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Even this cancer cell is smiling!

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Amino acids are one of the four essential biological molecules to life. There are 20 amino acids that are universal across all living organisms. Each amino acid is made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and an R group as well as containing an amine group (NH2) and a carboxyl group (COOH). The R group is the most important part as it determines the function of the amino acid. When the amino and the carboxyl group of two amino acids join together, a dipeptide is formed with water as it is a condensation reaction. When 2-20 amino acids are joined, this is called a oligopeptide. Only when there are over 100, it is called a polypeptide.

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The G1​ checkpoint

The G1 checkpoint where the cell determines whether or not it is going to divide. It checks the cell size, nutrients, growth factors, and if there is DNA damage. If the cell isn’t ready to divide, it will go in the G0 phase.

The G2 checkpoint

Before mitosis, the cell will have another check point to make sure cell division will run smoothly. The cell will check if the DNA is undamaged and correctly copied. If the cell is beyond repair, the cell will be destroyed to prevent cancer.

The M checkpoint

During mitosis, the cell will check to see if the sister chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle fibers. If a chromosome is misplaced, the cell will pause mitosis to allow the chromatid to attach.

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Prophase

Chromosomes coil up. The nucleolus and nucleus membrane break down and disappears. Microtubules will form at the poles of the cell which will create spindle fibers.

Metaphase

Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell and spindle fibers connect to the centromeres. The microtubules will be put under tension to make sure attachment of chromosomes is correct.

Anaphase

The centromere divides, and chromatids separate. Two chromatids are made into a chromosome and then pulled to the oppose sides of the cell.

Telophase

Spindle fibers disappear, and the chromosomes uncoil. Nucleolus forms as well as the nuclear membrane.

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Animal cells

The cytoplasm will pinch in the center of the cell due to a ring of contractile proteins called actins and myosin. This creates a cleavage furrow which is where the cell will separate into two.

Plant cells

Vesicles will move to the center of the cell to form two layers of membrane which is called a cell plate. Pectin is brought in by daughter cells using exocytosis which forms a middle lamella that links the new cell wall. Cellulose is also brought in by exocytosis to form the cell wall.

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Cytosine and guanine are the other two complementary bases of the four total nucleotide bases found in DNA. Three hydrogen bonds link these two bases together when forming the double helix.

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Years ago, many believed in the theory that living organisms had a distinct “force” that differentiated living organisms from inorganic entities. This “force” was completely separate from physics and chemistry. Any product made by the human body would not be able to be recreated using any type of inorganic materials.

However, this theory was proved false after Friedrich Wöhler synthesized urea using only inorganic compounds. Urea is a byproduct of urine that is used to rid the body of broken down proteins and ammonia. It is produced by the liver then is transported to the kidney. Now we know that it can be artificially made by reacting NH3 with carbon dioxide using a complex process of recirculation and evaporation.

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Cells cannot progress to the next stage until a specific cyclin is used. Cyclins will bind to enzymes called the cyclin dependent kinases. The kinase will become active and attaches to the phosphate group to a protein. Other proteins will become activated and carry out their tasks.

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In order to make lactose-free milk, beads coated in lactase is needed as lactase breaks down lactose. The enzyme lactase is immobilized meaning it cannot be removed from the beads. This is good so the enzyme can be reused and they are more stable so the rate of reaction will be high. Milk is poured over the beads so that the lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose. The milk is sweet so artificial sweeter is not needed. When making ice cream, the crystallization is reduced so it lasts longer. Also it shortens the production of cheese and yogurt.

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1-3 Strong acid
4-6 Weak acid
7 Neutral
8-10 Weak alkali
11-14 Strong alkali

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Adenine and thymine are two complementary bases of the four total nucleotide bases found in DNA. Two hydrogen bonds link these two bases together when forming the double helix.

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When water is dragged across the wax paper, it is repelled by the wax so the puddle sticks together

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Cohesion is water being attracted to other water molecules. This is due to the oxygen molecules being attracted to the hydrogen molecules, making water polar.

Adhesion is water sticking to surfaces and other substances.

Since water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen, the covalent bonds allow for a structure in which the hydrogen can bond with other oxygen molecules. These bonds are weak and are called hydrogen bonds.

Water will dissolve polar and ionic substances as it weakens intermolecular forces and disassociates the atoms. All substances that dissolve in water are called hydrophilic.

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Cancer is a condition where some cells in the body are dividing rapidly and recklessly. Tumors, an abnormal mass of tissue, form which can be benign or malignant. Malignant cells are extremely dangerous as metastasis can occur which when more malignant tumors form away from the primary site of cancer.

Cancer although the cause for cancer generally unpredictable, it can occur for many reasons. Mutagens are physical or chemical agents that cause mutations which occur in the DNA of genes. For example, gamma rays and some radioactive substances. Oncogenes are genetic material that carries the ability to induce cancer such as mutated BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes as they will not be able to produce tumor suppressing proteins. Also, carcinogens which are substances that can directly cause cancer like tobacco smoke and PVC

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Stem cells are cells that have the potential to become any cell as they are non-specialized. They can come from multiple sources such as adult tissues, umbilical cords, and embryos. As stem cells have the potential to become any body cell, they are vital to human medicine. Stem cells have the ability to divide rapidly, thus can be used to treat parts of the body in need of replacement cells. No cell in the body has been found to have similar properties which is why stem cell research is vital to us.

