# data[].attributes.body
2) Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism.

Lipid metabolism is the process that most of the fat ingested by the body is emulsified into small particles by bile and then the lipase secreted by the pancreas and small intestine hydrolyzes the fatty acids in the fat into free fatty acids and monoglycerides.

Vitamin E is a generic term denoting eight different isomers among which alpha-tocopherol is the most important and most active. Vitamin E metabolism is closely linked to lipids during intestinal absorption, plasma secretion and transport, and tissue uptake. It is a key compound involved in many physiological processes, such as neurological and immune functions. The most common role of vitamin E is its antioxidant effect, protecting molecules and tissues against the deleterious effect of free radicals. Vitamin E also contributes to the stabilization of biological membranes.

Vitamin C also known as L-ascorbic acid, is a water-soluble vitamin that is naturally present in some foods, added to others, and available as a dietary supplement. Vitamin C possesses antioxidant potentials, protecting cellular structures from the harmful effects of free radicals. Its significant iron absorption in transforming iron into a form easily absorbed into the intestines. Vitamin C is vital in the production of collagen, which is a structural component of the human body. The synthesis of certain neurotransmitters is also dependent on vitamin C, especially neurotransmitters involved in signalling of feelings, thoughts, and commands throughout the brain and nervous system. Vitamin C is also prerequisite for the synthesis of serotonin, a hormone needed for the proper functioning of the endocrine system, nervous system, digestive system, and immune system.

Selenium plays a central role in human antioxidative defence systems and it has been suggested that high selenium intakes reduce the risk of cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Selenium can regulate metabolic functions through selenium-containing proteins. The immune response and maintenance of tissue homeostasis can possibly be influenced by the selenium status (Carlson et al., 2009).

References:

Feki M, Souissi M, Mebazaa A. La vitamine E: structure, métabolisme et fonctions [Vitamin E: structure, metabolism, and functions]. Ann Med Interne (Paris). 2001 Oct;152(6):384-91. French. PMID: 11907951.

Olorunnisola Olubukola Sinbad, Ajayi Ayodeji Folorunsho, Okeleji Lateef Olabisi, Oladipo Abimbola Ayoola, Emorioloye Johnson Temitope. Vitamins as Antioxidants. Journal of Food Science and Nutrition Research 2 (2019): 214-235.

M. Wu, ... W.-H. Cheng, in Bioactive Food as Dietary Interventions for the Aging Population, 2013.

Lipid Metabolism and Enzymes - Creative Diagnostics. (n.d.). https://www.creative-diagnostics.com/lipid-metabolism-and-enzymes.htm

# data[].attributes.body
Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism.

Vitamin C functions physiologically as a water-soluble antioxidant by virtue of its very strong reducing power (high redox potential) and facile regeneration via ubiquitous reductants such as glutathione, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate. The primary method used to estimate the requirement relates to the vitamin C intake needed to maintain near-maximal neutrophil ascorbate concentration with minimal urinary excretion.

Vitamin E functions as a chain-breaking antioxidant that prevents the propagation of lipid peroxidation. To estimate the requirement, data were examined on the intake of vitamin E that would prevent hydrogen peroxide-induced lysis of erythrocytes. Under these circumstances, vitamin E is acting as an ex vivo antioxidant, maintaining a normal physiological function in humans. Although it is not yet possible to relate vitamin E intake to a lowering of chronic disease risk, it still meets the definition of a dietary antioxidant.

Selenium functions through selenoproteins, several of which are oxidant defense enzymes. The criterion used to estimate the requirement for selenium relates to the intake needed to maximize the activity of the plasma selenoprotein glutathione peroxidase, an oxidant defense enzyme. It is not clear if the diseases associated with selenium deficiencies, Keshan disease or Kashin-Beck disease, are due to oxidative stress.

# data[].attributes.body
1)Discuss lipid-related issues relevant to animal production, including human health concerns (hypercholesterolaemia, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans-fatty acids)

# data[].attributes.headline
NUR NAZURAH MARYAM BINTI ROSLAN F18A0281

# data[].attributes.subject
NUR NAZURAH MARYAM BINTI ROSLAN F18A0281

# data[].attributes.body
Topic 3: Lipid

Please answer these questions:
1)Discuss lipid-related issues relevant to animal production, including human health concerns (hypercholesterolaemia, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans-fatty acids)

Lipid metabolism and fat deposition in various fat depots have been the attention of clinically oriented scientists and animal scientists for many years. The aims of biomedical and food animal lipid metabolism research differ in emphasis, despite the fact that they both deal with a shared biology. In humans, researchers have looked at the processes and control of fat production, fat accumulation in regional fat depots, lipid metabolism, and dysmetabolism in adipose, liver, and cardiac tissues. The focus in food animals has been on fatty acid production and lipid deposition in fat depots, as well as intramuscular fat deposition. Understanding the management of energy balance and body weight, as well as the prevention or treatment of obesity and related diseases, has been a key therapeutic achievement for humans. Lowering fat content in muscle meals while increasing intramuscular fat (marbling) have been significant goals in the development of feeding animals.

Hypercholesterolemia is a complicated condition caused by a combination of genetic flaws, while it may also be caused by a single genetic fault, as in familial hypercholesterolemia. Mice lipoprotein profiles differ from human lipoprotein profiles, and they are resistant to hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis. However, genetic engineering technologies have been successfully utilised to change their lipoprotein profiles. Mice have also been utilised extensively to investigate cholesterol homeostasis processes. One of the key processes that may be addressed to treat hypercholesterolemia is cholesterol excretion.

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is found naturally in ruminant milk fat and meat, although it can be affected by dietary changes. Because milk contains significant quantities of CLA, it offers a viable approach to food redesign. CLA has been demonstrated to have various potential health advantages, including powerful cancer-fighting qualities. The rumen has long been recognised as a source of CLA due to the biohydrogenation and production of CLA from linoleic acid. Other intermediates of biohydrogenation and sequential CLA production in the mammary gland are another key source of CLA.

Human studies have found a link between the consumption of industrial trans fatty acids and the development of cardiovascular disease, prompting numerous nations to pass legislation prohibiting the use of industrial trans fatty acids in food. However, because trans fatty acids are naturally found in ruminant animal meat and dairy products, they cannot be totally removed from the human diet. As a result, whereas bovine and industrial trans fatty acids appear to have similar effects on plasma lipoprotein concentrations in humans, animal studies show that ruminant trans fatty acids may protect against cardiovascular disease.

References :
Bergen, W. G., & Brandebourg, T. D. (2016, June). Regulation of lipid deposition in farm animals: Parallels between agriculture and human physiology. Experimental biology and medicine (Maywood, N.J.). Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4950277/.

