time text messages.

In 1994, the wiki was born. A wiki is a user-collaborative information site that can be edited by any user through a browser. According to Katie Terrell Hanna of TechTarget, "wiki wiki" means "fast" in Hawaiian, which is how the name originated.

According to Wikipedia, computer programmer Ward Cunningham created WikiWikiWeb in 1994. Today, there are reportedly hundreds of thousands of wiki sites.

The inherent catch of wiki sites is the ability of nameless users to post and edit information that is not vetted for accuracy, so other users must evaluate and correct it. This accuracy problem gives rise to a concern about "fake news." However, academic and evidence sources can also post data in wikis.

The worldwide collaborative, interactive, free access to information on virtually any topic makes wiki social media sites an important component of the social media revolution. At the very least, they are information gateways to other research sources.

In 1999, Pyra Labs launched Blogger®, a publishing platform acquired by Google in 2003. Mat Honan of Wired explains that Blogger "was a revolutionary web product" that "gave push-button publishing to the people."

Today, information is available digitally to anyone with access to a computer or mobile phone. As a result, this widespread change in communication has enabled a dramatic shift in information sharing and acquisition of knowledge that, in turn, affected lifestyles and social mores.

The 'Invention' of Social Media

The recognition of social media as a distinct entity was in 1997 with Andrew Weinreich's launch of SixDegrees. Called the " father of social networking," Weinreich forecast the social media phenomenon seven years ahead of Facebook.

SixDegrees' base was a site for email connection links. In simple terms, Weinreich's vision was networking.

Social media's networking capacity is exponential for connecting social media users' who share interests, have questions, and want to connect with others. But in 1997, the technology to facilitate such capacity had not yet caught up with Weinreich's full vision.

Weinreich sold SixDegrees for $125 million in 1999 and moved on in the industry. Social media technology, however, took off in the new millennium.

Social Media's Explosion in the 21st Century

The timeline of social media innovations in the 2000s highlights just how quickly the social media revolution advanced in that era. While wikis and other online sites were focused on general information, easier personal connections for social media use came into their own in slick online sites.

The launch of Friendster® in 2002 expanded the concept of networking occupied by email groups and virtual bulletin boards. Also in 2002, LinkedIn® established a social media site for professional and business networking.

MySpace® launched in 2003, followed quickly by Facebook in 2004. Originally created for college students, Facebook grew into the global colossus that is Meta today, eclipsing Friendster and MySpace.

In 2005, YouTube appeared. YouTube has since expanded from a collection of user-uploaded videos to include live streaming, music, advertisements, and marketing channels.

The year 2006 introduced Twitter - a real-time dialogue, news, and opinion posting system called "micro-blogging," that limits messages to short posts. Twitter quickly wielded a powerful influence, connecting social media users in real time worldwide, a popularity somewhat narrowing since Elon Musk changed the site to X in 2023.

Digital image sites like Pinterest® added a visual dimension to social exchanges in 2010. By 2016, amateur entertainment and personal influencer reels became a hit on TikTok, rivaled by Snapchat®, , Facebook's Reels, and Instagram. That same year, live-streaming took off on Facebook and Periscope (with the latter ending its activities in 2021).

According to Pew Research Center, Facebook and YouTube are the most widely-used platforms as of 2024. But as of March 2024, Slashdot lists 101 social media platforms. These sites lure users and advertisers to participate in a marketplace of social chat, to see and be seen, to buy and sell, and to be heard.

If one platform does not last in popularity, another will take its place. Emerging sites cater to niche interests and facilitate family and friend connections. They also offer emotional support and promote boutique products, health aids, charities, business brands, education, political activism, and so much more.

Whether - and how - to control of all this activity is an ongoing debate. The U.S. government has recently moved to either limit or ban TikTok® in the U.S. due to Chinese ownership interests. Sparking further controversy, the U.S. Supreme Court is considering a case about federal government involvement on social media.

Social media usage is widespread and continues to grow with a variety of options. People have exchanged the backyard fence and the kitchen table for a carnival's midway of fluid conversation groups and virtual booths of barker's wares.

It is still early days for understanding all the implications of people's online habits and the inevitable changes being wrought by social media sites. Nevertheless, surveys, studies, and experts have ventured some observations and predictions about the effects of these online platforms.

The Positive Effects of Social Media

Social media wields a powerful influence. Some of the positive effects include:

Improving users' mental health

Providing an outlet for creativity

Offering opportunities for professional networking

Creating educational opportunities and social awareness

Building new business opportunities and marketing channels

Improvements to Mental Health

Social media's impact has created many positive effects for society. Mesfin Awoke Bekalu and Rachel F. McCloud concluded in a 2020 Harvard study that routine daily use of social media positively correlated with "three health-related outcomes: social well-being, positive mental health, and self-rated health."

While this national study of adult use of social media did not discount the potential negative aspects of addiction to or overuse of social media, Dr. Bekalu reported, "Our findings suggest that the ways in which people are using social media may have more of an impact on their mental health and well-being than just the frequency and duration of their use." This positive networking in turn reduces feelings of loneliness, social isolation, and low self-esteem.

Social media has created complex human interaction at several levels that happen simultaneously in a single venue, ranging from the most personal to general entertainment and news events in ways formerly segmented in separate communication channels - telephone, print media, one-way radio/TV shows, and telegraph messages.

