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(2) Englishisation of the Burmese language

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(2) Englishisation of the Burmese language

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Sharifian defines Englishisation as follows:

the Englishisation of other languages/cultures (...) is the spread of Anglo-English cultural conceptualisations to other languages

This put, it is the case of the following  English words used in Burmese: "sidecar" (meaning a ‘trishaw') and "linecar" (meaning a public transport bus).

BOLTON, Kingsley; BOTHA, Werner; KIRKPATRICK, Andy (Ed.). The Handbook of Asian Englishes. Wiley Blackwell, 2020.

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Nativisation is a conceptual process in which words in English are adopted in order to "express cultural conceptualizations that were not originally associated with English" (SHARIFIAN, 2016)

It is the case of the words "stage show" (meaning "concert") and "platform" (meaning "pavement") in the vocabulary of the English language spoken in Myanmar, with its usage being derived from the colonial times (LOTFIE, 2016).

PHYU, Hnin Pwint; LOTFIE, Maskanah M. English in Myanmar: Usage of English Adjective Phrases by Burmese and Rohingya Bloggers. Asiatic: IIUM Journal of English Language and Literature, v. 10, n. 2, 2016.

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5. Sharifian's concept of cultural conceptualizations

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5. Sharifian's concept of cultural conceptualizations

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First and foremost, Sharifian's concept of cultural conceptualizations must be analyzed in the light of the process of "glocalisation", which gathers the words "globalisation" and "localisation" and is described by the author as:

a term used to refer to the modification of a global product to meet local needs and norms, making it more marketable there

Parallel to that, according to Sharifian, cultural conceptualizations are the units of conceptualization that emerge from the social interactions that take place in cultural groups.

Then, gathering both concepts, what we have is the development of varieties of the English language (global) by speech communities in order to express their cultural conceptualizations (local).

The author describes three conceptual process, of which we were able to identify two in the present case study.

(1) the use of English to encode cultural conceptualisations that were not originally associated with English,
(2) the spread of AngloEnglish cultural conceptualisations to other languages
(3) blends have been developed out of the two systems of cultural conceptualisations that meet in a contact situation

SHARIFIAN, Farzad. " Glocalisation" of the English Language: A Cultural Linguistics Perspective. KEMANUSIAAN: The Asian Journal of Humanities, v. 23, 2016.

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Since we weren't capable of finding information on people immigrating to Myanmar, we decided to explore more about the Rohingya situation in the country, since they are a great example of how discrimination exists deep in Myanmar's culture and is perpetrated by law.

So, no, they are not allowed in politics or university, for example, seeing as they are not even allowed in the country per se.

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By taking a look in the government's website and the information they make available, it leaves the impression that tourism is the main purpose of people's traveling to the country. There are also many touristic places in Myanmar: Travel In Myanmar - Tourism Myanmar (tourisminmyanmar.com.mm)

The transit of people from the USA and the UK looks like more intense, as these countries' governments alerted about the danger of traveling there during the pandemic: Myanmar travel advice - GOV.UK (www.gov.uk) | Burma (Myanmar) Travel Advisory (state.gov)

Moreover, we noted that most of the tourism information about the country is offered in English language.

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Besides the information about refugees who leave the country and the Rohingya people, it is important to state that labour migration is an observable movement in that society.

In 2014, for example, more than two million Myanmar citizens migrated abroad through licenced overseas employment agencies or goverment agreements.

Labour migration in Myanmar (ILO in Myanmar)

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Although there is very few information on immigration to Myanmar, it is known that the restrictive immigration measures implemented due to the covid-19 pandemic are being systematically changing since February. Therefore, international migration, even during these times, may be approved in the country.

New labour ministry starts looking into visas, immigration | The Myanmar Times (mmtimes.com)

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English teaching in private organizations

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English teaching in private organizations

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Myanmar has many different international schools, some of the British - which brings the English teaching into the education process: List of every International School in Yangon (international-schools-database.com)

Interest in learning English is also above expectations among students in Myanmar: Student Enrollment in Myanmar’s Online English Language Program Surpasses Expectations - World Learning

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English is not required when it comes to the migratory process in Myanmar. However, it is to be noted that, if one is migrating for educational purposes, they must have a good command of the English as it is present in all levels of study along with Burmese.