Chan, J., Karere, G. M., Cox, L. A., & L.VandeBerg, J. (2015, September 17). Animal models of diet-induced hypercholesterolemia. IntechOpen. Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/47958.

Dhaka, V., Gulia, N., Ahlawat, K. S., & Khatkar, B. S. (2011, October). Trans fats-sources, health risks and Alternative Approach - A Review. Journal of food science and technology. Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3551118/.

Hypercholesterolaemia. Hypercholesterolaemia - Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment | BMJ Best Practice. (n.d.). Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/170.

Larry Muller Professor Emeritus Penn State James Delahoy Director of Nutrition and Technical Services Red Dale Ag Service jdelahoy@reddale.net, Larry Muller Professor Emeritus Penn State, & James Delahoy Director of Nutrition and Technical Services Red Dale Ag Service jdelahoy@reddale.net. (2021, October 17). Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in animal production and human health. Penn State Extension. Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https://extension.psu.edu/conjugated-linoleic-acid-cla-in-animal-production-and-human-health.

Oteng, A.-B., & Kersten, S. (2019, November 29). Mechanisms of action of trans fatty acids. OUP Academic. Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https://academic.oup.com/advances/article/11/3/697/5645621.

# data[].attributes.body
Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism:

Vitamin E on lipid metabolism is to protect essential fatty acid on the body from being oxidized to organic preoxides. It acts as vivo lipid antioxidant which will protect unsaturated fatty acids in tissue lipids against pre-oxidation process. Vitamin E is a potential atherogenesis inhibitor where the tissue response to injury involving chronic inflammation. Hence, vitamin C is also known as ascorbic acid that is required nutrient for a variety of biological functions. It is an essential fatty acids that influence lipid metabolism by different mechanisms. Vitamin C also do promotes cholesterol transformation into bile acids. It provides protection against oxidation stress induced cellular damage by scavenging of reactive oxygen species. It also plays role in function of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) by recycling the cofactor tetrahydrobioprotein which is responsible of blood pressure regulation. Then, selenium is an essential element in the physiological functions of humans and animals. Excessive consumption of selenium may cause disturbances in mechanisms of homeostasis which even can lead to be fatal. It plays a huge role in metabolism and thyroid function which acts to protect against lipid peroxidation, accumulation of compounds containing carbonyl group and protein fragmentation caused by oxidative stress on lipid metabolism. It also helps to reduce oxidative stress by keeping free radical numbers. Selenium also helps to reduce DNA damage in the body also boost the immune system.

# data[].attributes.body
2. Role of antioxidants nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C, selenium on lipid metabolism

Vitamin E

In human, vitamin E (fat soluble vitamin) has a wide range of effects, and mainly two activities of vitamin E in cells have been identified. It is known to have a major role as an antioxidant, protect and preventing free radical damage to tissues, particularly unsaturated lipids. The antioxidant effect is reported to function as a scavenger of both active and singlet oxygen radicals.

Vitamin C

As a water-soluble vitamin, vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is an electron donor and thus a reducing agent. It is called an antioxidant because it prevents other compounds from being oxidized by donating its electron. Vitamin C can be found mostly in fruits and vegetables. Vitamin C aids in the production of the dermis' skin barrier and collagen. Maintaining skin health can lead to antioxidant protection against UV-induced photodamage by promoting keratinocyte differentiation and decreasing melanin production. The ability to combat skin oxidation as well as the control of cellular functions.

Selenium on lipid metabolism
Selenium is essential for the physiological functions of both humans and animals. We may enriched selenium from foods as yeasts and pastas. Selenium lowers the risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and infertility, as well as supporting cell cycle progression and immunological response. Excessive selenium consumption, on the other hand, can disrupt homeostatic systems and can be lethal. When compared to inorganic substances of selenium, organic forms are more easily absorbed by organisms.

References:

Wang1, K. (2018). Role of Vitamin C in Skin Disease, 1-3.

X, W. (1999). Vitamin E and its function in membranes, 310.

Xiaoyuan Wang, P. J. (1999). Vitamin E and its function in membrane, 310.

# data[].attributes.headline
NUR SHAHIDA NAFISAH BINTI BUHAIRA (F18A0164)

# data[].attributes.subject
NUR SHAHIDA NAFISAH BINTI BUHAIRA (F18A0164)

# data[].attributes.body
1. Discuss lipid-related issues relevant to animal production including human health concerns (hypercholesterolemia, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), and trans fatty acids.

Cholesterol is a lipid or fat that circulates in the bloodstream and is used by the body to build cells and create certain compounds it requires. Cholesterol in the body comes from our liver production and meals we eat such as fat from meat and dairy products well as the cholesterol that the liver can produce on its own. Hypercholesterolemia is an abnormally high quantity of cholesterol in the blood that causes atheromatous plaques to form in the arteries (atherosclerosis). As a result, it leads to an increased risk for cardiovascular disorders like heart attacks, strokes, and poor blood circulation to your limbs.  Total cholesterol in the blood of less than 200 mg/dl is considered an “ideal” value and hypercholesterolemia usually refers to levels above 240-250 mg/dl (Ibrahim et al., 2021).

Most trans fatty acids are manufactured in an industrial process that involves adding hydrogen to vegetable oil, causing the oil to solidify at room temperature. Foods manufactured with this partially hydrogenated oil have a longer shelf life since it is less likely to deteriorate. Some meat and dairy products have a small amount of naturally occurring trans-fat. Trans fat increases our low-density lipoprotein (LDL) or “bad” cholesterol and decreases our high-density lipoprotein (HDL) or “good” cholesterol (Trans Fat Is Double Trouble for Your Heart Health, 2020).

Acid conjugated linoleic acid is a family of fatty acids that an omega-6 fatty. It is commonly referred to as CLA. It is usually used in weight loss, bodybuilding, and diabetes supplements. The main dietary sources of CLA are dairy products and beef. CLA supplements could reduce body fat and improve lean body mass (Benjamin et al., 2015). CLA plays a major role in breaking down fats in the body (Lehnen et al., 2015). In research from Den Hartigh et al. (2017) CLA supplemented lost subcutaneous fat, which is a protective and healthy type of fat, but not dangerous visceral fat and did not improve diabetes markers such as fasting blood glucose levels. It is because visceral fat is a significant contributor to insulin resistance.

