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Constructivism is an important learning theory that educators use to help their students learn. Constructivism is based on the idea that people actively construct or make their own knowledge, and that reality is determined by your experiences as a learner

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Connectivist learning theory is the use of the internet to learn and share information

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Cognitive constructivism based on the work of Jean Piaget, social constructivism based on the work of Lev Vygotsky, and radical constructivism.

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Cognitive constructivism states knowledge is something that is actively constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive structures. Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of cognitive development.

Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their existing intellectual framework to accommodate that information.

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Cognitivism is a learning theory according to which mental processes mediate learning and learning entails the construction or reshaping of mental schemata. Cognitivists believe that knowledge resides in complex memory structures in the human mind called schemata, and learning is the process of changing these structures. ID from a cognitivist perspective focuses on presenting learners with the appropriate information and feedback to shape their mental schemata

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Vygotsky's approach to child development is a form of social constructivism, based on the idea that cognitive functions are the products of social interactions. Vygotsky emphasized the collaborative nature of learning by the construction of knowledge through social negotiation.

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The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations

Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening

Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence)

They are separate beings from the people and objects around them

They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.

Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.

While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete terms.

The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 Years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events

They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example

Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete

Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems

Abstract thought emerges

Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning

Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information

Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development Explained
(verywellmind.com)

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Definition: The humanistic theory of teaching and learning is an educational theory that believes in teaching the ‘whole’ child. A humanist approach will have a strong focus on students’ emotional wellbeing and eternally view children as innately good ‘at the core’.

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Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of learning. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages are:

Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years

Preoperational stage: Ages 2 to 7

Concrete operational stage: Ages 7 to 11

Formal operational stage: Ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

History of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious student, publishing his first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to the intellectual development of children came when he worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ test.

Piaget vs. Vygotsky

Piaget's theory differs in important ways from those of Lev Vygotsky, another influential figure in the field of child development. Vygotsky acknowledged the roles that curiosity and active involvement play in learning, but placed greater emphasis on society and culture.

Piaget felt that development is largely fueled from within, while Vygotsky believed that external factors (such as culture) and people (such as parents, caregivers, and peers) play a more significant role.

Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his observations of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his budding hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult minds.

Until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller versions of adults. Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that children think is different from the way adults think.

Piaget proposed that intelligence grows and develops through a series of stages. Older children do not just think more quickly than younger children. Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative differences between the thinking of young children versus older children.

Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults-they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it."

Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses to changes in mental operations.

The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.
Birth to 2 Years
Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

Know the world through movements and sensations

Learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening

Learn that things continue to exist even when they cannot be seen (object permanence)

Realize that they are separate beings from the people and objects around them

Realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them

During the sensorimotor stage, children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they continually make new discoveries about how the world works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage down into substages. Early representational thought emerges during the final part of the sensorimotor stage.

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point of development.

By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words to objects.

The Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but the emergence of language is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.
2 to 7 Years
Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

Begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects

Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others

Getting better with language and thinking, but still tend to think in very concrete terms

At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.

Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet they continue to think very concretely about the world around them.

For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Because the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece, even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.

The Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they become much more adept at using logic.﻿﻿ The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other people might view a situation.
7 to 11 Years
Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

Begin to think logically about concrete events

Begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example

Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete

Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle

While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.

During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

The Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, adolescents and young adults become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them.
Age 12 and Up
Major characteristics and developmental changes during this time:

Begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems

Begins to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning

Begins to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information

The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage.

Important Cognitive Development Concepts

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a quantitative process. That is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older.

Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four stages. At age 7, children don't just have more information about the world than they did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how they think about the world.

Piaget suggested several factors that influence how children learn and grow.

A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.

In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas.

For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to include these new observations.

Assimilation

The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.

Accommodation

Another part of adaptation is the ability to change existing schemas in light of new information; this process is known as accommodation. New schemas may also be developed during this process.

Equilibration

As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation).

Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation using a mechanism he called equilibration. Equilibration helps explain how children can move from one stage of thought to the next.

One of the main points of Piaget's theory is that creating knowledge and intelligence is an inherently active process.

"I find myself opposed to the view of knowledge as a passive copy of reality," Piaget wrote. "I believe that knowing an object means acting upon it, constructing systems of transformations that can be carried out on or with this object. Knowing reality means constructing systems of transformations that correspond, more or less adequately, to reality."

