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Quick, Kimberly, and Richard D Kahlenberg. “Attacking the Black–White Opportunity Gap That Comes from Residential Segregation.” The Century Foundation, 25 June 2019, tcf.org/content/report/attacking-black-white-opportunity-gap-comes-residential-segregation/?session=1.

Summary: This article goes on about ways one could take action to cleanse racial and economic discrimination. Without the expansion of housing programs, addressing gentrification, increasing resources for the FHA, and more, continued segregation of residential areas would remain the same.

Use: As most of my articles mostly inform about the factors that affect homelessness from residential segregation, I thought it would be a good idea to add more research on solutions pertaining to this issue as well as highlight the opportunity gap between blacks and whites.

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Mathew, Dayna Bowen, et al. Health, Housing, and Racial Justice: An Agenda for the Trump Administration. Jan. 2017.

Summary: This article expands on health, housing, and racial justice for the Trump Administration. It covers the causes, costs, and solutions within residential segregation, health inequalities, and other barriers pertaining to poverty, more importantly, the divide between black and white America.

Use: This article would be of good use to my essay as it is set in a more present aspect. It also mentions several factors that drive many African Americans into homelessness: the inexistence of black wealth, generational wealth, food and health or healthcare insecurities, as well as possession of drugs and likelihood of imprisonment. Some of these factors are overlooked as many do not care to think deeper into what else makes homelessness prevalent aside from residential segregation.

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Sander, Richard, and Yana Kucheva. “Why We Wrote Moving Toward Integration.” Case Western Reserve Law Review, vol. 70, no. 3, Spring 2020, pp. 667–676. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.dvc.idm.oclc.org/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,shib,sso&db=a9h&AN=144645872&site=ehost-live.

Summary: The article focuses on the problem of African-American housing segregation in the U.S. Topics include the racial dimension of homelessness; the book "Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America" by Richard Rothstein on housing segregation; and the course and nature of housing segregation. Specifically, it covers the different aspects that play a role in homelessness. It explains the story of housing integration, better measures

Use: I would use the article to mainly explain the background information on housing integration. This would give a good idea to the audience on the issue and a connection to my research question, the relevance between homelessness and residential segregation. Although this article does not necessarily cover the factors of homelessness, it does mention better measures to implement: block data, migration data, and economic segregation. I think this is helpful to my research as CoL also does not cover solutions to segregation until the end of the book (the last chapter).

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Carter, George R. “From Exclusion to Destitution: Race, Affordable Housing, and Homelessness.” Cityscape, vol. 13, no. 1, 2011, pp. 33–70. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20868768. Accessed 13 May 2021.

Summary: This article discusses how African Americans are overrepresented within homelessness from residential segregation. This is usually seen from not only residential segregation itself, but also due to the declining supply of affordable housing which forces low-income African Americans into destitution. This research further studies populations who are more at risk of homelessness (inadequate and overcrowded housing) and the association between inadequate housing quality and residential segregation. Besides addressing the problems within homelessness, the study mentions implications to prevent homelessness: fair housing policy, affordable housing policy, and homeless-services provision.

Use: I would utilize this journal article to guide my subtopics within the correlation between homelessness and residential segregation.

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Since the 1980s, Blacks have been overrepresented in the homeless population with respect to their share of the national population and the poverty population, but little research has emerged to explain why this overrepresentation exists. Previous researchers have suggested that residential segregation and a declining supply of affordable housing push low-income Blacks into homelessness and that greater access to homeless shelters pulls low-income Blacks into homelessness at greater rates than Whites. These hypotheses have not been tested, because longitudinal data linking housing characteristics, service accessibility, and the homeless population do not exist. For these reasons, the study in this article presents analyses of housed and homeless populations separately. The first set of analyses focuses on the segment of the housed population most at risk of becoming homeless: those living in inadequate and overcrowded housing. Using data from the 1990 and 2000 Decennial Censuses and the 1997 American Housing Survey, this study tests the relationship between residential segregation, affordable housing supply, and the extent to which Blacks live in inadequate and overcrowded housing. The study found that high rates of residential segregation and lower affordable housing supply were associated with inadequate housing quality and overcrowding in Black households. Working under the assumption that closer proximity to homeless services decreases migration for such services, in the second set of analyses, this study examines racial differences in migration for homeless services. Using data from the 1996 National Survey of Homeless Assistance Providers and Clients, this study reveals that Black homeless clients were less likely than White homeless clients to have migrated for homeless services. Black homeless clients were more likely than White homeless clients to both start their homeless spell in a large central-city location and end up using services in that location or in another large central city. Homeless spells were longer for Black homeless clients but were more transient for White homeless clients, who were more likely to stay in three or more towns during their spell. The study addresses implications for fair housing policy, affordable housing policy, and homeless-services provision; discusses limitations of the research; and proposes areas for future research.