REFERENCE

Benjamin, S., Prakasan, P., Sreedharan, S., Wright, A. D. G., & Spener, F. (2015). Pros and cons of CLA consumption: an insight from clinical evidence. Nutrition & Metabolism, 12(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-7075-12-4

Den Hartigh, L. J., Wang, S., Goodspeed, L., Wietecha, T., Houston, B., Omer, M., Ogimoto, K., Subramanian, S., Gowda, G. A. N., O’Brien, K. D., Kaiyala, K. J., Morton, G. J., & Chait, A. (2017). Metabolically distinct weight loss by 10,12 CLA and caloric restriction highlight the importance of subcutaneous white adipose tissue for glucose homeostasis in mice. PLOS ONE, 12(2), e0172912. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172912

Ibrahim MA, Asuka E, Jialal I. Hypercholesterolemia. [Updated 2021 Sep 28]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2021 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459188/

Lehnen, T. E., da Silva, M. R., Camacho, A., Marcadenti, A., & Lehnen, A. M. (2015). A review on effects of conjugated linoleic fatty acid (CLA) upon body composition and energetic metabolism. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-015-0097-4

Trans fat is double trouble for your heart health. (2020, February 13). Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/high-blood-cholesterol/in-depth/trans-fat/art-20046114

# data[].attributes.body
Question 2: Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism

Vitamin E

It is identification as a fat-soluble vitamin that occurrence in vegetable oils, and it storage in association with body lipids. The function of vitamin E is as biological antioxidant suggest that close relationship exists between vitamin E and various phases of lipid metabolism.  The observation that atheromatous lesions contain relatively high concentrations of organic peroxides, and cholesterol, and the fact that vitamin E protects essential fatty acids from being oxidized to organic peroxides implicate vitamin E as possible inhibitor in atherogenesis. function of vitamin E in metabolism is of an in vivo lipid antioxidant. It is assumed that vitamin E acts as an in vivo lipid antioxidant, protecting unsaturated fatty acids in tissue lipids against peroxidation.

Vitamin C

known as ascorbic acid that required nutrient for a variety of biological function. Vitamin C has the ability to protect against LPO by acting as a scavenger of scavenging of reactive oxygen species ROS and by one-electron reduction of lipid hydroperoxyl radicals via the vitamin E redox cycle. vitamin C in protection against cellular damage from LPO-derived 2-alkenals.  Antioxidant property of vitamin C could also combat cardiovascular disease by reducing oxidation of low-density lipoprotein.

Selenium

Selenium is an essential component of selenoproteins playing an important role in many biological functions, such as antioxidant defense, formation of thyroid hormones, DNA synthesis, fertility and reproduction. Selenium can be converted in the organism into various metabolites. Some, like methylselenol, play a role in cancer prevention. Selenium has also a role, besides vitamin E, in muscle function by improving endurance and recovery and slowing the ageing process.

REFFERENCE

1.    Anane,  R.  and  Creppy,  E.E.  (2001):  Lipid  peroxidation  as  pathway  of

aluminium cytotoxicity in human skin fibroblast cultures: prevention

by superoxide dismutase+catalase and vitamins E and C. Hum.

2.    Kelleher J, Losowsky MS. The absorption of vitamin E in man. Biochem J.

# data[].attributes.headline
NIK NUR AKMAL 'ALIAH BT ABDUL RASHID (F18A0261)

# data[].attributes.subject
NIK NUR AKMAL 'ALIAH BT ABDUL RASHID (F18A0261)

# data[].attributes.body
1) Discuss lipid related issues relevent to animal production including human health concerns (hypercholestrolaemia conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans-fatty acids).

Hypercholesterolemia is known as the high blood cholesterol level. Liver will produce a waxy substance that is known as cholestrol and it is a component of all the cell that is in the human body. CLA or it is known as conjugated linoleic acid which excites a lot of people especially the scientist. CLA has a high composition in the fats from the ruminant which can give a risk in the cardiometabolic and can change the body composition of the animal.
CLA has a key function in lipid metabolism, especially  in the oxidative cellular system that explains a lot of fatty acids' physiological features. CLA can effect on the lipid metabolism that is  linked to the prevention of glucose entry into the adipocytes, that  can lead to changes in insulin metabolism and hyperinsulinemia, as well as an increase in inflammatory markers. The ability of CLA supplementation to modify body composition, supporting a rise in lean mass and a decrease in fatty mass, is the effect that has received the most attention.
Although human studies have demonstrated that CLA supplementation can help with weight loss, the outcomes are still mixed. Furthermore, some have demonstrated detrimental consequences, such as alterations in glucose metabolism and lipid profile.
Instead of the conventional cis configuration, trans fatty acids have one or more double bonds in the trans configuration.Trans fatty acids have been linked to cardiovascular diseases, breast cancer, shortened pregnancy periods, and visual abnormalities in babies, colon cancer, diabetes, obesity, and allergy.

References

What is Hypercholesterolemia?. (2021). Retrieved 7 November 2021, from https://www.news-medical.net/amp/health/What-is-Hypercholesterolemia.aspx

# data[].attributes.headline
MOHAMMAD ROHAIMI BIN ABDUL AZIZ (F18A0259)

# data[].attributes.subject
MOHAMMAD ROHAIMI BIN ABDUL AZIZ (F18A0259)

# data[].attributes.body
I choose question 2 to answer.
2) Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism

Lipid metabolism is the process where fat ingested by the body undergoes emulsification and break into small particles by the bile stored in gall bladder, or hydrolysis of lipid into triglycerol and free fatty acids.

Vitamin E, also known as tocopherol, is a potential antioxidant that protects essential fatty acids from being oxidize to organic peroxides, which could cause widespread tissue damage in structural lipids. Deficiency of vitamin E in humans results in neurologic abnormalities due to lipid malabsorption syndromes. Besides, lipophilic properties of vitamin E, it partitions into lipid storage organelles and cell membranes. So, it is widely distributed in throughout the body. Antioxidant action of the vitamin hence act as a membrane stabilizer.

Vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, is known for its antioxidant property in protecting body cells against lipid peroxidation or oxidative stress-induced cellular damage by scavenging of reactive oxygen species(ROS), vitamin E-dependent neutralization of lipid hydroperoxyl radicals, and by protecting proteins from alkylation by electrophilic lipid peroxidation products. Antioxidant property of vitamin C could also combat cardiovascular disease by reducing oxidation of low-density lipoprotein.

Selenium is an essential mineral element regulating physiological functions of humans and animals. It is a potent antioxidant trace element which contributes to regulate the cell cycle, the tissue development and the correct body function. Appropriate level of selenium protects the body against lipid peroxidation induced by excessive reactive oxygen species(ROS). For example, it provides antioxidant protection to low-density lipoproteins. If not, it could initiate atherogenesis, a type of heart disease where plaque forms insides arteries and blocks blood flow.

Alfin-Slater, R. B., & Morris, R. S. (1963). Vitamin E and Lipid Metabolism. Advances in Lipid Research, 183–210. doi:10.1016/b978-1-4831-9937-5.50011-9

Kayden, H. J., & Traber, M. G. (1987). The Role of the Antioxidant Tocopherol in Lipid and Lipoprotein Metabolism. In Drugs Affecting Lipid Metabolism (pp. 193-196). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Wang, X., & Quinn, P. J. (1999). Vitamin E and its function in membranes. Progress in lipid research, 38(4), 309-336.

