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Impressionism

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Impressionism

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Bolivia was under a dictatorship. The people took the street to make the dictatorship end. Communism rose within Bolivia. The U.S. backed the military.

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The main goal of the revolution was for the German nation to prevail. Germany wanted economic and political powers. Liberal movements were spread across Germany during this time.

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The March Revolution in Germany (1848-1849)

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There were protests and rebellions within the German Confederation. Republicans adopted the colors of the flag as a symbol of movement and unity for the German speaking people. Prussia and Germany merged together. Otto Von Bismarck was elected to the first Congress. Democratic and liberal forces in Germany needed to build a nation state which overtaxed them.

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The German Revolutions of 1848 | History of Western Civilization II

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Growing discontent with the political and social order imposed by the Congress of Vienna led to the outbreak in 1848 of the March Revolution in the German states.

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Italy has a weak army and can not survive a prolonged war. In the Great War, the Italian laborers strike in Milan for discontent working conditions. The strike spreads across the country. Then Austria invades Italy.

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Alternate history [Ep4]: 'The Italian Revolution'

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Impressionism

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Realism

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Reform in Italy brightened when a new pope was elected. Italian Revolutions quickened as King Charles Albert and Pius IX agreed to become constructional rulers. Piedmont emerged as the leader of Italian nationalism and liberalism.

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Big Site of History - A History of Civilization

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In Italy new reform movements supplanted the discredited Carbonari. By the 1840s three movements were competing for the leadership of Italian nationalism. Two were moderate. One of these groups, based in the north, favored the domination of Piedmont; its leader, Count Camillo Cavour (1810-1861), was an admirer of British and French liberalism.

Cavour was the editor of an influential Turin newspaper, II Risorgimento (resurgence, regeneration), which gave its name to the movement for unification. The other moderate group called themselves Neo-Guelfs because, like the Guelf political faction of the Middle Ages, they hoped to engage the pope in the task of freeing Italy from the control of a German emperor. The Neo-Guelf leader, the priest Vincenzo Gioberti (1801-1852), declared that the future depended on "the union of Rome and Turin." The pope would head, and the army of Piedmont would defend, a federation of Italian states, each with its own monarch and constitution.

The third group of liberals, Young Italy-so named because only those under the age of forty could join- asserted that Italy should be unified as a democratic republic. Its founder, Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), hoped to create an organization more effective than the Carbonari, but was frustrated by prolonged exile and the ineptitude of his lieutenants. Nevertheless, Mazzini did win an enduring reputation as the great democratic idealist of modern Italian politics.

The prospects for reform in Italy brightened in 1846, when a new pope, Pio Nono (Pius IX, 1846-1878), was elected. His initial progressive actions, such as the release of political prisoners and steps to modernize the administration of the Papal States, aroused hopes for a liberalized papal government.

In January 1848 an uprising in Sicily, at first aimed at independence from Naples, forced King Ferdinand II to grant a constitution on the pattern of the French Charter of 1814 (as revised by the July Monarchy); in mid- February the grand duke of Tuscany was forced to follow suit. News of the rising in Paris quickened the pace of the Italian revolutions, as King Charles Albert of Piedmont (1798-1849) and Pius IX agreed to become constitutional rulers like Louis Philippe.

Next came Lombardy and Venetia, where the ideas of Young Italy had inspired revolutionary movements. Ever since January 1 citizens of Milan, the capital of Lombardy, had been boycotting cigars as a protest against the Austrian tax on tobacco. Severe rioting resulted. News of revolution in Vienna touched off five days of heavy fighting in Milan, which forced the Austrians to withdraw their forces. At the same time, Venice, the capital of Austria's other Italian province, proclaimed itself the independent Republic of St. Mark.

This rapid collapse of Habsburg rule in Lombardy- Venetia inspired a national crusade against the Austrians. Charles Albert of Piedmont assumed command of the Italian forces, and refused an offer of help from the provisional government of the French republic. As town and country had opposing views and the Austrians exploited these divisions well, the decision to "go it alone" proved unwise.