Social media sites provide opportunities for individuals to connect with friends, family, and like-minded individuals, even across geographical distances. These connections help maintain relationships and interests, fostering a sense of belonging, self-esteem, and support in users.

Personal Expression and Creativity

In today's world, social media provides a cornucopia of offerings in art, innovation, and creativity. Part of social media's complex connections are the opportunities for sharing knowledge on virtually any topic, collaborative projects, and creative endeavors.

Whether through online forums, sharing documents, group chats, or how-to videos, individuals can work together with others to achieve common goals, create meaningful content, and solve problems collectively. They can learn how to do something they want to achieve for themselves, practice a new hobby, or pursue a sport. Outlets and tutorials foster a sense of camaraderie, community, and social well-being.

Opportunities for Professional Networking

Social media platforms offer opportunities for people to expand their social networks and forge new connections with other individuals around the world that they might not have otherwise encountered. By broadening their professional circles, people can access diverse perspectives, experiences, and resources, which can enrich their lives and enhance their social capital.

This opportunity for professional development was the idea behind LinkedIn early on. The LinkedIn platform has expanded exponentially in 22 years, a testimony to the value of professional connections for both individuals and businesses in a global marketplace.

Research supports the value of social networks in building and maintaining professional relationships. As Makena Shultz at Michigan State University noted, "A great thing about social media is that it allows you access to both your strong and weak connections. Increasing the spectrum of possible connections can help individuals and organizations identify specific parties with shared interests or goals, experience solving similar challenges, or even developed tools or methods for completing a mutual task."

The instant reach of digital technology and the variety of ways online companies have devised to maintain connections allows professionals to collaborate and share knowledge, opportunities, and innovative ideas.

Educational Opportunities and Social Awareness

Internet sites offer educational resources such as online courses and tutorials, making learning accessible to a global audience, often for free and regardless of a user's location or socioeconomic status. Many of these educational opportunities account for overcoming language barriers.

Hand-in-hand with educational opportunities are social awareness initiatives and advocacy efforts for humanitarian and social causes on both a local and a worldwide scale. Social media use enables advocates to more easily reach a global audience and discuss solutions to social issues that can better lives, such as increasing physical activity for better health and getting more fun out of life.

New Business Opportunities and Marketing Channels

Businesses can leverage social media platforms with broad audiences for brand promotion, marketing campaigns, and customer engagement. With the assistance of artificial intelligence (AI) and algorithms, users' search activity on a commercial or search site is directed to brands on social media pages.

For example, a user who searches for "types of mattresses" on Google, where mattresses are not sold, may later be served mattress ads on Facebook as a result of that search activity. A tracker on the search tags the user and links the user to pinpoint mattress ads on social media, which is known as remarketing or retargeting.

Sean Craig of Elite Digital Marketing explains that "User tracking is not limited to just one platform or website. Ad retargeting is a common practice where advertisements are placed on multiple websites based on a user's web browsing history. This technique allows companies to reach their target audience across multiple different platforms."

For example, the user's search activity suggests an intention to buy a mattress. Since the user appears to be in the market for a mattress, the Facebook ads help that user get to a decision and buy an advertiser's mattress.

Facebook is in it for the ad revenue, and the mattress companies hope to make a sale. The user might or might not want a mattress, but this type of advertising makes it possible to find one more easily.

Social media provides these types of marketing opportunities for businesses, individuals, and nonprofit groups. For nonprofit groups, online platforms may be used to raise awareness of a troubling issue - such as abuse or chronic disease - and for fundraising campaigns.

Social platforms host community trade groups, barter pages, garage sale days, and nonprofit events. These sites do on a large scale what local community bulletin boards traditionally have done.

The Negative Aspects of Social Media

Social media's power can sometimes be used in the wrong way to hurt others. Some of the negative effects of social media use include:

Cyberbullying

Social media use is fertile ground for cyberbullying. The Cyberbullying Research Center (CRC) defines cyberbullying as "when someone repeatedly and intentionally harasses, mistreats, or makes fun of another person online or while using cell phones or other electronic devices."

While cyberbullying can happen to people of any age, it is of particular concern for students ages 13 to 17. In a CRC 2023 national study of this age group, researchers found that 55% of them had experienced cyberbullying to the detriment of their self-worth.

Cyberbullying can take many creative forms, such as:

Embarrassing comments

Negative posts or photos

Compromising sexual images (which might be fake)

Using social media to spread rumors

Threats to the person, the person's family, or pet

Offensive videos or webpages

Cyberbullying acts can be pernicious and harmful long-term, far beyond a passing embarrassment. In the case of a young Ohioan, severe cyberbullying allegedly caused her suicide and led to the state enacting the Jessica Logan Act, requiring schools to implement active countermeasures to cyberbullying.

Doxxing

A type of privacy invasion enabled by social media use is called "doxxing." Identity theft expert Max Sheridan explains doxxing as "the unauthorized collection and public distribution of personally identifying information or private material for malicious purposes."

An example is posting a person's name, home address, email, and telephone number without that person's permission on a public social media platform. The post might be flavored with a false allegation of association with a hate group.

The private information is often obtained through social media. Doxxing is intended to cause harm and is typically motivated by revenge, hate, bullying, terrorism, or bad faith tactics.