Traber, M. G., & Stevens, J. F. (2011). Vitamins C and E: beneficial effects from a mechanistic perspective. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 51(5), 1000-1013.

Kieliszek, M., Błażejak, S., Bzducha-Wróbel, A., & Kot, A. M. (2019). Effect of selenium on lipid and amino acid metabolism in yeast cells. Biological trace element research, 187(1), 316.

Baraboĭ, V. A., & Shestakova, E. N. (2004). Selenium: the biological role and antioxidant activity. Ukrains' kyi biokhimichnyi zhurnal (1999), 76(1), 23-32.

# data[].attributes.headline
 SITI NURSOLEHAH BINTI ROZAINAL (F18A0226)

# data[].attributes.subject
 SITI NURSOLEHAH BINTI ROZAINAL (F18A0226)

# data[].attributes.body
1)Discuss lipid-related issues relevant to animal production, including human health concerns (hypercholesterolaemia, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans-fatty acids)

# data[].attributes.headline
AMIRAH FAZILA BINTI JAMALUDIN (F18A0001)

# data[].attributes.subject
AMIRAH FAZILA BINTI JAMALUDIN (F18A0001)

# data[].attributes.body
2) Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism

VITAMIN E

Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) functions as an essential lipid soluble antioxidant, scavenging hydroperoxyl radicals in lipid milieu. Human symptoms of vitamin E deficiency suggest that its antioxidant properties play a major role in protecting erythrocyte membranes and nervous tissues. The evidence in humans that α-tocopherol functions as a fat-soluble antioxidant in response to oxidative stress is limited. Oxidative stress caused by ultramarathon running has been shown to increase rates of plasma vitamin E disappearance in humans

VITAMIN C

Vitamin C has the ability to protect against Lipid Peroxidation (LPO) by acting as a scavenger of reactive oxygen speies (ROS) and by one-electron reduction of lipid hydroperoxyl radicals via the vitamin E redox cycle. Furthermore, findings from laboratory support a role for vitamin C in protection against cellular damage from LPO-derived 2-alkenals. Vitamin C-adequate cultured human THP-1 cells exposed to the LPO product, 4-hydroxy-2(E)-nonenal (HNE) showed a significant reduction in protein carbonylation compared to THP-1 cells that were not pre-incubated with vitamin C. Some authors have reported that vitamin C promotes the formation of LPO products from lipid hydroperoxides in vitro, even in the absence of catalytic iron

SELENIUM

Selenium is an essential element in the physiological functions of humans and animals. However, excessive consumption of selenium may cause disturbances in mechanisms of homeostasis and could even be fatal. The bioavailability of selenium in living organisms and its beneficial effects depend, to a large extent, on the chemical form and its quantity in food. Selenium is characterized by a narrow therapeutic index. The right dose of this element positively affects human health and prevents the risk of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and infertility. Selenium supports cell-cycle progression and is essential for optimal immune response. The presence of selenium in aqueous solutions led to an increase in the fatty acid desaturase activity, which consequently reduced the content of saturated fatty acids and increased the fluidity of yeast cell membranes. Fatty acids are components of the cell membrane and are incorporated into the acyl chains and alkyl-1-ethyl chains of cellular lipids

REFERENCES

Traber, M. G., & Stevens, J. F. (2011). Vitamins C and E: beneficial effects from a mechanistic perspective. Free radical biology & medicine, 51(5), 1000–1013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2011.05.017

Kieliszek, M., Błażejak, S., Bzducha-Wróbel, A. et al. Effect of Selenium on Lipid and Amino Acid Metabolism in Yeast Cells. Biol Trace Elem Res 187, 316–327 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-018-1342-x

# data[].attributes.body
Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism.

Some antioxidants are created by the body, whereas others must be taken through food. Vitamins C and E, as well as the mineral selenium, are examples of dietary antioxidants.

The term "vitamin E" refers to a group of fat-soluble molecules with different antioxidant properties. The immune system, gene expression regulation, and cell signalling are all aided by vitamin E, which is primarily in the form of alpha-tocopherol. It also causes blood arteries to dilate and prevents blood clots from forming.

Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin also known as ascorbic acid. It is a strong antioxidant because of its ability to easily donate electrons. Because it is water soluble, it protects molecules in aqueous environments both within and outside cells. Vitamin C is also important in the regeneration of vitamin E by allowing it to be recycled and reused. It also helps with immunological function and enhances dietary iron absorption.

Selenium is a trace mineral that is necessary for life. Selenium, as part of antioxidant enzymes, aids in the regeneration of other antioxidants, such as vitamin C. These enzymes also shield lipids from free radicals, spare vitamin E in the process. An excessive amount of selenium can be harmful (Role of Organic Selenium in poultry feed - Orffa, 2020). As a result of adding selenium in the poultry feed, it also increasing the amount of organic selenium in the chicken feed may improve the bird's performance.

Callahan, A., Leonard, H., & Tamberly Powell, MS, RDN. (2020, October 14). Vitamins and Minerals as Antioxidants. Pressbooks.pub; Pressbooks. https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/nutritionscience/chapter/8e-antioxidant-vitamins-minerals/#:~:text=In%20addition%20to%20its%20antioxidant%20functions%2C%20vitamin%20E%2C,blood%20clot%20formation.%20Food%20Sources%20of%20Vitamin%20E

‌Role of Organic Selenium in poultry feed - Orffa. (2020, October 26). Orffa. https://orffa.com/publications/role-of-organic-selenium-in-poultry-feed/

# data[].attributes.headline
Miza Sabrina Binti Mohd Radzi (F18A0258)

# data[].attributes.subject
Miza Sabrina Binti Mohd Radzi (F18A0258)

# data[].attributes.body
2) Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism.

Vitamin C is a potent water-soluble antioxidant and an electron donor in humans. This vitamin is a primary antioxidant defense that can directly neutralize free radical species by donating high-energy electrons. The ability of vitamin C to protect against lipid peroxidation is by scavenging Reactive Oxygen Species. It can also be done by one-electron reduction of lipid hydroperoxyl radical via vitamin E redox cycle. The lipid peroxidation products are converted into unreactive vitamin C-LPO products, which helps in preventing the interaction of macromolecules like DNA, RNA and proteins, with LPO radicals that can initiate cytotoxic, genotoxic, and inflammatory reactions.

Vitamin E or alpha-tocopherol is a group of eight lipid-soluble compounds synthesized by plants. The main role of this vitamin is to act as an antioxidant by protecting cells from oxidative stress damage caused by loose electrons which known as free radicals. It can also enhance immune system to fight off harmful bacteria and viruses. Vitamin E helps to widen blood vessels and prevent blood clotting in the heart arteries.