Journal Information

The goal of Cityscape is to bring high-quality original research on housing and community development issues to scholars, government officials, and practitioners. Cityscape is open to all relevant disciplines, including architecture, consumer research, demography, economics, engineering, ethnography, finance, geography, law, planning, political science, public policy, regional science, sociology, statistics, and urban studies. Cityscape is published three times a year by the Office of Policy Development and Research (PD&R;) of the U.S. Department of Housing Urban Development. PD&R; welcomes submissions to the Refereed Papers section of the journal, which will be evaluated through our double blind referee process by highly qualified referees in the field.

Publisher Information

The Office of Policy Development and Research (PD&R) of the U.S. Department of Housing Urban Development seeks to be the preeminent housing and urban research organization, one which conducts policy analysis and creates and synthesizes data and evidence through open, challenging, creative, collaborative, diverse, and respectful exchanges of ideas to move policy and improve American communities and lives.

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From Exclusion to Destitution: Race, Affordable Housing, and Homelessness on JSTOR

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Since the 1980s, Blacks have been overrepresented in the homeless population with respect to their share of the national population and the poverty population, but little research has emerged to explain why this overrepresentation exists.

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Rothstein, Richard. The Color of Law. Liverlight Publishing Corporation, 2018.

Use: I will be using this book to support the effects and impacts residential segregation has played in homelessness among the African American community. My focus will be to implement the terms and policies that have lessened the opportunities of African Americans to achieve living in suburban areas as well as obtaining stable jobs.

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The last chapter, Rothstein implements solutions and ways to combat the problems risen from residential segregation. Although it is already too make up for the segregation imposed, a possible way to to do is to have policies value integration and equality, as it would allow African Americans to build wealth as well as live above the lower-class.

Key Terms:
- Forced integration: A policy that forces families to integrate against their will. (144)
- Revitalization: The action of imbuing something with new life and vitality. (148)
- Inclusive communities: A Dallas civil rights group that implements settlement funds for security deposits/ counseling services to help families make adjustments from racially separate public housing. (147)

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Chapter 11: Looking Towards Equality and Back to Segregation 

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Chapter 11: Looking Towards Equality and Back to Segregation 

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With many other civil rights laws passed and through executive order and the FHA,  President Kennedy ended the discrimination of home finances. This explained that African Americans were able to live wherever they pleased or could afford. But, housing segregation was still a problem as government policies still promoted segregation.

Key Terms:
- Inclusive Communities Project (ICP): Was a Dallas civil rights group that used the state of Texas, which claimed that the operation of tax credit had a disparate impact on African Americans, violating the FHA. On the other hand, the ICP promoted racial integration by helping African American families find affordable housing within white neighborhoods. (134)

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Due to government policies that purposely restrict African Americans from living among white neighborhoods, this hindered their income. The tax rates created for African Americans further increased inequality by spending most of their hard-earned money for whatever services were being enforced.

Key Terms:
- First Great Migration: African Americans immigrated from the South to the North. During their move, they frequently traveled with disguises, pretending to be salesmen, to avoid being captured by the sheriffs. (111)
- Second Great Migration: 1940-1970, from over 600, 000 African Americans, about 4 million African Americans joined the journey. Although many were able to enter the northern labor market, federal, state, and local governments collaborated with private employers; this ensured that they would still be treated less than and paid lower than white workers. (112)
- Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): Segregated residential camps and permitted local policies that did not allow African Americans to gain such skills needed and provided by the corps. They were also denied to enroll or restrict to menial jobs together with not permitting African Americans from obtaining any leading role: leading units or becoming an educational advisor. (112)
- Wagner Act:  The government protected the bargaining rights of unions that were against African Americans admitting into the workplace. This included their membership or privileges, attaining them to lower-paid jobs like being a janitor. (113)

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This chapter surrounds the hatred African Americans, Wilbur Gary and Bill Myers, faced from buying homes in white residences. This led to an attempt of restrictive covenants, angry mobs, as well as little action from police and the governor to disband those wanting to create conflict with African American residents.

Key Terms:
- Chicago Housing Authority: A non-profit organization that oversees housing within Chicago. (104)
- South Deering Improvement Association: The SDIA along with the CHS did not want to implement change regarding the racial makeup of the town. This association led to violence and were bystanders to the assault; bombs and rocks being thrown as well as stating evident hate that the mob attacks would be the result of African Americans choosing to live in the area.

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What is the correlation between residential segregation and homelessness among the African American community?

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The American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) sought to help African American Ford workers by racial integration: finding adequate public housing and residences from federal war projects. Unfortunately, this campaign was unsuccessful as other cities were not willing to offer funds for development that would permit sales to African Americans.

Key Terms:
- Blight: Similar to slums this euphemism was used to describe living in squalor as well as the success in preventing African American families away from white families. Because of the extremity of living in unpleasant areas and in neglect, plans were made to demolish their homes to provide newer and improved ones. This led to further segregation as African Americans became homeless which also resulted in not being welcome by white people. (92)

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It is noted that the IRS contributed to the segregation of cities by putting to effect of the tax-exempt status; showing tax favoritism and supporting racist organizations. This was evidenced by promotion of restrictive covenants, issuing African American families to flee from white neighborhoods; contribution from de jure segregation.