Besides, for tourism purposes, the process of getting the visa is very easy and simple for those who already speak English. The government's website, for instance, can be checked in English and some other languages.

Immigration process in Yangon, Myanmar 🌍 Chris Ruppel

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It is important to highlight that this colonialism aspect of language policies in the country were being discussed until recently. Also, small acts from the USA may be understood as support for some sides of the dispute, as the visit to the country in 2012, when Obama supported the democratization of the country as well as highlighted the importance of education.

G1 - Obama encontra ativista Aung Suu Kyi em visita histórica a Mianmar - notícias em Mundo (globo.com)

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Foreign languages are offered in the education system, but English is the only one that is a compulsory subject at all levels. This situation relates directly to British colonialism in the country.

In the 60s, there was a movement to suppress English teaching as a decolonization response. However, in the 70s, as a matter of globalization, English became more important under the understandings of the policymakers in Myanmar.

Sci-Hub | English in Myanmar | 10.1177/0033688205053485 (mksa.top)

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Myanmar's law of 1982 defines three types of citizens: citizen, associate citizen and naturalizad citizen. The law is attached to this paragraph for better interpretation, but to sum up, the State can recognize citizenship to whom they want, based on the idea of 'national race', but also not provide the certificate of citizenship based on article 8 of its law:

(a) The Council of State may, in the interest of the State confer on any person citizenship or associate citizenship or naturalized citizenship. (b) The Council of State may, in the interest of the State revoke the citizenship or associate citizenship or naturalized citizenship of any person except a citizen by birth.

This means that the government has legal ways to discrimanate groups of people - note, The Rohingya aren't the only minority persecuted - simply not recognizing one's right to citizenship. And that's exactly what they do when it comes to Rohingya: since they are not considered a national race, they are equally not citizens.

Burma Citizenship Law
Myanmar’s discriminatory citizenship laws can and must be immediately reformed

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The Rohingya are one of the many ethnic minorities who live in Myanmar. They are Muslims - Myanmar is officialy Budhist -, it is known that by 2017 they were about 1 million people and most Rohingya people are stateless: they are not considered citizens by the government, being excluded from the 2014 census, for example. Myanmar's government affirms that they are illegal imigrants from Bangladesh. They are sistematically excluded and persecuted, culminating in the 2017's genocide.

Myanmar Rohingya: What you need to know about the crisis

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Due to the history of the country when it comes to repression, as already cited, most refugees are coming from Myanmar and not seeking refuge in the country. They seek refuge in countrys nearby, such as Thailand and India. The image attached shows the movement of migration from the region of Chin to both countrys cited above, in April 2021, after the most recent military coup.

Desperate Burmese refugees flee to Thailand and India to escape crisis
Key issues for refugees from Myanmar (Burma) - Refugee Council

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We weren't able to find information when it comes to legislation of how to require asylum in Myanmar, mostly because it is difficult to see a movement of entrance in the country when searching for a better place to live. On the other hand, what we were able to find is the movement of asylum applications from Myanmar to countries such as Australia: the government even has a Humanitarian Programme that contemplates people flying off Myanmar, for example.

Myanmar — Asylum Insight

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Myanmar was ruled by a military regime between 1962 and 2010. That way, only in 2011, with the fist democratic election in decades that the country was reintegrated in the international community.

Mainly because of the repression that exists there until today, even though the government was no longer a dictatorship until February, 2021, Myanmar is an example of a country that has way more emigrants than immigrants, and the majority of them fly off the country due to religious discrimination or in the search for better quality of life. The economy is usually a reason to emigration as well, being labor emigration to Thailand very common. It is estimated that at least 4 million Myanmar citizens live abroad.

When it comes to policies, most of its migration is internal, with people moving across the country searching for better opportunities of employment. Normally, the ones moved by economic reasons are male, while female are most commonly moving to "follow the family". There are also migrants for enviromental reasons, escaping natural disasters.

Myanmar
Myanmar Emigration and Immigration • FamilySearch
Article: The Opening of Burmese Borders: Impacts o
Policy Brief on Migration and Urbanization
Myanmar Regional External Update 20May2021