Selenium is an essential mineral that can be found naturally in soil, water, and in some food. When this element co-translationally incorporates into polypeptide chain as part of the amino acid selenocysteine, the proteins are defined as selenoproteins. In optimal human and animal health, selenoproteins have been proved its vital importance with their antioxidant activity as they have anti-inflammatory, chemo preventive and antiviral properties. Selenium also helps in improving immune responses such as cancer and proper thyroid function, and protection against cardiovascular and muscle disorders.

References

1. Pehlivan, F. E. (2017, August 2). Vitamin C: An Antioxidant agent. IntechOpen. Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/56013.

2. Traber, M. G., & Stevens, J. F. (2011, September 1). Vitamins C and E: Beneficial effects from a mechanistic perspective. Free radical biology & medicine. Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3156342/.

3. Zoidis, E., Seremelis, I., Kontopoulos, N., & Danezis, G. P. (2018, May 14). Selenium-dependent antioxidant enzymes: Actions and properties of selenoproteins. Antioxidants (Basel, Switzerland). Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5981252/#B76-antioxidants-07-00066.

# data[].attributes.body
I choose the second question which is:

2) Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism.

The effects of vitamin E as an antioxidant on lipid metabolism are studied and Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin that is stored in conjunction with body lipids, and it is likely that vitamin E shields important fatty acids from being oxidised to organic peroxides, implying that vitamin E may be an inhibitor in atherogenesis. Furthermore, Vitamin E is involved in metabolism as an in vivo lipid antioxidant, aiding in the protection of unsaturated fatty acids in tissue lipids against peroxidation. (Alfin-Slater & Morris, 2014)

Meanwhile, according to a new study, vitamin C also has definite impacts on lipid metabolism. If vitamin C levels fall, cholesterol levels rise. Increased dietary vitamin C consumption during the early stages of captivity considerably lowers blood cholesterol levels. Dietary vitamin C improves the turnover rate of the cholesterol body pool by stimulating the synthesis of cholesterol from 14C-labeled acetate and mevalonate in baboon liver homogenates. Baboon cardiac lipoprotein lipase reaction is controlled by vitamin C. (JP, 2021)

Finally, selenium also has an effect on lipid metabolism. An examination of the fatty acid profiles in S. cerevisiae yeast boosted with selenium indicated an increase in the concentration of unsaturated fatty acids. (e.g., C18:1). (Kieliszek, Błażejak, Bzducha-Wróbel & Kot, 2018).

These findings suggest that selenium can cause lipid peroxidation, which compromises the cytoplasmic membrane's integrity.

References

Alfin-Slater, R. B., &amp; Morris, R. S. (2014, June 27). Vitamin E and lipid metabolism. Advances in Lipid Research. Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9781483199375500119.

JP, K. (2021). The effects of vitamin C on lipid metabolism. Retrieved 7 November 2021, from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/809849/

Kieliszek, M., Błażejak, S., Bzducha-Wróbel, A., & Kot, A. (2018). Effect of Selenium on Lipid and Amino Acid Metabolism in Yeast Cells. Biological Trace Element Research, 187(1), 316-327. doi: 10.1007/s12011-018-1342-x

# data[].attributes.body
2) Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism

Roles of vitamin E
The main roles of vitamin E are antioxidant properties. Vitamin E improves immunological function and avoids blood clots in the arteries of the heart. Vitamin E has the potential to protect cells from free radical damage and, has the ability to prevent the formation of free radicals. Furthermore, chronic illness can be cured by using a high dose of vitamin E.

Roles of vitamin C
Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin. Vitamin C is a potent antioxidant that can neutralise damaging free radicals and helps to manage infections and repair wounds. Vitamin C is important to use in the formation of skin, tendons, ligaments, and blood vessels.

Selenium on lipid metabolism
Selenium is an essential nutrient that acts as an antioxidant. Antioxidants are compounds found in foods that protect cells from free radical damage. Meanwhile, free radicals are natural byproducts of processes such as metabolism that occur in our body on a daily basis. Selenium is a good source of antioxidants that fights oxidative stress and aids in the prevention of chronic diseases. Selenium is essential for our immune system. The higher levels of selenium may help us to boost our immune systems. However, consuming too much selenium can lead to selenium toxicity that may have dangerous side effects.

References
Kubala, J. (2019, August 20). 7 Science-Based Health Benefits of Selenium. Healthline; Healthline Media. https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/selenium-benefits#Dangers-of-excessive-selenium-intake

‌

Vitamin E. (2012, September 18). The Nutrition Source. https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/vitamin-e/

‌

# data[].attributes.body
2) Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism.

Vitamin C
Vitamin C plays an important role as an antioxidant that protects cells from the effects of free radicals due to oxidative stress. Oxidative stress occurs when there is an excess of free radicals produced through normal metabolic processes by the body that can damage the cells, proteins, and DNA. Vitamin C is also essential for collagen biosynthesis. There are two main enzymes involved in collagen biosynthesis which are prolyl hydroxylase which works to stabilize the collagen molecule and lysyl hydroxylase which works to give structural strength cross-linking. Collagen is a major component in connective tissue, which plays an important role in wound healing.

Vitamin E
Vitamin E is a fat soluble nutrient that acts as an antioxidant in the metabolism of the body. Vitamin E protecting unsaturated fatty acids in tissue lipids from being oxidized to organic peroxides which called peroxidation. Peroxidation caused free radicals that steal electrons from lipids resulting cell damage.

Selenium
Selenium is an essential mineral that acts as an antioxidant that is essential for maintaining the normal function of metabolism in the body. Selenium plays a role in reducing oxidative stress in order to protect cells from damage by maintaining and neutralizing excessive numbers of free radicals. Selenium is incorporated by replacement of oxygen into serine to produce selenocysteine. This protein that contains selenocysteine ​​is called selenoprotein, which acts as an important intracellular antioxidant in preventing oxidative injury. Examples of selenoproteins are glutathione peroxidase (GPX), thioredoxin reductase (TrxR), and iodothyronine deiodinases (IDD).

# data[].attributes.body
QUESTION 2
Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism

Vitamin E or “α-Tocopherol” is a necessary nutrient for humans because it is required for the prevention of vitamin E deficiency symptoms, including peripheral neuropathy and haemolytic anaemia. Vitamin E is a potent fat-soluble, chain-breaking antioxidant. Vitamin E is the major lipid-soluble antioxidant in the antioxidant defence system of cells and is absorbed exclusively through the diet. The term "vitamin E" refers to a family of eight naturally occurring homologues synthesised by plants from homogenised acid. All are derivatives of 6-chromanol and differ in the number and position of methyl groups in the ring structure. The four tocopherol homologs (d-a-, d-b-, d-g-, and d-d-) have a saturated 16-carbon phytol side chain, whereas the tocotrienol homologs (d-a-, d-b-, d-g-, and d-d-) have three double bonds in the side chain.