Piaget's theory of cognitive development helped add to our understanding of children's intellectual growth. It also stressed that children were not merely passive recipients of knowledge. Instead, kids are constantly investigating and experimenting as they build their understanding of how the world works.

Additional Reading

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What Is Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development?

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Psychologist Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development has 4 stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

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George Siemens (2005) founded the term connectivism in his work 'Connectivism- Learning as Networks Creation'

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What Is the Zone of Proximal Development?

The zone of proximal development refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.

Thus, the term “proximal” refers to those skills that the learner is “close” to mastering.

https://educationaltechnology.net/vygotskys-zone-of-proximal-development-and-scaffolding/

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finding any technology that strengthens and compliments learning
online courses
webinars
dedicated forums
social media (bringing parents and schools together)

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Neobehaviorism, as a branch of psychology, is the study of reinforcements and punishments. It has been used since the 1890s to help explain how animals behave in their natural habitat but have also gained prominence among human psychologists who have applied principles from it to clinical behavior modification.
Neobehaviorism Definition and Neobehaviorism Examples Business Management & Leadership January 2022 (biznewske.com)

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Neobehaviorism Definition and Neobehaviorism Examples

Neobehaviorism Definition
What is neo behaviorism?
Neobehaviorism is a branch of psychology that bases its teachings on the idea that people learn their behaviors by watching others and then imitating them. It focuses more on behavioral conditioning and cognitive processes than other schools, which may be why it has been less popular recently.

Neobehaviorism is the second phase of behaviorism, which was closely associated with B.F. Skinner, Clark Hull and Edward C. Tolman.

What is Behaviorism?

Behaviorism is an aspect of psychology that studies the behavior and mental processes of humans. It is a branch of psychology that studies humans' behavior and mental processes, with emphasis on how they impact human responses to external stimuli.

The effect in which one stimulus initiates a response or pattern in another organism is known as "stimulus generalization." Behaviorists believe this principle explains why some people learn more quickly from praise than others do.

Neobehaviorism Pavlov and BF Skinner

The teachings of Neobehaviorism have resurfaced in the twenty-first century.

A great deal of research in psychology has its roots in Ivan Pavlov's work and his experimentation with conditioning. He discovered that dogs would begin to salivate, anticipating food after being exposed to other stimuli on several occasions.

The term " neobehaviorism" is used for describing the ideas created by B.F Skinner and others who specifically chose not to follow Pavlov's theories about behaviorism (as opposed to those experiments that were just conducted differently).

Neobehaviorism, as a branch of psychology, is the study of reinforcements and punishments. It has been used since the 1890s to help explain how animals behave in their natural habitat but have also gained prominence among human psychologists who have applied principles from it to clinical behavior modification.

When dealing with neobehaviorist concepts, four main areas must be considered: behavioral objectives, reinforcement schedules/ratio/duration/intensity (RSD), positive punishment, and negative punishment.

Neobehaviorism Tolman and Bandura

Tolman and Bandura theorized on the behaviors of animals. They wanted to find out what kind of insight can be gained from observing animal behavior in a lab setting. Tolman was interested in how an animal's behavior is influenced by its environment. At the same time, Bandura focused more on the idea of modeling action and seeing if it triggers similar responses from other members of that species.

For example, one experiment involved putting rats near food with their whiskers touching it. The rats would start to eat when they figured out where the food was located without looking at it or using their nose, which led scientists to believe that sensory input played some part in stimulating eating habits for them as well as humans who have grown up exposed to different stimuli every day.

Researchers Tolman and Bandura have different views on the motivation of a Neo behaviorist. Tolman believed that we are motivated by what is most important to us, while Bandura's theory states that we are motivated by goals that can be achieved.

To investigate these theories, they ran an experiment in which rats were faced with two buttons: one gave them food pellets right away, and the other delivered it after eight seconds of waiting.

Some rats were then offered access to both buttons at once. Others had only one button available - when given just one option for obtaining their goal (food), the rats would find ways to make themselves more comfortable before pressing the button; those with access to both options often became frustrated because they could not figure out.

Neobehaviorism Example

The behaviorist's belief that the environment is responsible for all behaviors. It is a type of learning theory that states that a person learns by associating stimuli with responses. Behaviorism is applied to children, which emphasizes rewards and punishments rather than explanations or reasoning.

Examples of Neobehaviorism are where Behaviorists use operant conditioning to train animals. Operant conditioning is when an animal learns how to behave in order to get a reward or avoid punishment.

