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When it comes to consumer goods there are various strategies to avoid creating waste and having a negative impact on the environment.

As users we can Refuse and Reuse. As designers we can design products taking into consideration their end-of-use by following Design for Disassembly (DFD) strategies.

Buildings are complex structures; material sorting after demolition is a very difficult task. In addition, buildings have a long life-span.

A good approach to avoid early demolition or creating waste at the end-of-service of a building is DFD. Incorporating DFD strategies in the earliest life-stages of a building will allow the transformation of the building or the reuse of its components at the end of its service.

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Abstract

The redundancy of existing buildings that leads to demolition and the unnecessary disposal of structures and their parts is one of the most challenging aspects of the current construction industry. This large‐scale problem of obsolescence leads to the squandering of existing materials and resources on a massive scale. Here Elma Durmisevic and Ken Yeang advocate a means by which disassembly can be designed into buildings from the outset. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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Abstract

Construction waste management has become extremely important due to stricter disposal and landfill regulations, and a lesser number of available landfills. There are extensive works done on waste treatment and management of the construction industry. Concepts like deconstruction, recyclability, and Design for Disassembly (DfD) are examples of better construction waste management methods. Although some authors and organizations have published rich guides addressing the DfD's principles, there are only a few buildings already developed in this area. This study aims to find the challenges in the current practice of deconstruction activities and the gaps between its theory and implementation. Furthermore, it aims to provide insights about how DfD can create opportunities to turn these concepts into strategies that can be largely adopted by the construction industry stakeholders in the near future.

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Design for Disassembly and Deconstruction - Challenges and Opportunities

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Construction waste management has become extremely important due to stricter disposal and landfill regulations, and a lesser number of available landfills. There are extensive works done on waste treatment and management of the construction industry. Concepts like deconstruction, recyclability, and Design for Disassembly (DfD) are examples of better construction waste management methods.

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Yes, the biggest differences are that buildings are much bigger and last much longer. To demolish or disassemble a building, one needs big machines like excavators, cranes with wrecking balls and other heavy machinery. The pure size of a building makes it more difficult to take an entire building apart. And, in many cases, the only solution is to demolish it: for instance, if concrete was poured on the site during the construction phase. A typical building will last from 30 to 50 years, sometimes even longer. Many buildings are not designed in a way that allows reuse, disassembly or recycle. What we can do is to expand the life span of these buildings by repurposing them and, above all, change the way new buildings are designed and constructed.

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DfD is seen as a design that intends to maximize materials conservation by taking the end-of-service management into consideration. The buildings designed for disassembly are adaptable and this strategy avoids demolition and disposal of buildings. DfD allows designing buildings that can be changed in the future and eventually dismantled (in part or whole) for recovery of components and materials.

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In the linear economy, there are three options to handle waste: recycling, incineration and landfilling.

The  circular economy is an approach aiming at minimizing waste and emissions, as well as closing water, energy and material loops.

These approaches are characterized by different strategies. Landfilling is no longer an option in the circular economy context, and design has a central role in circularity strategies.

We define the Circular Built Environment approach as a way to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through business models supporting the minimizing of waste by reducing, reusing, recycling and recovering materials during the whole life-cycle of a product.

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The United Nations' Sustainable Devepment Goals (SDGs) are 17 global goals aiming to achieve more sustainable future for the present and future generations. Challenges such as poverty, hunger and climate change are addressed, while sustainable economic and social development, as well as environmental protection are promoted.

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The Ellen MacArthur Foundation was one of the pioneers in promoting the Circular Economy. The theoretical framework that we use for explaining the Circular Built Environment in this course is based on its principles.

Below you can see the Circular Economy concept illustrated by the "butterfly diagram". Both sides of the diagram are relevant to the built environment: the right side illustrates the technical cycle and closing the loops of resources facilitated by circularity strategies such as reuse, refurbish and recycling; the left side of the diagram shows the biological cycle and the loops and cascades assuring the sustainable management of biological resources and creating renewable flows and stocks. The ultimate aim of this economic model is to minimize the extraction of raw materials and waste generation.