Vitamins C role of is helpful to the health and life of the body in the following ways: the vitamin strengthens the body's resistance to disease and prevents and cures various diseases caused by deficiency. It also helps in the digestion and utilization of mineral salts and carbohydrates in the body, stimulating and strengthening the digestive and nervous systems. Finally, it is said to help protect health and contribute to the maintenance of health and normal growth.

Selenium levels in a normal adult human can vary widely. Levels ranging from 3 mg in New Zealanders to 14 mg in some Americans reflect the profound influence of the natural environment on the selenium content of soils, crops, and human tissues. Approximately 30 percent of tissue selenium is found in the liver, 15 percent in the kidneys, 30 percent in muscle, and 10 percent in blood plasma. Much of the tissue selenium is contained in proteins as selenium analogues of sulphur-containing amino acids; other metabolically active forms are selenotrisulfides and other acid-labile selenium compounds. At least 15 selenoproteins have now been characterized. Selenium has been linked to the protection of body tissues from oxidative stress, the maintenance of defences against infection, and the modulation of growth and development.

REFERENCES
1)Ahmed Follow, O. (2015, May 15). Vitamins. Retrieved November 07, 2021, from https://www.slideshare.net/suraiyaoyshe/vitamins-final

2) Kandeil, M., Hassanin, K., Eltwab, M., & Safwat, G. (1970, January 01). Antioxidant role of vitamin C in alleviating the reproductive toxicity of lead acetate in male rats: Semantic scholar. Retrieved November 07, 2021, from https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Antioxidant-Role-of-Vitamin-C-in-Alleviating-the-of-Kandeil-Hassanin

3) Mehdi, Y. (n.d.). Selenium. Retrieved November 07, 2021, from https://www.fao.org/3/Y2809E/y2809e0l.htm

# data[].attributes.body
1) Discuss lipid-related issues relevant to animal production, including human health concerns (hypercholesterolemia, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), and trans-fatty acids).

Animal-derived foods are a significant source of nutrients for humans. Concerns were raised on their saturated fatty acids content, in which concerns have been raised concerning the role of certain foods in an elevated risk of cardiovascular disease and other diseases. There are several lipid-related issues relevant to animal production, including human health concerns such as hypercholesterolemia, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), and trans-fatty acids.

Hypercholesterolaemia is known as a term used to describe a high blood cholesterol level. The liver produces all of the cholesterol a person needs, however, there is another source which is dietary cholesterol which is from animal-derived products such as meat, dairy products, egg yolks and etc. Such foods with rich saturated fats and trans fat can cause the liver to produce an excess of cholesterol, which can result in hypercholesterolemia when consume too much. There are two types of hypercholesterolemia which are nonfamilial and familial. Non-familial is the most most common one. It occurs in those with a vulnerable genotype and is exacerbated by a high intake of saturated fats and cholesterol. Familial hypercholesterolemia is an inherited genetic disorder. Usually, people may inherit the normal gene or the defective gene. The probability will be around 50%. The occurrence for this condition is 1 in 500. As a result, it is frequently preventable through healthy lifestyle choices such as regular exercise and eating a low-fat diet.

Conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) are the most common omega-6 fatty acids, which we could find in vegetable oil in a large amount and technically a trans fat that is very different from the industrial trans fat that could harm our health. The dietary source of CLA is meat and milk from ruminants. The level of CLA in the food depends on the diet of the animals. It was determined by researchers that CLA could help in reducing body fats. Despite this, the effects are small and unreliable which could not make a difference in everyday life. The CLA contained in most supplements differs from the CLA found naturally in meals. CLA has been attributed to a number of negative side effects in animal and human studies, including increased liver fat, insulin resistance and lower HDL cholesterol

Trans-fatty acids are synthetic fats produced during the hydrogenation process, which are intended to stabilize polyunsaturated oils and keep them solid at room temperature by preventing them from becoming rancid. They could be particularly harmful to heart health and may increase the risk of some cancers. This trans fat is the worst for our health compared to other fats. Trans fat can be found in fast processed and packaged foods. Animals-derived food has a small amount of trans fat compared to processed food. They raised the LDL (bad) cholesterol and reduced the HDL (good) cholesterol. High LDL levels can trigger cholesterol to build up in the arteries. In addition, the human body does not need or benefit from trans fats, eating these trans fats increases the risk for health problems. It is recommended not to eat at all or eat as little as possible.

# data[].attributes.headline
KHADIJAH BINTI MOHAMMED FAISEOL (F18A0256)                       

# data[].attributes.subject
KHADIJAH BINTI MOHAMMED FAISEOL (F18A0256)                       

# data[].attributes.body
2) Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C, and selenium on lipid metabolism

Vitamin E acts as a chain-breaking antioxidant, preventing the spread of lipid peroxidation. The researchers collect data on vitamin E intake in order to prevent hydrogen peroxide-induced lysis of erythrocytes. Under these conditions, vitamin E acts as an in-vivo lipid antioxidant to protect unsaturated fatty acids in tissue lipids from peroxidation, allowing humans to maintain normal physiological function. Although it is not yet possible to reduce the risk of chronic disease with vitamin E, it still meets the definition of a dietary antioxidant.

Vitamin C is required for the proper function of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) by recycling the eNOS cofactor, tetrahydrobiopterin, which is important for arterial elasticity and blood pressure regulation.
Vitamin C, which functions as an antioxidant related to lipid metabolism, may also help reduce the risk of heart disease. A research of 13 studies, for example, looked at the effects of taking at least 500 mg of vitamin C daily on risk factors for heart disease, such as blood cholesterol and triglyceride levels. The study discovered that taking a vitamin C supplement reduced LDL (bad) cholesterol by 7.9 mg/dL and blood triglycerides by 20.1 mg/dL.

Selenium is essential for metabolism and thyroid function, as it protects against lipid peroxidation protein fragmentation and the accumulation of compounds containing carbonyl groups caused by oxidative stress on lipid metabolism.

REFERENCES
Institute of Medicine (US) Panel on Dietary Antioxidants and Related Compounds. (1970, January 1). Vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, and β-carotene and other carotenoids: Overview, antioxidant definition, and relationship to chronic disease. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK225471/.

# data[].attributes.body
2) Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism

Antioxidant is the human body's oxidation process produces unstable molecules known as free radicals, which destroy cell membranes and other structures. However, the damage caused by an excess of free radicals can become permanent over time, leading to diseases like heart disease and liver disease, as well as cancers like oral, stomach, and bowel cancers. Antioxidants, which can be found in a variety of foods, can help to mitigate some of the damage caused by free radicals by neutralizing them. Vitamins C and E, and selenium are among these antioxidants nutrients.

