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One of Newton's laws of motion which states every particle attracts every other particle in the universe with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.

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After studying Brahe’s data, Kepler concluded that certain mathematical laws govern planetary motion. One of these laws showed that the planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits instead of circles, as was previously thought. Kepler’s laws showed that Copernicus’s basic ideas were true.

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The Greek astronomer expanded the geocentric theory create by Aristotle in the second century A.D.

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A Polish cleric and astronomer. In the early 1500s, Copernicus became interested in an old Greek idea that the sun stood at the center of the universe. After studying planetary movements for more than 25 years, Copernicus reasoned that indeed, the stars, the earth, and the other planets revolved around the sun.

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A logical procedure for gathering and testing ideas

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He helped to bring together their breakthroughs under a single theory of motion. Newton studied mathematics and physics at Cambridge University. By the time he was 26, Newton was certain that all physical objects were affected equally by the same forces.

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An Italian scientist who built on the new theories about astronomy. As a young man, Galileo learned that a Dutch lens maker had built an instrument that could enlarge far-off objects. Galileo built his own telescope and used it to study the heavens in 1609.

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The model in which the Earth and other planets revolve around the sun.

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A new way of thinking about the natural world. That way was based upon careful observation and a willingness to question accepted beliefs.

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The earth-centered view of the universe. Most scholars believed that the earth was an immovable object located at the center of the universe: the moon, the sun, and the planets all moved in perfectly circular paths around the earth.

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A persuasive writer who published an essay called A  indication of the Rights of Woman in 1792. In the essay, she disagreed with Rousseau that women’s education should be secondary to men’s. Rather, she argued that women, like men, need education to become virtuous and useful : Wollstonecraft also urged women to enter the male-dominated fields of medicine and politics.

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Public intellectuals who applied reason to the study of many areas of learning, including philosophy, history, science, politics, economics, and social issues.

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He was passionately committed to individual freedom. A strange, brilliant, and controversial figure, Rousseau strongly disagreed with other Enlightenment thinkers on many matters. Most philosophes believed that reason, science, and art would improve life for all people. Rousseau, however, argued that civilization corrupts people’s natural goodness.

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He devoted himself to the study of political liberty. Montesquieu believed that Britain was the best governed and most politically balanced country of his own day.

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The writer, François Mariepen's pen's name is Voltaire. He published more than 70 books of political essays, philosophy, and drama.

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When people had to hand over their rights to a strong ruler, and in exchange they gained law and order

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a intellectual movement that stressed reason and thought and the power of individuals to solve problems. The movement reached its height in the mid-1700s and

brought great change to many aspects of Western civilization.

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He believed that the best government was one that had the awesome power of a leviathan. Such a government was an absolute monarchy, which could impose order and demand obedience.

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He believed that people could learn from experi-

ence and improve themselves. As reasonable beings, they had the natural ability to govern their own affairs and to look after the welfare of society. Locke criticized absolute monarchy and favored the idea of self-government : According to Locke, all people are born free and equal, with three natural rights—life, liberty, and property.