As many know, stem cells can come from adults, however embryonic stem cells ultimately are the best for medical use. Not only are they safer to extract, one cell embryos are totipotent (meaning that they can literally become any cell). These cells can help anyone and any part of the body. To extract adult cells, one must remove them from deep tissue or bone marrow. The process is extremely painful and dangerous. Adult stem cells considered multipotent (meaning they have limited cell specialization properties) so they aren't worth the current risk. Embryonic stem cells are not only practical but can save millions of lives.

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When water was dripped on the coin, it did not split. Instead it made a large droplet that increased in size due to adhesion and cohesion of the water. Water high as surface tension but it will spill at a certain point.

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Cells that are in interphase have a visible nucleus which are the black dots for this cell.

The mitotic index can be used to calculate the number of cells undergoing mitosis to the number of cells in interphase.
Formula: number of cells in mitosis / total number of cells

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Unlike water, ethanol has a lower surface tension so when more drops were added, the ethanol spilled.

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Enzymes are a biological catalyst that plays a large role in metabolism in cells. Kinetic energy, orientation, pressure, concentration, temperature, and pH all have a role in the effectiveness of the reaction of enzymes. Enzymes are able to lower the activation energy needed for the reaction to take place. Enzymes are can never be used up in a reaction. The three main factors of rate of reaction are pH, temperature, and the concentration of the substrate.

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Denaturing is when the active site of a protein changes due to the bonds being disrupted, changing the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures. This is caused by changes in temperature or pH.

Temperature

Enzymes and their substrates meet due to the result of random collisions between molecules. When the temperature will be low, the velocity of the molecules is very low therefore the likelihood of collisions is decreased. This will slow down the production of products. As the temperature rises, the collisions will become more frequent due to higher kinetic energy. At a certain point, the optimum temperature will be reached. This is when the most collisions are occurring due to high kinetic energy. If it becomes too hot, the enzyme will denature, causing less reactions.

pH

Enzyme action is influenced by pH because the amino acids that make up an enzyme molecule contain many positive and negative regions, some of which are around the active site. Enzymes work best at the optimum temperature where activity is highest. Therefore, an excess of certain H+ ions in an acidic solution can lead to bonding between these ions and negative charges in the active site or other parts of an enzyme. This interaction can inhibit the matching process between the enzyme and its substrate, making it slow down or even prevent this enzyme activity. The same goes for a solution that has too many OH- ions, it will upset the enzymes activity. At extreme values of pH, the enzyme may even lose its shape and be denatured.

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In this experiment, use took bacteria samples from phones and smeared them on sterile agar. The areas in yellow and white are the prokaryotic colonies that formed.

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The induced fit theory is considered more correct than the lock and key theory. In this theory, the enzyme’s active site changes to fit the substrate as it is flexible. This allows for a greater range of functions for enzymes which improves catalysts.

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Sometimes enzymes are immobilized when they are being used. This is greatly beneficial when controlling the rate of enzyme reaction. The concentration of a substrate can be increased as the enzyme will not dissolve within the products. Recycled enzymes can be used many times which is cost saving. Separating the products of the reaction is very straightforward. The enzyme is more stable even if there are changes in pH and temperature which reduces the rate of enzyme derogation.

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Emil Fischer used the concept of a lock and key to explain how enzymes worked. The enzyme has a specific structure to fit with the specific substrate. If the “lock and key” did not fit, then there would be no reaction. The substrate should perfectly bind to the active site of an enzyme.

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Diffusion is the net movement of particles from regions of high concentration to areas of low concentration across a concentration gradient. There are 4 main factors that affect diffusion: distance, temperature, concentration of solution, and surface area to volume ratio. In this image, dye diffused into the agar blocks. Surface area to volume ratio is the main affecter of how much dye diffused into the block. Cubes with the highest surface area to volume ration had the highest high percent diffusion.

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Globular proteins are proteins that round and made up of an irregular amino acid base sequence. These are usually soluble in water as their hydrophilic amino acids are bound on the outside while the apolar amino acids are bounded on the inner part of the folds. However, these proteins are more sensitive to changes in pH and temperature therefore aren’t very durable. Global proteins have a functional role in the body such as being an enzyme, insulin, or hemoglobin.

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Exceptions to cell theory - striated muscle cells

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Exceptions to cell theory - striated muscle cells

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These muscle cells are made up of long fibers that can be up to 300mm. Unlike normal cells, they are contain multiple nuclei.

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Fibrous proteins are long, narrow proteins with a repetitive amino acid sequence. They are usually not soluble in water but are more durable meaning they are less sensitive to temperature and pH changes. These proteins have a more structural role in the body like collagen, keratin, or elastin.

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Giant algae cells are unicellular but can grow up to over 7cm.

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Exceptions to cell theory - aseptate hyphae fungi

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Exceptions to cell theory - aseptate hyphae fungi

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This type of fungi is made up of hyphae which have a continuous cytoplasm, containing multiple nuclei.

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DNA is a molecule made up of nucleotides arranged in an anti-parallel structure. Unlike RNA, it is a double stranded helix made up of a phosphate backbone, deoxyribose sugar, and a nitrogenous base. Nucleotides link together through covalent bonds along the phosphate group and hydrogen bonds between the nitrogen base.

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When trying to draw/remember the Krebs cycle, this is a simple way to break down the steps.

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Rate of photosynthesis depending on type of cholorophyll

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Rate of photosynthesis depending on type of cholorophyll