Vitamin E can be found in a variety of foods, including vegetable oils, avocados, nuts, seeds, and whole grains. Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin, which means it may be absorbed via the skin. The main function of this enzyme is to protect cell membranes from lipid damage induced by free radicals. Vitamin E is important for nerve and muscle development and function, in addition to its antioxidant properties. It also aids in the absorption of vitamin A if one's dietary intake is inadequate.

Oranges, blackcurrants, mangoes, broccoli, spinach, and strawberries are high in vitamin C. Vitamin C, often known as ascorbic acid, is a water-soluble vitamin that has been linked to the development of cancer. Vitamin C is a powerful antioxidant because of its capacity to easily donate electrons. It preserves lipids by neutralizing free radicals and assisting in vitamin E regeneration. Vitamin C is necessary for various enzymes that work with brain signaling molecules and amino acids. Vitamin C levels are influenced by the amount of food consumed, which is influenced by the amount absorbed and excreted by the kidney, such that the higher the intake, the more vitamin C is excreted.

Seafood, offal, lean meat, and whole grains foods all contain selenium. The glutathione peroxidase antioxidant enzyme system requires selenium to function properly. Selenium aids in the regeneration of glutathione and oxidized vitamin C, as well as acting as a component of glutathione peroxidase. It also protects lipids from free radicals, sparing vitamin E in the process. Protecting endothelial cells that line tissues, converting dormant thyroid hormone to the active form, and modulating inflammatory and immune system responses are all roles of selenium-containing proteins.

REFERENCES
1. Antioxidants - Better Health Channel. (2021). Retrieved 7 November 2021, from https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/healthyliving/antioxidants
2. 8.2: Antioxidant Nutrients. (2020). Retrieved 7 November 2021, from https://med.libretexts.org/Courses/Metropolitan_State_University_of_Denver/Introduction_to_Nutrition_(Diker)/08%3A_Nutrients_Important_as_Antioxidants/8.02%3A_Antioxidant_Micronutrients

# data[].attributes.headline
NOR ATIQ ATIQAH BINTI NAJMUDDIN F19B0114 

# data[].attributes.subject
NOR ATIQ ATIQAH BINTI NAJMUDDIN F19B0114 

# data[].attributes.body
2) The purpose to discuss two role antioxidant nutrient such as vitamin C and vitamin E. This nutrient to describe mechanism in their diet. For example as a dieatary supplements.

VITAMIN C
vitamin c (absorbic acid) to required nutrient for variety of biological functions. Humans and others primates have lost the ability to synthesize ascorbic ace because of defect in L-gulono-1,4-lactone oxidase. Next, human primate and a few others animal. For example, pigs depends on diet as a source of vitamin C to defence disease, scurvy and to maintain general health. Vitamin C can also function as source the signaling molecule, hydrogen peroxide in plants. Vitamin c in human studies is not suffieciently compelling to advise individuals, healthy and risk but to take antioxidant supplements to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease.

Vitamin E
Vitamin E is a potent lipid-soluble, chain  breaking antioxidant. The function of Vitamin E is a potent peroxyl radical scavenger which is chain-breaking antioxidant that prevent the propagation of free radicals in membrane and plasma. Next, the interaction vitamin E and vitamin C idea of vitamin E recycling where the antioxidant function of oxidized vitamin E is continuosly restored by other antioxidants. The antioxidant networks depends on the supply of aqueos antioxidants and the metabolic activity. Vitamin E also major role for protecting membrane and nervous tissues from oxidative stress.

Selenium on lipid
Antioxidant like selenium help to reduce oxidative stress by keeping free radical numbers. There are works as neutralizing excess the radicals and protect cells from damage cause by oxidative stress. Then, also may reduce risk from cancer. Sillenium may help reduce DNA damage and oxidative stress, boost our immune system and destroy cancer cell.

# data[].attributes.body
2) Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism

for vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium and carotenoids. The main premise of the report does not uphold the  popular idea that high doses of antioxidants  prevent chronic disease. Instead, the panel concluded that currently, there is not enough scientific evidence  to support the claim that eating antioxidant megadoses in the diet can prevent certain chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease. or cancer. In some cases, recommended nutrient levels have been dropped. Despite dietary recommendations  for vitamin A, the panel has not established recommendations for beta-carotene or  other carotenoids due to a lack of adequate research to support recommended intake or a higher tolerance level is tolerable. However, the panel advised the public to avoid the use of provitamin A compounds, such as many carotenoids, in excess of those necessary to prevent vitamin A deficiency. Estimates of the amount of provitamin A carotenoids needed to produce a retinal unit. Revised estimates show conversion rates twice as high as previously believed. Although this comprehensive report on Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium and Carotenoids does not definitively confirm the role of antioxidants in the prevention of chronic disease in humans. .

# data[].attributes.body
Hypercholesterolaemia is high levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) or non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C). It is a risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, including cerebrovascular disease, coronary heart disease, and peripheral arterial disease. Consuming low-fat dairy products would help to lower cholesterol.

Conjugated linoleic acids (CLAs) are polyunsaturated fatty acids that are found naturally in ruminant food products and dairy products. The CLA content of meat from ruminant animals is less than the CLA in dairy products. CLA have their benefits such as anti-carcinogenic or anti-cancer effects. Consumption of CLA-enriched milk could provide considerable benefits for human health.

Trans fatty acids are produced either by industrial hydrogenation or by biohydrogenation in the rumens of cows and sheep. It contains 1 or more unconjugated double bonds in the trans configuration. Industrial trans fatty acids lower HDL cholesterol, increase LDL cholesterol and increase the risk of coronary heart disease. Reduce intake of ruminant fats in the diet is suggested as it is the major source of saturated fatty.

References

1. Animal Nutrition and Lipids in Animal Products and Their Contribution to Human Intake and Health (2009, August 14). Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221755864_Animal_Nutrition_and_Lipids_in_Animal_Products_and_Their_Contribution_to_Human_Intake_and_Health.

2. Brouwer, I. A., Wanders, A. J., & Katan, M. B. (2010, March 2). Effect of animal and industrial trans fatty acids on HDL and LDL cholesterol levels in humans--a quantitative review. PloS one. Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2830458/.

3. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in animal production and human health (2016, February 11). Penn State Extension. Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https://extension.psu.edu/conjugated-linoleic-acid-cla-in-animal-production-and-human-health.

# data[].attributes.headline
MUHAMMAD AMEER TAQIUDDIN BIN MD NOOR(F18B0080)

# data[].attributes.subject
MUHAMMAD AMEER TAQIUDDIN BIN MD NOOR(F18B0080)

# data[].attributes.body
2) Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as vitamin E, vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism.