Real-life examples of doxxing include:

Releasing the personal information of the agent and lawyer of a 2016 presidential candidate (reported by Ranker)

Publicizing the physical addresses of certain U.S. Supreme Court justices after the decision overturning Roe vs. Wade (according to Cybersixgill))

Parking a "Doxxing truck" on a college campus - the truck displayed certain faculty names and images with the accusation they are "antisemites" (reported by The Denver Post)

According to Sheridan, privacy has become an "increasingly rare commodity. Internet tools allow anyone with a connection to become an investigator and publisher. This expansive access to info and social media explains how so many have fallen prey to doxxing."

Child Exploitation

A dark side of the internet and social media is child exploitation. The global reach and speed of digital communication have enabled child pornographers and predators to flourish behind digital masks and in shadowy groups.

The ease of using social media apps and platforms on mobile devices enables predatory adults to groom children by text and live streaming, share and consume child pornography, and extort children for sex.

Minors also make this exploitation easier, intended or not, by "sexting." Sexting involves sharing explicit photos through a child's social media account or texting.

Further complicating this exploitation is the rise of "kidfluencers." Kidfluencers are children with their own channels and followers on YouTube, TikTok, or similar platforms.

Children with large groups of followers can often earn money with ad sponsors. But these kids are not considered actors or "workers."

According to Vanessa Cerzarita Cordeiro of Humanium, "Though child actors are able to gain access to numerous protection mechanisms, 'kidfluencers' are treated differently because their activity takes place in a private home setting on a platform in which parents consensually participate." They are not workers due to "the absence of an employer-employee relationship and the fact that children are deemed to be undertaking normal family activities on camera rather than putting on a 'performance.'"

For this reason, the money they are earning from their "kidfluence" has not had much protection under the traditional child labor laws and regulations. But several states and Congress are working on improving this protection, as well as privacy laws, for these minors. For example, Illinois passed a law to provide some measure of protection for kidfluencers.

Addiction

Excessive use of social media platforms and their contribution to poor mental health, especially in young people, may be cause for concern. According to the Addiction Center, social media addiction is not yet a formally diagnosed condition that damages a user's psychological well-being, but it is sufficiently recognized to be treatable and covered by some insurance providers.

The Addiction Center defines this type of addiction as a behavioral condition, characterized by "being overly concerned about social media, driven by an uncontrollable urge to log on to or use social media, and devoting so much time and effort to social media that it impairs other important life areas." In other words, the person is obsessed with social media habits such as scrolling, texting, and posting, will spend time online to the exclusion of other life activities, and may ignore family members and friends.

How can such an addiction and damage to a user's psychological well-being happen? Social media use stimulates the pleasure centers of the brain - too much for some people. The Addiction Center explains that constant interaction with an online platform triggers the "brain's reward area" chemically in the same way as drugs like cocaine, or like "a syringe of dopamine being injected straight into the system."

Social Media Use Shines a Light on Basic Human Nature

Like everything else in life, social media use is a choice. According to researchers Jenna L. Clark, Sara B. Algoe, and Melanie C. Green, the key to social media's contribution to the positive impact on mental health and social welfare is where it fosters real human connection. The way to make the best of social media is for users to choose credible providers and to be aware of social media's pitfalls.

Hawra Hashem, marketing manager and communication strategist, emphasizes that social media use can be "more beneficial than not" if users "keep a healthy perspective about social media's role in [their] lives ... [and] use it to inspire, educate, show empathy, and become better communicators." In other words, use social media with the same respect and demeanor as with in-person relationships.

Considering its positive aspects and its negative risks, social media's growth seems a given. Statista notes that "Social media consistently expands, advances, and grows around the world. The total number of social media users is expected to hit over 5.85 billion individuals by 2027, which would be over half of the world population." Considering social media's unlimited exponential capacity, this prediction could well be underestimated.

The social media revolution is well under way. The massive changes social media use has wrought in how people connect and communicate are largely positive and have improved other people's lives. It is driven by humans' very nature to communicate, collaborate, and share information.

But social media shows the dark side of human nature. It is not social media that casts darkness, but its users. Social media exposes the problems humanity needs to solve as well as the pleasures to enjoy.
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Social Media Impact: How Social Media Sites Affect Society

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Social media impact - how does it affect people in society? This article explains the origin of social media and its positive and negative effects.

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"Antidepressants were not associated with acute or chronic kidney harms" (paragraph 2). I don't think there is enough research to say for sure. Not all medicine harm the kidneys but a lot do so its hard to categorize all mental health meds.

Damba, Joseph Junior, et al. “Psychotropic Drugs and Adverse Kidney Effects: A Systematic Review of the Past Decade of Research.” CNS Drugs, vol. 36, no. 10, 26 Sept. 2022, pp. 1049–1077, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40263-022-00952-y.

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A research team developed an experiment to test a hypothesis, that the ability to identify informal fallacies would better help participants discern between fake news and real news. As stated in the article, "the phenomenon of fake news has gained an unprecedented level of attention around the globe." So it is important for people to be educated about what is real and what is not and how to discern using knowledge of informal fallacies.