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Understanding the life-cycle of building products and the impact that each stage has on the environment is the first step towards the development of a circular built environment.

There are four main life-cycle phases of a building product: production, construction, usage, and end-of-service.

At the end of its life the brick is most commonly landfilled, which is not in compliance with the principles of the Circular Economy.

However, more sustainable ways exist, for example recycling or reuse.  We need to be pro-active and think about end-of-life scenarios during the design stage.

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We mentioned that circularity in the context of the built environment aims at better management of the resources. We are all familiar with the environmental problems associated with construction practices and the use of non-renewable construction materials; for example, Green House Gas emissions (GHGs), waste generation, resources construction. One alternative to contemporary built materials (concrete, steel, iron) are bio-based materials. In the context of the course we refer to bio-based materials as construction materials delivered from plants, trees or animals. They might be used in their original form, modified/treated or in combination with other materials. Building material examples include wood, straw, leathers, crop based materials such as hemp, flax, coconut filberts. At the beginning of the 21st century, plant-based materials have gained popularity as they prove themselves efficient and environmental friendly. The advantages of plant-based materials are centred around the following issues:

Energy efficiency

Avoiding the usage of high-energy materials

Using local resources and minimizing transportation

Utilizing industrial and mining waste for production of building materials

Using renewable materials and energy sources

Reducing demolition waste

Recycling building waste

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Bio-based resources have the potential to provide construction materials with the following benefits:

The capture and storage of carbon

Sustainable production as crops grown annually or as longer harvest-cycle foresting, including secondary products from food growth

Biodegradability at end-of-service stage (controlled decay inside an anaerobic digester would produce both organic fertiliser and bio-methane to supply energy)

Exceptionally low or almost zero linear coefficients of thermal expansion, often comparable or better than many man-made products

The property of controlling temperature in enclosed spaces

The property of acting as buffer of moisture and balancing the humidity of the indoor environment

Relatively high specific heat capacity

Reduced heat transfer

Excellent performance-to-weight ratios

Overall lower embodied energy (EE) than man-made or synthetic materials

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Cork, cellulose, pulp and bamboo are the all plant-delivered materials. On the contrary, construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine. Glass as construction material consists of clear sand, calcium oxide and sodium carbonate. Finally, clay is a finely-grained natural rock or soil.

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Political challenges are related to changing national and international regulations and the inconsistency in the selection of building materials. Social issues relate to the growing demand for resources with emphasis on food safety. Environmental issues overlap with social challenges and extend to the need to preserve biodiversity and prevent deforestation and land-use changes. The most serious challenge for bio-based construction materials is often the lack of capital investment and procurement issues. The link to the effectiveness of bio-based materials is related to technological improvement and innovation which can lead to new designs and products development.

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How to Design for Disassembly and Recycling

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Bio-based materials can improve the environmental impact of a construction. Using materials based on agricultural waste is a more circular option because materials would otherwise be discarded.

Building connections that are completely demountable without damaging building blocks or components are important because they allow easy, direct reuse.

To allow future reuse of components, the interface and connections have to be designed in such a way that they are compatible with future construction solutions. Otherwise they become obsolete and will be discarded.

Digital processes and data bases with information about building products, and how these can be reclaimed, assembled, or reused, are an important strategy towards the Circular Economy.

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The main principles for DfD are related to: Select materials feasible for reuse and recycle. Use accessible connections. Eliminate chemical/wet connections. Use simple and robust connections. Use durable, interchangeable and easy to transport modules.

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The "Shearing layers" concept was first conceived by architect Frank Duffy, and later developed by Steward Brand in his book "How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They’re Built".

The shearing layers are: Site, Structure, Skin, Services, Space Plan and Stuff. All of the layers are characterised by different longevity and impact.