Vitamin C's biological effects are mostly due to its role as an enzyme cofactor and antioxidant. Vitamin C's significance in brain development and cell communication via hydrogen peroxide generation, as well as its participation in Michael addition reactions to generate conjugates of electrophilic intermediates, are all being investigated. Vitamin E is an anti-oxidant that scavenges lipid hydroperoxyl radicals as a vital nutrient. Tocopherol is a required nutrient for humans because it is necessary for the prevention of vitamin E deficiency symptoms, including peripheral neuropathy and hemolytic anemia. Vitamin E is a potent lipid-soluble, chain breaking antioxidant. Vitamin E can affect blood coagulation by interfering with vitamin K production and/or redox cycling at high levels, which can be advantageous in some people but dangerous in others. Many vitamin C and E supplementation experiments aimed at reducing oxidative stress and LPO have failed to show positive results on clinical endpoints in medical illnesses linked to high levels of oxidative stress. Selenium is a trace mineral that is well known as being extremely beneficial to human health, since it protects cells from the destructive effects of free radicals. Selenium is important for metabolism and thyroid function because it protects against lipid peroxidation, the formation of carbonyl-containing chemicals, and protein fragmentation, all of which are produced by oxidative stress on lipid metabolism.

REFERENCES
Gaziano JM, Glynn RJ, Christen WG, Kurth T, Belanger C, MacFadyen J, Bubes V, Manson JE, Sesso HD, Buring JE. Vitamins E and C in the prevention of prostate and total cancer in men: the Physicians' Health Study II randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2009;301:52–62. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

# data[].attributes.headline
Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as Vitamin E, Vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism.

# data[].attributes.subject
Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as Vitamin E, Vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism.

# data[].attributes.body
VITAMIN C is a great as anti-oxidant relate to lipid organism and ease of regeneration glutathione and other widespread reductants,

·         Vitamin C operates physiologically as a water-soluble antioxidant. Vitamin C also prevents the formation of potent carcinogens, such as nitrosamine. VC protects neutrophils against oxidative stress induced by free radicals associated with the oxidative burst , stimulates interferon production, which protects cells against viral attack

VITAMIN E protects important fatty acids from being oxidised to organic peroxides, which is one of its functions in lipid metabolism. Vitamin E is a potential atherogenesis inhibitor, ( tissue response to injury involving chronic inflammation)

·          it also serves as an in vivo lipid antioxidant, protecting unsaturated fatty acids in tissues lipids from peroxidation.( The intake of oxygen causes a rearrange of double bonds in unsaturated lipids, which leads to membrane lipid breakdown.)

·         Vitamin E acts as an ex vivo antioxidant in these conditions, allowing humans to maintain normal physiological function. it plays a major role in preventing oxidative damage to membrane lipids by scavenging free radicals. Protect cell from free radical

SELENIUM works through selenoproteins, which include various oxidant defence enzymes.
the oxidant defence enzyme plasma selenoprotein glutathione peroxidase. to protect the fatty acids from oxidation

·         Selenium  is a mineral which plays a key role in antioxidant enzymes (glutathione peroxidase) that protect cellular membranes from oxidative damage. Have higher absorption rate defence and so maintains proper physiological function, and thus serves as a dietary antioxidant.

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4093111/

Ames BN, Shigenaga MK, Hagen TM. 1993. Oxidants, antioxidants, and the degenerative diseases of aging. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:7915–7922. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

# data[].attributes.headline
NURUL AWATIF BINTI MOHD YUSRI (F18A0185)

# data[].attributes.subject
NURUL AWATIF BINTI MOHD YUSRI (F18A0185)

# data[].attributes.body
QUESTION 1

There are several lipid-related issues relevant to animal production, including human health concerns such as hypercholesterolaemia, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and trans-fatty acids. For Hypercholestrolaemia, diets high in cholesterol and fat (HCHF) are frequently to blame for hypercholesterolemia. Genetic variables determine susceptibility to diet-induced hypercholesterolemia. For Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA), it is a naturally occurring component of ruminant milk fat and meat that has powerful anti-cancer capabilities. The concentration of CLA in bovine milk is heavily controlled by the cow's diet. Consumption of CLA-enriched milk may have significant health benefits for human. CLA may prove to be a "designer milk" or "functional food" with significant potential and value. Next is trans fatty acids. Trans fatty acids are produced by either industrial hydrogenation or biohydrogenation in ruminant animals. Consumption of these industrial trans fatty acids elevates the total to HDL cholesterol ratio in the blood, as well as the risk of coronary heart disease.

REFERENCES:
-Brouwer, I. A., Wanders, A. J., & Katan, M. B. (2010). Effect of animal and industrial trans fatty acids on HDL and LDL cholesterol levels in humans--a quantitative review. PloS one, 5(3), e9434. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0009434

-Larry Muller Professor Emeritus Penn State James Delahoy Director of Nutrition and Technical Services Red Dale Ag Service jdelahoy@reddale.net, Larry Muller Professor Emeritus Penn State, & James Delahoy Director of Nutrition and Technical Services Red Dale Ag Service jdelahoy@reddale.net. (2021, October 17). Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in animal production and human health. Penn State Extension. Retrieved November 7, 2021, from https://extension.psu.edu/conjugated-linoleic-acid-cla-in-animal-production-and-human-health.

Chan, J., Karere, G. M., Cox, L. A., & VandeBerg, J. L. (2015). Animal models of diet-induced Hypercholesterolemia. John L. VandeBerg ED1-Sekar Ashok Kumar, Translator.

# data[].attributes.headline
NOR HIDAYAH BINTI ABDUL GHONI (F19A0272)

# data[].attributes.subject
NOR HIDAYAH BINTI ABDUL GHONI (F19A0272)

# data[].attributes.body
2) Discuss the roles of antioxidant nutrients such as Vitamin E, Vitamin C and selenium on lipid metabolism.

The roles of Vitamin E on lipid metabolism are  to protects essential fatty acids from being oxidized to organic peroxides implicate vitamin E as possible inhibitor in atherogenesis and vitamin E also acts as an vivo lipid antioxidant, protecting unsaturated fatty acids in tissues lipids against peroxidation meanwhile vitamin C provides protection against oxidative stress-induced cellular damage by scavenging of reactive oxygen species. Besides that, vitamin C also plays an important roles  in the function of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) by recycling the eNOS cofactor, tetrahydrobiopterin, which is relevant to arterial elasticity and blood pressure regulation. Next, vitamin C is a source of the signaling molecule, hydrogen peroxide and as a Michael donor to form covalent adducts with endogenous electrophiles in plants. Lastly, selenium  plays a critical role in metabolism and thyroid function which is acts to protect against lipid peroxidation, accumulation of compounds containing carbonyl groups and protein fragmentation caused by oxidative stress on lipid metabolism.

# data[].attributes.headline
QR code attendance for 3/11/2021 Wednesday

# data[].attributes.subject
QR code attendance for 3/11/2021 Wednesday