Hruschka, Timon. "Learning about informal fallacies and the detection of fake news: An experimental intervention." National Library of Medicine, 29 Mar 2023, www.pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10057814/

Written by: Michelle Lucier

Critical Thinking 2026

Professor Micciulla

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Abstract

The philosophical concept of informal fallacies-arguments that fail to provide sufficient support for a claim-is introduced and connected to the topic of fake news detection. We assumed that the ability to identify informal fallacies can be trained and that this ability enables individuals to better distinguish between fake news and real news. We tested these assumptions in a two-group between-participants experiment ( N = 116). The two groups participated in a 30-minute-long text-based learning intervention: either about informal fallacies or about fake news. Learning about informal fallacies enhanced participants' ability to identify fallacious arguments one week later. Furthermore, the ability to identify fallacious arguments was associated with a better discernment between real news and fake news. Participants in the informal fallacy intervention group and the fake news intervention group performed equally well on the news discernment task. The contribution of (identifying) informal fallacies for research and practice is discussed.

Introduction

In recent years, the phenomenon of fake news has gained an unprecedented level of attention around the globe. The phenomenon itself is not entirely new, supposedly journalistic pieces that lacked substance have been published in previous decades and centuries [ 1]. Yet, the advent of the internet and social media has fueled discussions on the perils of fake news and the measures to take against it. Indeed, fake news stories range among the most popular news items on social media in terms of user engagement (likes, comments, and shares) [ 2- 4]. Given the substantial consequences of misinformation for individuals and societies, combatting the acceptance and spreading of fake news has become one of the most pressing questions for social scientists [ 5- 7]. Theory and research on reasoning suggest that equipping people with cognitive tools that allow them to process incoming information adequately is a promising strategy to reduce the acceptance and sharing of fake news [ 8- 10]. Our focus here is on argumentative fallacies, more specifically on informal fallacies [ 11, 12]. Philosophers since Aristotle have claimed that recognizing argumentative fallacies might prevent people from falling for dubious claims [ 13]. We adopted this philosophical assumption and tested it empirically: we developed a brief intervention to increase people's ability to detect informal fallacies and we examined the downstream consequences on identifying fake news.

Informal fallacies

Reasoning about arguments can be fallacious in two ways: formally and informally [ 11]. Formal reasoning fallacies are arguments that are necessarily false because they do not conform to logical standards of deductive reasoning. One prominent example of formal fallacies is the fallacy of the undistributed middle [ 14]:

The problem with this argument is structural: If we changed the structure of premise (2) into: "All animals are cats", our conclusion (C) would be correct given the premises. Now the term that appears in both premises (i.e., animals) would appear at least once directly after the quantifier "All" which is necessary for this argument to work.

Although much research has been devoted to the study of deductive reasoning and its formal fallacies [ 15, 16], erroneous real-world argumentation tends to be dominated by informal fallacies: e.g., in politics [ 17], advertising [ 18], or in social media postings [ 19]. Informal fallacies are not fallacious because of their structure but because of their content [ 11, 12, 20, 21]. Circular reasoning-a prime example for informal fallacies-, for instance, is not deductively invalid, but the argument "The Yeti exists because the Yeti exists" is certainly a fallacy [ 11]. Why does this argument fail? The claim that "The Yeti exists" is not supported by sufficient evidence: the putative evidence just repeats the claim. Most researchers would agree on this insufficiency being a unifying feature of informal fallacies: informal fallacies are arguments that fail to provide sufficient support for the claim that one is arguing for [ 12, 20, 22- 24]. Still, informal fallacies do persuade a lot of people and they may shape decision-making more than non-fallacious reasoning [ 25]: informal fallacies are not only fallacious arguments but also arguments that are likely persuasive [ 24, 26- 32].

There are different frameworks for determining what a fallacy is and what is sufficient support for a specific claim (for a review see [ 11]); of those different approaches, we chose the argumentation scheme approach (ASA) by Walton [ 12] because it provides particularly clear guidelines for teaching non-experts about informal fallacies [ 33]. In the ASA, an exhaustive list of argumentative moves is described and then a set of normative questions is collected which must be answered to determine an argument's strength [ 11, 12, 20]. If the critical questions belonging to one argumentative move can be satisfactorily answered, a certain argument is strong.

Let's look at the following example from a speech by Donald Trump in which he attacked Ford for building a plant in Mexico: "[Ford is] going to build a plant [in Mexico], and illegals are going to drive those cars right over the border. Then, they'll probably end up stealing the car and that'll be the end of it" [ 34]. Using the ASA, we can assess this example as a fallacious use of an argumentative move called the argument from consequence. We do not want to have people stealing cars (consequence); hence Ford should not build a plant in Mexico ( conclusion). For this argument to be valid, however, one has to answer the question: "What evidence, if any, supported the claim that these consequences will (...) occur if A [building the plant] is brought about?" [12, p. 106]. Since there is no evidence to support the alleged causal link from building a plant to people stealing cars, the argument fails: it is a so-called slippery slope argument, an invalid distortion of the argument from consequence (for more examples, see S1 in S1 File).

The current study

Prior research showed that participants' ability to correctly identify faulty argument structures like the ones shown above contributed to the comprehension and critical evaluation of argumentative texts [ 35, 36]. These studies, along with previous successful critical thinking interventions [ 37- 42], point at the feasibility of developing a brief intervention to enhance people's ability to assess informal fallacies.

We therefore hypothesize that informal fallacy assessment skills will be stronger after a learning intervention on informal fallacies than after a more general learning intervention that focused on fake news and illegitimate persuasion attempts online (fake news intervention as control, Hypothesis 1). In our experiment, the dependent variables were assessed seven to ten days after the intervention, as we wished to rule out that our results were based on short-term activation effects.

