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The endocrine gland that contributes to blood glucose regulation is the Pancreas. Within the pancreas the Alpha cells secrete Glucagon and the Beta cells secrete Insulin. Negative feedback systems regulate secretion of glucagon and insulin, low blood sugar levels secrete glucagon and high blood sugar levels secrete insulin.  (Tortora et al., 2019).

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Today brings a new day and therefore, positive attitudes brings positive thoughts.
As requested, please acknowledge the following guidelines for acceptable behaviours while in the discussion forum, by agreeing with the following guidelines.
Please add a comment to affirm your commitment and understanding of the guidelines.

T1A1 netiquette guidelines:
1) We are all humans and may make mistakes

2) Be courteous to others participating in discussion.

3) Diversity is recognised in group

4) Sarcasm and humour may be misinterpreted.

5) Use of proper grammar for concise messages.

6) Capital letters should only be used to emphasize something- as it may be considered equivalent to SHOUTING.

7) Only sparingly use acronyms example: BTW- By The Way, IMHO- In My Humble Opinion

8) Show respect when commenting

9) Show a commitment to group activities

10) Be patient

(Online Education Blog of Touro College, 2019).

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Please see the link below, where you will find T1A1's discussion room to post your ideas in response to eWorkbook questions. This is the place you may post your answers for group feedback before posting to padlet.
Please check it out....

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Proximal femoral growth plate mechanical behavior: Comparison between different developmental stages

(Castro-Abril et al., 2016)

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Proximal femoral growth plate mechanical behavior Comparison

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The skeletal system is known as the body’s framework that consist of connective tissues and bones. It has 6 main function: 

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The skeletal system is known as the body’s framework that consist of connective tissues and bones. It has 6 main function: 

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Protect internal organs

Support body structure

Mineral Homeostasis

Assist with movement

Store triglyceride

Production of stem blood cells

Word count: 350

(Tortora et al., 2019)

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Epiphyseal plate consist of four cartilage zones:

1) Resting: consist of scattered but small chondrocytes.

2) Proliferating: though slightly larger chondrocytes are arranged like stacked coins.

3) Hypertrophic: consisting of mature but large chondrocytes arranged like columns.

4) Calcified: only a few cells thick consisting of dead chondrocytes.

(Cepela et al, 2016)

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Multiplication of cells in the epiphyseal plate undergoes interstitial growth as the long bone grow in length. In the proliferating cartilage the chondrocytes start to divide and increase as newly formed cells push out the older cells toward the diaphysis. Osteocytes replacements increases lengthening of diaphysis before closure of the plate.

(Rogers, 2013)

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Phases of bone fracture repair:

1) Reactive: fracture haematoma or clot start to form around the fractured bone site. As the cells of the bone start to die inflammation and swelling will occur. Damaged tissues are removed by osteoclasts and phagocytes.

2) Reparative: Fibrocartilaginous- fibroblasts start to produce collagen fibres as new blood vessels form. Chondroblasts will produce fibrocartilage and soft callus.

3) Reparative: Bony- osteoblasts develop because of osteoprogenitor cells and hard callus form due to spongy bone trabeculae.

4) Bone remodelling: bone fracture start to heal as dead fragments is resorbed by osteoclasts and spongy bone is replaced by compacted bones.

(Tortora et al., 2019)

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Three factor influencing repair and growth:

1) Minerals: while bones are growing large amounts of phosphorus and calcium is needed, as is small amounts manganese, magnesium and fluoride.

2) Vitamins: Vitamin A activates stimulation of osteoblasts, Vitamin C synthesis collagen one of main protein in bone, Vitamin D builds bones by the increase of calcium absorption from foods into blood and Vitamin K and B12 helps synthesis bone proteins.

3) Hormones: produced by bone tissues and liver the hormones most important for protein enhancement, promotion of cell division and stimulate osteoblasts is the insulin- like growth hormone (IGF).

(Tortora et al., 2019)

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Possible consequence of damages to epiphyseal plate may lead to a disorder in growth of the femur bone. Fractures destroys circulation of epiphyseal plate stunting normal growth of bone in adolescence. As the epiphyseal plate is made up of cartilage, damages will take longer to heal than a bone fracture.

(Shapiro, 1982)

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Hi Group Members,
Please attach your peer review evaluation form by the end of week 7, the template is available under the Assessments tab. Should you require any help, I'm happy to assist.
Thanks.

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When Samantha’s blood sugar levels are high (hyperglycaemia) stimulates the beta cells to secrete insulin which acts on various body cells to:

-       Increase glycogenesis

-       Increase lipogenesis

-       Decrease glycogenolysis

-       Decrease gluconeogenesis

This lowers the blood glucose level which will eventually inhibit the release of insulin.  (Tortora et al., 2019).