The understanding of the sharing layers enables us to increase the circularity potential of a building from the start.

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To be able to reuse as many materials as possible, designers should be open to new ways of designing or incorporating alternative solutions.

The building is understood as a material bank, as it is expected that the materials or building products will be later on reclaimed. This means that components and connections need to be designed for disassembly to enable reuse or other (re) life options.

Dry connections, such as screws or bolts, should always be used instead of wet connections. They should also be easy to reach to enable ease of disassembly, and thus, reuse. The same applies to building services.

Circularity can be applied not only to materials but also to water, energy, and waste. Buildings should be able to produce enough energy to be self-sufficient; water activities can be planned to reuse water, and waste can be reduced by optimizing the use of local resources.

Circularity is about collaboration between disciplines. A constructive dialogue between stakeholders can allow a more integrated design that can deliver circular solutions.

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The building designed as a circular product implies that value is added by designing through a kit of parts. The different life-cycles are integrated through the design. The temporary courthouse is can change its functionality to become an office.

Contrary to the linear business model (take-make-waste), the circular model is based on enabling multiple lives to potentially generate different revenues through different life-cycles.

Identifying the key performance indicators that lead to circularity in the early stages of a project, and in collaboration with other stakeholders, is an important strategy that differs from traditional linear design, and should be taken into account.

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CESBE1x Circular Economy Built Environment

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The inflow of energy from a household can be reduced by using efficient energy appliances with an energy label or changes in user behaviour.

Thanks to technology, it is also possible to create another inflow of energy through photovoltaic cells or micro wind turbines, which generate electricity for local consumption.

Another example would be a geothermal heat pump that can be used as an alternative to central solutions, therefore called decentralized solutions.

The combination of these measures can make a household less dependant on a central energy system, and it can shift from a linear to a more circular system.

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CESBE1x Circular Economy Built Environment

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Every household has different water taps, part of the central water system. All taps are supplied with high-quality drinking water, although certain activities might not necessarily require drinking water, such as flushing toilets.

Reducing the wastewater inflow and outflow through a change in behaviour is the first step towards improving the water system.

Additionally, rainwater harvesting can be used for irrigation. Other technologies might allow reusing wastewater from certain activities.

If water-saving measures are combined with cascading water use and harvesting rainwater, a house will be able to close the water loop.

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CESBE1x Circular Economy Built Environment

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Household waste, because of its diverse nature, offers different opportunities to be optimized.

Food waste can be reduced through moderate consumption, or it can be used as compost and fertilizer. Broken products can be repaired, or donated so they can be reused.

Making a household waste flow more circular is again related to a change in people's behaviour. Awareness in consumption will make users buy long-lasting products or products that can be easily upgraded rather than discarded.

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CESBE1x Circular Economy Built Environment

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Renewable energy can be produced by photovoltaic cells in buildings.

Electric cars can also be connected to a smart grid, as an energy buffer. Waste heat from offices can be used to heat apartments.

In terms of water, flows can be infiltrated through parks and collective green areas, bioswales can collect and slowly release rainwater, and it can even be possible to manage wastewater by treating it in wastelands, eventually directing it to rivers and lakes.

Waste can have different collective approaches. Local repair shops can stimulate longer use of products; containers for waste collection and waste separation can also optimize the flows.

At an even larger scale, transportation can also play an important role. Good quality of public transportation, bicycle, and pedestrian routes can serve as reduction in use of private cars, and reduce CO2 emissions. Through larger heat networks, there can also be heat exchange.