Multiple studies have shown that people of all ages have problems in evaluating evidence in discourse or news [ 43- 45]. We suggest that the ability to spot and label informal fallacies remedies this shortcoming to a degree: people with a stronger ability in analyzing informal fallacies should be able to decide if putative evidence for a claim in a piece of news is reliable evidence. Additionally, there is content-analytic evidence that informal fallacies co-occur more often with populist claims than non-populist claims [ 17]. Thus, we expected that the ability to correctly assess informal fallacies is positively associated with the ability to discern real news from fake news. Connecting these assumptions, we assumed an indirect effect of the intervention on news discernment scores, with the ability to spot and label informal fallacies serving as a mediating variable (Hypothesis 2).

Finally, we expected a main effect of the kind of intervention (informal fallacy intervention versus fake news intervention) and hypothesized that our informal fallacy intervention group will be able to discern better between fake and real news than the fake news group (Hypothesis 3).

Method

Participants

The required sample size was computed a priori with G*Power [ 46]. As effect sizes from a similar study concerning inoculation techniques against misinformation showed minimum effect sizes of d = .48 [ 47], we performed a power analysis for d = .48, α = .05, power (1-β) = .80. The output showed that we needed a minimum of 110 participants. To account for potential drop-outs and careless responding we recruited a total of N = 131 participants. The participants were randomly assigned to one of the two experimental groups ( n if= 65, n fn = 66). After excluding 15 participants to ensure good data quality (for exact exclusion criteria see S2 in S1 File), our final sample amounted to 116 participants ( n if= 58, n fn = 58). The participants were German undergraduates participating for 1h of course credit. Among the participants, 89 identified themselves as female (78.1%), 24 as male (21.1%), and 1 as non-binary (0.9%). The average age was 21.43 years (min = 18, max = 28, SD = 1.94).

Materials

The experimental stimuli consisted of two text-based learning interventions: one on the topic on informal fallacies (informal fallacy group), the other focused on broad information about fake news (fake news group). Both learning interventions were developed by the authors (see Fig 1 and Online Supplements S3 and S4 in S1 File). Each learning session was supervised by the first author to answer potential questions and to ensure diligent work by the participants.

Fig 1. Structure of the two learning interventions.

This figure shows the structure of the two learning units including the mean times participants needed to complete a certain part of the unit.

Informal fallacy detection intervention

The learning intervention on informal fallacies was based on the ASA by Walton [ 12] and Tindale [ 20]. The learning intervention started with eliciting interest in the topic by using an approach developed along the lines of Larson et al. [ 39]: participants were shown five fallacious arguments asking the participants to tick an argument if they thought it to be fallacious. Only three (of 58) participants correctly assumed all arguments to be fallacious showing most of the participants that there still was much to be learned about.

In the beginning of the following learning intervention, participants were first taught about basic argumentation principles. This includes the concept of relevance, that is, a reason must bear some content-related connection to a certain claim in order to support the claim. Afterwards, participants were introduced to five informal fallacies. Each fallacy was introduced by giving an example for the fallacy in question as well as a more detailed analysis of that example. In these detailed analyses participants were shown fallacies with an explanation of why they were fallacious, following approaches in psychological inoculation theory [ 10, 47- 50].

The five fallacies introduced were:

1. Straw man fallacy: representing the opponent's argument in a 'crooked' way to make it more easily attackable.

2. Complex question: asking a question which, if the opponent would answer it, entails the acceptance of an underlying assertion.

3. Begging the question: trying to support a claim by reasons which already assume the claim to be true or repeat the claim in a synonymous way.

4. False cause: conclude causality out of mere correlation.

5. Slippery slope: designing a causal chain with a negative outcome in which one or more parts of the causal chain do not necessarily follow other parts of the chain.

For every fallacy there were 2-3 questions provided that were meant to help participants to determine if an argument was a fallacy or not [ 20]. After information about the fallacies was presented, participants read a short paragraph about the importance of knowing about informal fallacies because it could help in identifying fake news. The paragraph did not, however, show the participants how to identify fake news using the concept of informal fallacies. This sets our approach apart from prior inoculation approaches against fake news [ 47, 48, 51- 53]: recent research on psychological inoculation against fake news has focused on showing participants the ways in which fake news use misleading strategies. Participants in these studies were exposed to (parts of) fake news. We, however, adopted a broader approach in inoculating participants against general reasoning fallacies and tested how that might influence the ability to discern between real and fake news. Participants in the informal fallacy group did not see any fake news during their learning unit.

To deepen the understanding of the fallacies, participants were then asked to write down what a certain fallacy is constituted of in their own words in an open answer field of the survey. Afterwards, participants had to answer nine multiple choice questions (one correct option, four distractors) with immediate feedback telling the participants that their answer was right or how to answer a similar question in the right way if they had answered it incorrectly. Each question dealt with a specific part of the learning intervention. The learning intervention of the informal fallacy group was 3303 words long and yielded a Flesh reading ease of 49.7. Participants needed on average 31.98 ( SD = 5.97) minutes to complete the informal fallacy group's learning intervention.