A type of operant conditioning is shaping, which means giving a small reward for each correct response until the desired behavior is achieved. It focuses on the consequences that follow behavior and how they affect future responses.

Another example of Neo-behaviorism is extinction, where you stop rewarding the animal after they do something wrong so that it will eventually stop doing that thing.

Again, the use of positive reinforcement in classical conditioning, where a stimulus is paired with a response to create an association between the two.

Neobehaviorism in Learning Today

Neobehaviorism in education is used to understand how people learn and what they need in order to be successful. Neobehaviorism can help teachers create a plan for each student, which will lead to more success for the individual and the class.

Other uses include;

Teaching students to use self-talk as a way of regulating their behavior

Creating an environment that is conducive for learning, such as by providing positive reinforcement and clear instructions.

Neo behaviorists believe that it's important for teachers to set up clear expectations and provide feedback so students can figure out what works best for them.

Difference Between Behaviorism and Neobehaviorism
What are the Differences and Similarities Between Behaviorism and neo-behaviorism?

Behaviorism focuses on the environment and its effects on behavior.

Neobehaviorism is a more modern approach to understanding human behavior, and it takes into account internal factors such as thoughts, feelings, and desires.

Behaviorists believe that all behaviors are learned through conditioning or reinforcement.

Neobehaviorists believe that some behaviors may be innate, but most behaviors are learned from experience.

Behaviorism is a school of psychology that focuses on observable actions and the study of stimulus-response connections.

Neobehaviorism is an extension of behaviorism, which emphasizes the importance of mental processes in understanding human behavior.

Behaviorism is a psychological theory that behavior can be studied as an objective phenomenon. Behaviorists study the relationship between stimulus and response to understand how environmental factors influence behavior.

Neobehaviorism is a psychology branch that studies human behavior in terms of its physical properties, such as neural activity or muscle movements.

What are the Similarities between behaviorism and neobehaviorism?
The two schools have some similarities, such as focusing on observable behaviors and being founded by psychologists.

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Neobehaviorism Definition and Neobehaviorism Examples Business Management & Leadership January 2022

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What is neo behaviorism? Neobehaviorism is a branch of psychology that bases its teachings on the idea that people learn their behaviors by watching others and then imitating them. It focuses more on behavioral conditioning and cognitive processes than other schools, which may be why it has been less popular recently.

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Human behaviour is explained through conditions not through thoughts or feelings

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Knowles’ 5 Assumptions Of Adult Learners

In 1980, Knowles made 4 assumptions about the characteristics of adult learners (andragogy) that are different from the assumptions about child learners (pedagogy). In 1984, Knowles added the 5th assumption.

1. Self-Concept
As a person matures his/her self concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being.

2. Adult Learner Experience
As a person matures he/she accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning.

3. Readiness to Learn
As a person matures his/her readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his/her social roles.

4. Orientation to Learning
As a person matures his/her time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application. As a result his/her orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject- centeredness to one of problem centeredness.

5. Motivation to Learn
As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal (Knowles 1984:12).

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Watson and Rayner (1920)- Little Albert
Pavlov (1897)- Pavlovs dogs
B.F Skinner (1953)- Skinners rats

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http://www.changekidslives.org/actions-4

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A Skinner box is an enclosed apparatus that contains a bar or key that an animal subject can manipulate in order to obtain reinforcement.1 Developed by B. F. Skinner and also known as an operant conditioning chamber, this box also has a device that records each response provided by the animal as well as the unique schedule of reinforcement that the animal was assigned.2 Common animal subjects include rats and pigeons.
Skinner was inspired to create his operant conditioning chamber as an extension of the puzzle boxes that Edward Thorndike famously used in his research on the law of effect. Skinner himself did not refer to this device as a Skinner box, instead preferring the term lever box.

Skinner Box: What Is an Operant Conditioning Chamber? (verywellmind.com)

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Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanistic psychologist who agreed with the main assumptions of Abraham Maslow. However, Rogers (1959) added that for a person to "grow", they need an environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure), acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood).

Without these, relationships and healthy personalities will not develop as they should, much like a tree will not grow without sunlight and water.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/carl-rogers.html

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Operant Conditioning - Skinner box experiment - VCE Psychology

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Behaviour can be controlled through positive and negative reinforcements (operant conditioning)

It can also be controlled by pairing a neutral slimuli (bell) with a response (salivate) from repeated exposure (classical conditioning)

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positive reinforcement in classroom- stickers/rewards