Piedmont moved too far too fast, annexing Lombardy and the two small north Italian duchies of Parma and Modena. The other Italian states began to fear the imperialism of Piedmont more than they desired the unification of Italy. On April 29, Pius IX announced that his "equal affection" for all peoples obliged him to adopt a neutral position in the war with Austria and to recall his soldiers.

The pope could not act both as an Italian patriot and as an international spiritual leader. The Neo-Guelf cause thus received a fatal blow. In the Two Sicilies, the king scrapped the constitution and followed the papal example in withdrawing his troops from the war. The Austrians, taking the offensive, reconquered Lombardy and crushed the forces of Charles Albert at Custozza in July.

In Rome adherents of Young Italy rose up in November 1848. After Pius IX fled to Neapolitan territory, they transformed the Papal States into a democratic Roman Republic headed by Mazzini. In March 1849 radicals in Piedmont forced the reluctant Charles Albert to renew the war with Austria, but within the month Austria prevailed. In August 1849 the Austrians put an end to the Republic of St. Mark after a prolonged siege and bombardment of Venice. Meanwhile, Mazzini's Roman Republic had surrendered to French troops sent by President Bonaparte in a bid for Catholic gratitude. Both the Neo-Guelfs and Young Italy were discredited.

Piedmont, however, had emerged as the leader of Italian nationalism and liberalism. It had defied the hated Austrians, and was also the only Italian state to retain the constitution granted in 1848. When Charles Albert abdicated, the crown passed to Victor Emmanuel II (1820-1878), who was to become the first king of modern Italy.

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Italy | The Revolutions of 1848 - Big Site of History

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In Italy new reform movements supplanted the discredited Carbonari. By the 1840s three movements were competing for the leadership of Italian nationalism. Two were moderate. One of these groups, based in the north, favored the domination of Piedmont; its leader, Count Camillo Cavour (1810-1861), was an admirer of British and French liberalism.

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The Mexican Revolution took two decades and killed 900,000 people. They went through many different unreliable presidents during the Revolution. The Revolution was aimed at ensuring a fairer way of life for the farmers. In the end, Mexico was unified.

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The Mexican Revolution was a complex and bloody conflict which arguably spanned two decades, and in which 900,000 people lost their lives. What was the cause of such a persistent uprising and ultimately did the end justify the means?

The Revolution began with a call to arms on 20th November 1910 to overthrow the current ruler and dictator Porfirio Díaz Mori.

Díaz was an ambitious president, keen to develop Mexico into an industrial and modernised country. While he worked on implementing a capitalist society building factories, dams, and roads the rural workers and peasants suffered greatly.

Díaz reigned using a campaign of bullying, intimidating citizens into supporting him. While civil liberties such as the freedom of press suffered under his rule, the greatest injustice came in the form of new land laws.

In an attempt to strengthen ties with the United States and other influential foreign interests, Díaz allocated land, once belonging to the people of Mexico, to wealthy non-nationals. In addition to this, no Mexican was able to own land unless they had a formal legal title. Small farmers were rendered utterly helpless, there was no other option but an uprising.

The path of the Revolution certainly didn't run smoothly and the country saw a string of unreliable presidents.

Francisco Madero, who was responsible for removing Díaz from power, was a weak leader and failed to implement the land reforms he had promised.

He was quickly replaced by General Victoriano Huerta who had him executed within a week of coming to power. Huerta himself was a dictator and was overthrown by Venustianio Carranza in 1914.

While many accused Carranza of being power hungry he also lusted after peace. In the pursuit of civil rest he formed the Constitutional Army and a new constitution into which he accepted many of the rebel demands.

The official end of the Mexican Revolution is often taken to be the creation of the Constitution of Mexico in 1917, however the fighting continued long into the following decade.

Ultimately while the Mexican Revolution was aimed at ensuring a fairer way of life for the farming classes, many argue it achieved little more than the frequent change of leadership in the country.