Fake news intervention

The fake news learning intervention was structured the same way as the informal fallacy group's intervention. It started with a portrayal of three fake news asking the participants which of these they believed to be fake. Afterwards, the participants were taught about the phenomenon and the definition of fake news, how to recognize misinformation on the internet, reasons why people create fake news, and about phenomena like filter bubbles and social bots. This was followed by a set of seven characteristics based on which one could determine if a news item was fake [ 54], resembling the informal fallacy group's fallacy-identification questions. Afterwards, the participants in the fake news group received nine multiple choice questions, accompanied by similar feedback as the informal fallacy group's feedback questions. Flesh reading ease for the learning intervention of the fake news group was 40.1 (2776 words). The fake news group needed on average 28.70 (SD = 6.23) minutes to work through their learning intervention.

Measures

Informal fallacy task

We used the informal fallacy task (IFT) by Ricco [ 29] as our main dependent measure. The IFT quantifies the ability to spot and label fallacious arguments correctly. Labeling is in turn linked to the ability to understand the concept of a certain fallacy. The IFT consists of 6 informal fallacies which make up 12 fallacious arguments. We extended the task by adding three non-fallacious arguments that served as filler items.

The ability to spot informal fallacies was measured through a yes or no question asking the participants to indicate if they thought a certain argument to be fallacious. For each correctly spotted fallacy the participants received one point. The ability to label informal fallacies was measured through an open-ended question in which the participants were asked to describe the fallaciousness of the argument or name the exact fallacy. Participants received either 1 point for each fallacy for fully grasping the concept of the fallacy; 0.5 points, if they got one key element right, or 0 points, if their answer indicated that they had not understood the concept of the fallacy in question. The evaluation was performed by the first author using the evaluation criteria by Ricco [ 29].

Based on the IFT identification and IFT explanation task, we calculated a general IFT score. Before calculating the general IFT score, we excluded three items with negative or near zero factor loadings from the IFT identification task to ensure a better reliability (MacDonald's ω = .72 before exclusion, ω = .76 after exclusion). The general IFT score was computed by z-standardizing overall IFT identification and IFT explanation scores and averaging the two z-scores for every participant.

News discernment task

To measure the discernment accuracy between real and fake news, we presented six real and six fake news items that were developed along the lines of prior work (e.g., [ 55], for full texts, see Online Supplement S5 and S6 for German texts, S7 and S8 for English translations in S1 File). All news items were presented in random order and consisted of different short news stories portraying a political or scientific topic with their real headlines (e.g., Did you know? -that cancer is an exceptionally rare phenomenon in Israel? Why this is so.). The fake news items were based on actual fake news identified by factchecking websites ( mimikama. at and correctiv. org) and were on average 125.67 words long ( SD = 14.22). The real news originated from German quality newspapers (e.g., Süddeutsche Zeitung, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung), and matched the topic of one of the respective fake news stories (124.17 words on average, SD = 19.98). Two news items of each news type (real or fake) were favoring left-wing political narratives, two news items of each type were favoring right-wing political narratives and two news items of each type were politically neutral.

After reading the news, participants were instructed to assess the accuracy of each news item with the help of two questions with options ranging between 1 = not at all accurate to 7 = accurate, and 1 = did not happen as described, 7 = happened as described, respectively. To compute the discernment score, we divided the mean of all fake news items through 7 and subtracted the result from the mean of all real news items, also divided through 7. Through this procedure we obtained a value between -1 and 1, where 1 stands for perfect discernment between real and fake news, 0 stands for zero discernment and negative values are assigned to people who believed fake news to be more accurate than real news.

Procedure

Our study was based on a two-group experimental between-subjects design that took place at two different points in time. At the first point in time, participants worked through the learning interventions. The first session was conducted online, each participant worked on the materials alone. During the first session 2 to 10 participants accessed the materials at the same time and an instructor (the first author of the present manuscript) supervised the learning session to increase compliance and to answer potential questions. The feedback questions were split across the two sessions; in both experimental groups, five of the nine feedback questions were presented in the first session.

Seven to ten days later (mean delay = 7.42 days, SD = 0.78 days), the second session took place. The session was not supervised and accessed individually. It started with the remaining four feedback questions referring to the leaning intervention. Then the dependent variable tasks were presented (i.e., the IFT and the news discernment task, S10 in S1 File). Active informed consent was acquired through participation in the online survey. Based on the regulations for conducting psychological research in Germany, no formal IRB approval was required. The studies followed the ethical guidelines of the APA and the German Psychological Society (DGPs).

Data analysis

We selected a significance level of α = .05 for all statistical analyses and computed two-tailed tests throughout. For effect sizes we computed Cohen's d for t-tests and partially standardized effects for our mediation model [ 56]. As preregistered, outliers (values above or below 1.5 times the interquartile range from the third and first quartile) were identified through boxplot-analyses and were winsorized to one value above or below the last non-outlier [ 57]. All confidence intervals were based on 10.000 bootstrap-samples. For a more detailed account of our statistical analyses and data quality checks see S11 in S1 File. Zero-order correlations of all measures are presented in Table 1. Data analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS 27. Our hypotheses were preregistered using aspredicted (small deviations from our preregistration are reported in S12 in S1 File). All data, stimuli, and the preregistration are available at https://osf.io/7ms9e/.

Table 1. Zero-order correlations between variables.