Key Terms:
- IRS: Government agency responsible for creating tax laws and collecting tax payments. (76)
Tax-exempt status: From the IRS, this allowed and helped organizations such as churches, hospitals, neighborhood associations, and other groups to promote residential segregation along with reducing or being fully exempt tp tax payments to the government. (76)
- Brown v. Board of Education: The rejection of segregation within public schools and that both white and black students could coexist in the same system. However, 16 years after the court decision, IRS still granted tax exemptions to to private whites-only academies. (77)
- Shelley v. Kraemer: The Supreme Court ruled that racist restrictive covenants would be terminated as it went against the 14th amendment. Objections were made against Shelley family from the Kraemer homeowners, to which led to the trustees of the church funding their lawsuit and making the African American family evicted. (78)
- Subprime Loans ("Teaser" Interest Rates): Banks, thrift institutions, and mortgage companies designed these loans for borrowers who were at risk of default. Borrowers were also charged at higher rates, which made payments nearly impossible to meet. These were particularly issued to those who were unlikely to be able to repay. (81)

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As African Americans were now capable of owning homes within white neighborhoods, the FHA claims that integrating African Americans into these areas would deplete the value of the homes. Although the FHA was unable to support this, they still justified that racial segregation was essential as it was bound to happen and is an ongoing matter during the time.

Key Terms:
- Blockbusting: Action in which encourages homeowners and real estate agents to sell due to an influx from African Americans "in or near" the area. (72)
- Contract Sales: Because of homeownership rates lowering for African Americans compared to whites, African American families were not able to obtain mortgages. This resulted in reselling low/moderate-income houses at higher rates and the possibility of eviction from late payments. (72)
- White Flight: White families leaving certain areas and moving into the suburbs. This was created in order to segregate and uphold white power by the affordability and opinion of the construction of their homes. (74)

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Rothstein talks about suburban neighborhoods being exclusively segregated prior to government involvement. Segregational deeds have been implemented in order to keep African Americans separate from white Americans. These actions were done by the FHA, ignoring the Supreme Court ruling and promoting exclusion.

Key Terms:
- Suburbanization: the movement of reorganization of a city; pushing out and barring African Americans from white neighborhoods. (60)
- Restrictive Covenants: List of obligations in order to keep African Americans away from white households. This included housing constructions such as what kind of trees to plant, the paint color the house may be, and originally to never sell or rent to any person not of the Caucasian race. 60)

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With zoning, it has somewhat helped segregationists as it did not stop African Americans from moving into white-resident areas. However, Herbert Hoover still pushed for racial segregation; having white Americans to move to restricted residential districts to get "protection" against African Americans.

Key Terms:
- Fair Housing Act (FHA): Discrimination concerning rental or financing for housing based on one's race. (51)
- De jure segregation: Stems from societal differences rather than law or public policy (53)

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Rothstein indicates how reconstruction in 1877 resulted in segregation; denying the basic human rights of African Americans. He also touches base on the anti-black racism in the South, which entailed expelling African Americans from being within the borders of the town/ city.

Key Terms:
- Red shirts: A collection of white supremacists that led the massacre of African Americans in 1876. (37)
- Race zoning: preventing racial and ethnic minorities from residing in middle/ upper-class neighborhoods (40)
-Exclusionary zoning: Having an effect on denying housing to racial/ ethnic minorities along with other protected classes (41)
-First-residential: prohibiting future construction of anything but single-family units and helping to preserve its all-white character (42)

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Past:
- With South Carolina choosing a white supremacist and mass murderer to represent the state, it shows that white Americans who think slavery should be left behind are ignorant about our country's history.
- Because of the Buchanan v. Warley decision, Rothstein explained that economic zoning could still be implemented and still abide by the rule that all citizens would be treated fairly as do white residents.
- Homeownership resulted into becoming a patriotic duty; equated to being white, living within the suburbs, which Hoover created residential areas to protect whites against blacks

Segregation:
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O5FBJyqfoLM

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Rothstein compares the common stereotypes about public housing along with its primary usage: built for lower-middle-class white families and not for those who are unable to afford housing. Through policy of segregation, neighborhoods that were not already segregated were planned with either white or black housing.

Key Terms:
- Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA): In 1933, was created to ensure jobs and economic growth to regions that had suffered during the Depression. (23)
-Slum: A heavily populated area characterized by substandard housing; unfair housing practices. (23)
- Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC): established work camps for jobless youth and young adults. (24)
- neighborhood composition rule: federal housing projects should reflect the previous racial composition of their neighborhoods: white neighborhoods must only house white tenants and the same for black neighborhoods must house black tenants. (24)
-racial equity formula: required local housing authorities that practiced segregation to build separate projects to house low-income black families in proportion to their need... (31)