It was only in 1942 when the Mexican ex-presidents stood on the stage of the Mexico City Zocalo to show their support to Britain and America in the Second World War, that the citizens of Mexico saw their first glimmer of political solidarity and a country finally united.
Image Source: Carranzista rebels near Chihuahua, Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division

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Mexican Revolution | History Detectives | PBS

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The Mexican Revolution was a complex and bloody conflict which arguably spanned two decades, and in which 900,000 people lost their lives. What was the cause of such a persistent uprising and ultimately did the end justify the means? The Revolution began with a call to arms on 20th November 1910 to overthrow the current ruler and dictator Porfirio Díaz Mori.

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People came to El Paso as refuges to escape the Mexican Revolution. The dictator is going to conquer all the little city selling the people so the U.S. and France and buy them. The rest of Mexico lived in utter poverty. Poncho Villa and Madero win and the whole government topples.

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The military was demoralized and unsuccessful with unifying the armed forces.  Armed miners tried to gain force by marching on La Paz and blocking troops on their way. The MNR won the Revolution but was plagued by strife and infighting which left Bolivia in chaos. 

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The military was demoralized and unsuccessful with unifying the armed forces.  Armed miners tried to gain force by marching on La Paz and blocking troops on their way. The MNR won the Revolution but was plagued by strife and infighting which left Bolivia in chaos. 

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Bolivia's defeat defeat by Paraguay in the Chaco War (1932-1935) marked a turning point for both Bolivia and the Bolivian people. This loss,coupled with a government perceived to be loyal only to the upper class, produced widespread dissatisfaction amongst the working class and farmers of Bolivia. A great loss of life and territory had discredited the traditional ruling classes, while service in the army produced stirrings of political awareness among the indigenous people. From the end of the Chaco War until the 1952 revolution, the emergence of contending ideologies and the demands of new groups dominated the Bolivian political landscape.

The Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR) emerged as a broadly based party in opposition to the status quo. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential elections, the MNR lead the successful 1952 revolution against the government.

The 1952 revolution began when a hunger march through La Paz attracted most sectors of society. The Bolivian military was severely demoralized, and the high command called unsuccessfully for unity in the armed forces; many officers assigned themselves abroad, charged each other with coup attempts, or deserted.

By the beginning of 1952, the MNR again tried to gain power by force, plotting with General Antonio Seleme, the junta member in control of internal administration and the National Police (Policía Nacional). On April 9, the MNR launched the rebellion in La Paz by seizing arsenals and distributing arms to civilians. Armed miners marched on La Paz and blocked troops on their way to reinforce the city. After three days of fighting, the desertion of Seleme, and the loss of 600 lives, the army completely surrendered; Paz Estenssoro assumed the presidency on April 16, 1952.

The "reluctant revolutionaries," as the leaders of the multiclass MNR were called by some, looked more to Mexico than to the Soviet Union for a model for their government. But during the first year of Paz Estenssoro's presidency, the radical faction in the party, which had gained strength when the party embraced the workers and their ideology, forced the MNR leaders to act quickly. In July 1952, the government established universal suffrage, with neither literacy nor property requirements. In the first postrevolutionary elections in 1956, the population of eligible voters increased from approximately 200,000 to nearly 1 million voters. The government also moved quickly to control the armed forces, purging many officers associated with past Conservative Party regimes and drastically reducing the forces' size and budget.

Although the MNR, a broad coalition, had successfully waged and won the 1952 revolution, it was plagued by strife and infighting between its factions. This infighting weakened the MNR, and it eventually dissolved in 1964, which left Bolivia once again in chaos.

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Bolivia's defeat defeat by Paraguay in the Chaco War (1932-1935) marked a turning point for both Bolivia and the Bolivian people. This loss,coupled with a government perceived to be loyal only to the upper class, produced widespread dissatisfaction amongst the working class and farmers of Bolivia.