Variable

2

3

4

1

Discernment

.37***

.58***

-.63***

2

IFT general

-

.29**

-.17

3

Real news accuracy

-

.28**

4

Fake news accuracy

-

Results

The informal fallacy learning intervention enhances informal reasoning

A simple regression model including experimental group as predictor and IFT scores as outcome explained 23% of the variance in general IFT scores, R 2 = .23, F(1, 114) = 33.22, p < .001. Participants in the informal fallacy group obtained higher scores in the IFT (M = 0.42, SD = 0.81) than participants in the fake news group (M = -0.41, SD = 0.75, d = 1.07). This result was in support of our first hypothesis and indicates that a text-based online learning intervention can foster people's ability to correctly assess informal fallacies. Cohen's d furthermore indicates a rather strong effect of our learning intervention on the ability to correctly assess informal fallacies.

The learning intervention's effects on discernment accuracy are mediated by informal reasoning

In the second hypothesis, we expected that the influence of the intervention on the ability to discern between fake and real news would be mediated by the ability to spot and analyze fallacious informal arguments correctly. To test this hypothesis, we computed a simple mediation model with experimental group as the independent variable (antecedent), the IFT as mediator and the discernment between real and fake news as the criterion (consequent) using PROCESS 4. 0 for SPSS (Model 4; [ 56]). The hypothesis was then tested by bootstrapping the indirect effect of the antecedent on the consequent-i.e., learning intervention on discernment accuracy-following Hayes [ 56]. Group membership was dummy-coded (informal fallacy group = 1; fake news group = 0).

The indirect effect through informal reasoning was significantly positive, indicating that the learning intervention on informal fallacies enhanced the ability to discern between real and fake news through the ability to correctly assess informal fallacies, estimate = 0.06 ( SE = 0.02), 95%CI [0.03, 0.11]. The partially standardized effect size was 0.49 ( SE = 0.13), 95%CI [0.26, 0.77], indicating that if one completed the learning intervention on informal fallacies, one would-on average-be 0.49 SD better in discerning between real and fake news because of better informal reasoning than one who completed the fake news group's learning intervention. These results indicated that the null hypothesis could be rejected. A graphical presentation of the mediation model including all hypotheses can be found in Fig 2.

Fig 2. Mediation model with received learning intervention as antecedent, IFT explanation task as mediator and discernment scores as consequent.

The graphic shows the mediation model concerning H1 (a), H2 (ab) and H3 (ab+c'). Intervention was dummy-coded with 1 = receiving the informal fallacy intervention and 0 = receiving the fake news intervention. Coefficients presented are unstandardized. For direct and indirect effect no NHST was conducted but instead Bootstrap-CIs are reported. ***p < .001. ¹ ab ps = partially standardized effect size for the indirect effect. ² c'ps' = partially standardized effect size for the direct effect.

Note that the direct effect-the effect of group condition on discernment after informal reasoning is partialized out-was also significant, estimate = -0.08 ( SE = 0.03), 95%CI [-0.13, -0.03]. The partially standardized effect size was -0.62. The negative values indicated that the fake news group also enhanced their discernment between real and fake news through a mechanism we did not measure.

Discernment accuracy: Informal fallacy versus fake news group

Contrary to our third hypothesis, participants in the informal fallacy group did not perform significantly better in discerning between real and fake news than participants in the fake news group. News discernment scores in the informal fallacy group ( M = 0.16, SD = 0.16) and in the fake news group ( M = 0.18, SD = 0.11), did not differ significantly, Welch t(101.26) = -0.70, p = .489, d = 0.13. This finding suggests that learning about informal fallacies is neither better nor worse than traditional teaching approaches to the topic of fake news at enabling students to distinguish between real and fake news.

Exploratory analysis: Real news rejection and fake news detection

As an exploratory analysis, we investigated if the fake news group would be more skeptic of all sorts of news after hearing about fake news. After learning about fake news, participants in the fake news group might rate all news as less accurate-regardless of veracity [ 58]. A mixed ANOVA (between subjects factor: experimental treatment; within-subjects factor: news type) revealed a significant main effect of news type, with real news ( M = 0.65, SD = 0.11) being judged as more accurate than fake news ( M = 0.48, SD = 0.12), F(1,114) = 188.86, p < .001, η ² = .62. Moreover, there was a significant main effect of the experimental treatment, participants who were in the informal fallacy group gave higher accuracy judgments ( M = 0.58, SD = 0.13) than participants in the fake news group ( M = 0.54, SD = 0.13), F(1,114) = 6.10, p = .015, η ² = .05. The interaction between group and news veracity was not significant, F(1,114) = 0.37, p = .546, η ² = .003. The two latter results indicated that participants in the fake news group were slightly more skeptic overall than participants in the informal fallacy group.

Discussion

Connecting philosophical theory and empirical research on informal fallacies to the topic of fake news detection, our aim was to examine whether a brief online intervention could improve participants' detection of informal fallacies as well as the discernment between real and fake news. A learning intervention on fake news served as our control condition. As expected, the informal fallacy intervention improved the ability to correctly assess informal fallacies. Moreover, the latter ability (measured with the IFT, Ricco [ 29]) was positively associated with the discernment between fake and real news. As a consequence, detecting informal fallacies served as a mediator as part of an indirect effect of the informal fallacy intervention on news discernment. However, a residual (direct) effect was also significant, indicating that the fake news intervention had benefits on news discernment as well. This explains a non-significant total effect on news discernment, neither group performed significantly better than the other.