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Hypoglycaemia is caused by low blood sugar levels and overproduction of insulin. In normal individuals low blood sugar levels initiate a negative feedback response designed to regulate and increase the blood sugar levels back to normal.  (Tortora et al., 2019).

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Epinephrine can increase blood sugar levels. It does so by breaking down glycogen to glucose-1-phosphate through glycogenolysis during fasting. Epinephrine also promotes the breakdown and release of fat that travel to the liver where they are converted into glucose and ketones to increase blood sugar levels.  (Tortora et al., 2019).

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Epinephrine is secreted by the adrenal glands. The hormone is released by the Adrenal Medulla and specifically by the Chromaffin cells. An enzyme which is found in the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla, catalyses the methylation of norepinephrine to epinephrine. (Tortora et al., 2019).

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The major part of the brain that has been damaged is the Cerebral Cortex. Specifically, the two major functional areas of the Cerebral Cortex that have been affected are the Primary Motor Area and Broca’s Speech area in the Frontal Lobe. (Tortora et al., 2019).

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Frontal Lobe damage is recognised through her inability to arrange her words in a coherent fashion and the inability to move her fingers to button up her blouse. The frontal lobe contains the Broca’s speech area which is involved in the articulation of speech specifically in the left cerebral hemisphere. The primary motor area also located in the frontal lobe controls muscles involved in skilled and complex movement e.g. when Maria could not move her fingers to button her blouse.   (Tortora et al., 2019) .

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In the CNS little to no repair or regeneration of a damaged neuron occurs. Other than in the the hippocampus (where new neurons can be replaced) the other regions of the brain lack neurogenesis because of two factors:

1.    Inhibitory influences from neuroglia

2.    Absence of growth-stimulating factors

After damage, scar tissue forms in the CNS that acts as a physical barrier to regeneration, thus injury is usually permanent.  (Tortora et al., 2019).

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Maria’s inability to move her right arm was most likely affected due to damage to the Upper motor neurons (UMNs). These neurons are essential for planning and initiating voluntary movements. Injury of the UMNs in the cerebral cortex also causes paralysis of the muscles on the opposite side of the body shown in Maria’s case.  (Tortora et al., 2019).

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In Maria's case the Direct motor pathway (specifically the lateral corticospinal tract) is affected. The axons of the UMNs in the left cerebral cortex control muscles on the right side of the body, therefore damage to the left side of Maria's brain affected the movement in her right hand. UMNs that form the lateral corticospinal tract are also found in muscles that are responsible for precise and skilled movements of the hands (specifically movements needed to button a shirt like Maria’s symptoms).  (Tortora et al., 2019).

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Neurogenesis following Stroke Affecting the Adult Brain
(Lindvall et al., 2015).

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There are 3 types of muscle fibres, skeletal, cardiac and smooth. The muscle fibre type best suited to powerlifting is skeletal muscle tissue. This is because these types of muscles move the bones of the skeleton (Tortora et al, 2019)

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This process is called the sliding filament theory. The muscle contraction results from the sliding between actin and myosin filaments along with ATP (adenosine triphosphate) hydrolysis (Sugi, Akimoto & Chaen 2018). ATP hydrolysis occurs as the mysosin heads contains an enzyme that hydrolases ATP into ADP and a phosphate group. This process reinenergises the myosin head. This head then attaches to a binding site on action and releases the phosphate group (Tortora et al, 2019)

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Muscle fatigue occurs when performing an exercise and there is a reduction in the maximal voluntary force produced by a muscle (Bigland-Ritchie and Woods 1984, Gandevia 2001 cited in Mate-Munoz et al 2018). Two factors that could contribute to muscle fatigue are lactic acid build up and depletion of glycogen. According to Mate-Munox 2018, recovery periods are a necessity if wanting to reduce injury and muscular fatigue.

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The three periods of a muscle twitch are latent, contraction and relaxation. The first period is latent. This is the time between the stimulus and the muscle contraction starting. This could be when the calcium ions are released. The second period is contraction. This is the phase that the cross bridges form. The final period is relaxation, where the muscle fibres start to relax. (Tortora et al, 2019).

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The two types of muscle contractions Ben is performing are isotonic and isometric. An isotonic muscle contraction occurs when the muscle changes length. This can be concentric which is shortening of the muscle or eccentric which is elongating the muscle. An isometric muscle contraction occurs when the length of the muscle remains the same and therefore does not change (Biel, 2015).

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Exocrine Dysfunction Correlates with Endocrine Impairment of Pancreas in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

(Prasanna Kumar et al., 2018)

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Exocrine Dysfunction Correlates with Endocrinal Impairment

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Hi Group Members,
Please ensure that only one reference list is upload and edited for all modules by adding on to this list.
Reminder: APA referencing must be done alphabetical order.
Any problems happy to help out. Thanks.

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 Salter-Harris Classification of Pediatric Physeal Fractures

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 Salter-Harris Classification of Pediatric Physeal Fractures

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(Cepela et al., 2016)