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CESBE1x Circular Economy Built Environment

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
CESBE1x Circular Economy Built Environment

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
CESBE1x Circular Economy Built Environment

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The main difference between the natural ecosystem and the built environment is that natural ecosystems are closed cycles, and mostly, a zero-waste metabolism. Contrary to this, the highly urbanised built environment operates in a linear metabolism.
Sankey diagrams are used to describe the metabolism of a city by indicating the flow quantity through the width of an arrow. Additionally the ASMFA (Activity Based Spatial Material Flow Analyses) identify the economic activities from products and services by mapping the input (water, raw materials or energy), the outputs (wastewater, waste) and the stocks, which are materials or products that stay within the activity.
The input of one activity might derive from the output of other activity, and in this way, economic activities are connected through the whole value chain. This will eventually draw a systems diagram, which shows the sectors, related activities, and the material and energy flows.
Territorial metabolism refers to a multidisciplinary and integrated concept that examines material and energy flows in territories as complex systems.

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Department of Sustainable Organic Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Gent, Belgium

Circular Economy and Industrial Leadership Unit, Joint Research Centre, European Commission, 41092 Seville, Spain

Department of Urbanism, Faculty of Architecture, Technical University Delft, 2628 BL Delft, The Netherlands

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Received: 22 May 2018 / Revised: 14 June 2018 / Accepted: 14 June 2018 / Published: 26 June 2018

Waste management represents a challenge for public authorities due to many reasons such as increased waste generation following urban population growth, economic burdens imposed on the municipal budget, and nuisances inevitably caused to the environment and local inhabitants. To optimize the system from a sustainability perspective, moving the transition towards a more circular economy, a better understanding of the different stages of waste management is necessary. A review of recently developed sustainability frameworks for waste management showed that no single framework captures all the instruments needed to ultimately provide a solid basis for comprehensive analyses of the potential burdens associated with urban waste management. Bearing this limitation in mind, the objective of this research is to propose a conceptual and comprehensive sustainability framework to support decision-making in waste management of European cities. The framework comprises a combination of methods capable of identifying future strategies and scenarios, to assess different types of impacts based on a life cycle perspective, and considers the value of waste streams, the actors involved, and possible constraints of implementing scenarios. The social, economic, environmental, technical and political domains are covered, and special attention is paid to impacts affecting foremost the local population. View Full-Text

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Taelman, S.E.; Tonini, D.; Wandl, A.; Dewulf, J. A Holistic Sustainability Framework for Waste Management in European Cities: Concept Development. Sustainability 2018, 10, 2184.

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A Holistic Sustainability Framework for Waste Management in European Cities: Concept Development

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Waste management represents a challenge for public authorities due to many reasons such as increased waste generation following urban population growth, economic burdens imposed on the municipal budget, and nuisances inevitably caused to the environment and local inhabitants.

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“The building sector is one of the largest consumers of energy and resources. Therefore, the transition to a circular economy is key. Preconditions for success are cooperation between companies, new financial arrangements and a (virtual) marketplace for material exchange. Moreover, circular procurement policies enhance circular construction and demolition.”

Jacqueline Cramer, Professor of Sustainable Innovation, Utrecht University

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Many parties are needed for the transition towards a circular economy: Demolition contractors, suppliers, financiers, architects, (government) clients, construction companies. Construction companies can reduce the use of raw materials by designing adaptive, demountable, lighter structures and use circular materials. An adequate supply of circular building materials and circular procurement strategies are crucial for success.”

Helen Visser, Sustainability and Account Manager, Bouwend Nederland

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"We work together on real estate without waste, which is safe, sustainable and progressive, with an eye for the environment and transferable to the future."

Jille Koop, Sustainability Advisor, the Central Government Real Estate Agency

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“Part of our problem in moving towards circularity is most people neither see the importance of it nor exactly know how to do it.”

John Elkington, Executive Chairman and Co-Founder, Volans Ventures

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“We don’t have a choice but to do this. This is imperative for our survival. … If you think about starting a business today, designing a business around a circular economy philosophy, ultimately it’s going to give you better returns in the long run.”

Dawid Neinaber, Operations Manager, Barloworld Equipment

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"Circular economy is an economic system that is regenerative by design. … The linear economy is the prevailing model because simply the world is just not in tune or necessarily aware of the circular model and it’s economic and societal benefits."

Attila Turos, Lead: Future of Production, World Economic Forum