Our findings add to previous research in several ways: Most importantly, we introduced the concept of informal fallacy detection to the debate on fake news and provide evidence that the ability to correctly assess informal fallacies can be improved through a brief online intervention. Second, our results show that the ability to identify informal fallacies is positively associated with discerning real news from fake news. Although our informal fallacy intervention did not outperform a fake news intervention regarding news discernment, additional analyses showed that individuals in the informal fallacy intervention group ascribed higher accuracy overall. Thus, learning about informal fallacies might be effective without raising media skepticism overall [ 59].

Teaching about informal fallacies can be understood as a specific form of psychological inoculation against misinformation so that a person who encounters misinformation is less likely to fall for it [ 10, 50]. In psychological inoculation theory, there has been a shift from 'narrow' to 'broad' inoculation approaches: whereas earlier research on inoculation has focused on specific arguments and topics, later inoculation research is concerned with inoculating people against the techniques of misinformation like, in this study, informal fallacies [ 10]. However, most inoculation approaches today are developed in close alignment with examples of the phenomenon: based on actual misinformation, misleading techniques are identified, and interventions against these techniques are developed [ 47, 48, 51- 53].

In this study, we applied a more theory-guided approach: based on philosophical theory on misleading argumentation techniques, we developed an intervention that inoculates people against misleading forms of incorrect reasoning-not specific fake news or conspiracy theories. Building on Hutmacher et al. [ 8], we propose that there are different approaches to inoculation, some more theory-guided (like increasing statistical or argumentative knowledge), and some more phenomenon-based (like exposure to weakened forms of actual fake news), which all can help to inoculate people against misinformation.

One advantage of our approach of applying philosophical concepts to psychological research is the possibility of embedding the informal fallacy approach to misinformation in school and university curricula. Philosophy, and science in general, has dealt with proper argumentation for centuries [ 36]. Our study shows that this engagement with correct and incorrect forms of argumentation might also have practical relevance beyond the philosophy classroom.

It follows from our results that interventions that teach how to correctly identify informal fallacies could play a role in mitigating the effects of misinformation. Future research could address several questions in this regard: Are there specific informal fallacies that enhance discernment between real and fake news better than other fallacies? Is it enough to learn about the concept of informal fallacies once or is there a cumulative effect, in that, the more fallacies a person learns, the better the person gets at discerning between real and fake news? Could education on formal fallacies also enhance the ability to discern between real and fake news? Does the ability to assess informal fallacies also produce positive outcomes on a societal level, in that, sharing of fake news gets reduced?

As a major limitation, our study did not include an inactive control group. Our control group was active in that participants learned about fake news which was in all likelihood beneficial to news discernment by means other than detecting informal fallacies. To reveal effect sizes of both learning interventions compared to people who did not receive an intervention, research with less active control groups is required. Moreover, our downstream variable was news discernment exclusively. We assume that responses to other post-truth phenomena could profit from detecting informal fallacies as well. For example, the identification of informal fallacies could be applied to detect problems with a net of assertions constituting a conspiracy theory, to unmask bullshitting [ 60], or to spot shock and chaos disinformation [ 61].

Conclusion

The concept of fallacies has guided human thinking on deficient argumentation from early on. In recent studies, the concept of informal fallacies has been applied to the context of news [ 62, 63]. As informal fallacies seem to be present in many fake news [ 62, 63], teaching how to recognize and dismantle informal fallacies might be a promising approach to reduce the acceptance and sharing of fake news. This approach has two advantages: First, informal fallacies are domain-independent, meaning that one does not need to be an expert in a particular field to recognize an informal fallacy. A person that might not be an expert on, for example, climate change might still recognize that a certain fake news article is trying to convince them by using complex questions or straw man fallacies, therefore being able to identify the article as not trustworthy. Second, an intervention on informal fallacies could inoculate people against fake news without increasing general media skepticism. A problem of interventions focused more on fake news might be a resulting belief that all news are fake-even real ones [ 58].

Future research might investigate which other kinds of interventions based on the concept of informal fallacies can reduce the acceptance and sharing of fake news. In our experiment, we employed a text-based online intervention. Interactive classroom interventions in which students discuss real-world examples of informal fallacies could further deepen the understanding of the concept. In addition, very brief online interventions such as social media ads could increase the number of people taught about informal fallacies-reducing the influence of fake news on a larger scale [ 64]. Future research in this regard might also employ different outcome variables like digital behavior traces on social media. Using social media interventions and tracking the following behavior could reveal more in-depth behavioral patterns like information seeking and sharing behavior [ 65].

This study shows that a brief online intervention can improve informal reasoning skills. Our research further indicates that increasing citizens' ability to identify informal fallacies could enable them to better discern fake from real news. We encourage educators to add teaching about informal fallacies to established approaches on teaching about fake news and online misinformation.

Supporting information

Data Availability

All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files. The link to the repository is: https://osf.io/7ms9e/.

Funding Statement

The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

References

Associated Data
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Supplementary Materials

Data Availability Statement

All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files. The link to the repository is: https://osf.io/7ms9e/.

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Learning about informal fallacies and the detection of fake news: An experimental intervention

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The philosophical concept of informal fallacies-arguments that fail to provide sufficient support for a claim-is introduced and connected to the topic of fake news detection. We assumed that the ability to identify informal fallacies can be trained ...