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The change between when a species forms into another cannot be determined by fossil record. Although, there are two hypotheses to help further understand these changes. First, is the Phyletic Speciation which says that the mutations happen suddenly and quickly, however only after the species has existed for a long time. This theory relates to Punctuated Equilibrium, which is Next is Divergent Speciation. Divergent Speciation almost the complete opposite in which a slow gathering of information about small changes in genetic results in a small portion of a population. Then, eventually become so many small changes, that it’s a whole new developed species. This could happen at the same time as gradualism which is the theory that evolution occurs slowly. The other theory is Punctuated Equilibrium, which is the opposite of gradualism. Instead of evolution moving slowly, Punctuated Equilibrium happens in sudden outbursts and those outbursts could be spread between long periods of time with little or almost no change at all. An example of this is the Geological time scale. The geological time scale is the history of earth, broken down into various events. The markers on this scale are such as types of species and how they evolved.

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Fossils are extremely useful when found, because of the plates that that they were fossilized in. Scientists also seem to find some of the same fossils in different countries. For example, the Mesosaurus was found in South Africa, then in South America. The Mesosaurus simply could not swim 5,000 miles in the Atlantic Ocean, meaning the fossil dates all the way back to the early permian. The early permian age was when dinosaurs still walked the earth, and also when South America and South africa were connected as one. Alfred Wegener discovered this theory in the early 20th century, explaining the “puzzle-piece fit”. However, before the early permian age was Pangaea. Pangaea was a colossal super-continent. This super-continent was all of our continents mashed together as one. Then, the continents started to split, therefore leaving our countries where they are now. So this explains why the fossils were found 5,000 miles spread apart. These creatures walked either during the early permian age, or when Pangaea was still together.

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Catastrophic events have changed the surface of the Earth dramatically. Geoscience processes have changed the Earth because of plate tectonics creating landforms over long periods of time. Weathering and erosion have changed the Earth slowly and at different scales, such as the El Reno Tornado which obliterated an entire 16 miles of land in the center of Oklahoma. This occured on May 31,2013. According to radar estimates, the tornado stretched as far as 2.6 miles in circumference, which is the equivalent of 45 football fields. Eight people died, all of them in their vehicles, which includes 3 storm researchers. And several others were killed while attempting to escape the tornado. Finally 2 others died while waiting for the storm to pass.

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Mt.Tambora crater after eruption in 1815

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Mt.Tambora crater after eruption in 1815

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Volcanoes can be extremely deadly when they erupt. Mount St. Helens in the state of Washington erupted in May 1980, and the energy it released was equivalent to the largest hydrogen bomb ever exploded. One hundred times more powerful was the a eruption in 1815 of the stratovolcano Tambora on the Indonesian island of Sumbawa. The ash cloud released by the volcano lowered global temperatures by as much as 5°F (3°C) from late spring to early autumn the following year. Another big explosion was the explosion of Mount Tambora, which is still active. This is the largest ever recorded by humans, ranking a 7 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index, which is the second-highest rating in the index. It’s located on Sumbawa Island and is one of the tallest peaks in the Indonesian archipelago. The eruption reached its peak in April 1815. The eruption was so loud, it was heard on Sumatra Island, more than 1,200 miles away. The death toll from the eruption was estimated at 71,000 people, and clouds of heavy ash spread everywhere.

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Glaciers have been melting and collapsing due to global warming. However this has become a huge problem because of how much this could affect us as humans and the earth itself. A glacier is a mass of snow that has been compacted together to create a giant piece of ice. When they fall, they can create different types of landforms. Glaciated valleys, fjords, and horns (Horns is a type of mountain that’s very sharp and pointy at the very top). These are created when a glacier cuts the land. The Finger Lakes of New York was created a thousands of years ago by gigantic glaciers from Southward Canada and the trenches that were left behind filled with water. There are eleven lakes in total and reach about 40 miles outward, and about 618 feet in depth.

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Plate tectonics is when the lithosphere and the asthenosphere create friction. When this happens, an earthquake, tsunami, or creation of a volcano could occur. On March 11, 2011, a massive earthquake from Japan. On the Richter magnitude scale, this scored a 9.0, which is extremely high. At the same event, a tsunami wrecked the Japanese Coast and reached the Pacific Ocean this was the largest earthquake in Japan’s recorded history, and ranked the fourth in the world. The event set off waves, and the energy even traveled all the way to Antarctica. It even altered the earth’s atmosphere and the pull of our gravity field. Another example is the earthquake in Chile on April 1, 2014. This earthquake scored a 8.2 on the Richter scale, so powerful it generated a tsunami, like the one in Japan. According to the news reporters, 7 dead and over 200 injured due to the earthquake. In February 2010, a magnitude 8.8 located near the central coast of Chile generated a tsunami and ended up having 156n people dead.