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Abigail Adams urges husband to “remember the ladies”

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Abigail Adams urges husband to “remember the ladies”

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In a letter dated March 31, 1776, Abigail Adams writes to her husband, John Adams, urging him and the other members of the Continental Congress not to forget about the nation’s women when fighting for America’s independence from Great Britain.

The future First Lady wrote in part, “I long to hear that you have declared an independency. And, by the way, in the new code of laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to make, I desire you would remember the ladies and be more generous and favorable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the husbands. Remember, all men would be tyrants if they could. If particular care and attention is not paid to the ladies, we are determined to foment a rebellion, and will not hold ourselves bound by any laws in which we have no voice or representation.”

Nearly 150 years before the House of Representatives voted to pass the 19th Amendment giving women the right to vote, Adams letter was a private first step in the fight for equal rights for women. Recognized and admired as a formidable woman in her own right, the union of Abigail and John Adams persists as a model of mutual respect and affection; they have since been referred to as “America’s first power couple.” Their correspondence of over 1,000 letters written between 1762 and 1801 remains in the Massachusetts Historical Society and continues to give historians a unique perspective on domestic and political life during the revolutionary era.

Abigail bore six children, of whom five survived. Abigail and John’s eldest son, John Quincy Adams, served as the sixth president of the United States. Only two women, Abigail Adams and Barbara Bush, have been both wives and mothers of American presidents.

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This paper has taught us more than we are able to fathom now. While I was working on it I saw how strong women can be, how they can fight for themselves and for a better future for all of us. From Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Staton to Abigail Adams- women who had a very comfortable life and could have stayed silent but knew in their heart that that won't do anyone good. Elizabeth evan wnet so far as to write the Declaration of Sentiments for the Seneca Falls Covnetion. They used what was given to them to their advantage, when they were allowed a better education they taught their children not to stay silent and to know their value. What I admire the most is how the revolution changed their spirit and gave them the push needed to demand better conditions. A battle that hasn't finished today.

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It’s a term used to describe women’s potential role in the colonial household. A wife could act as a surrogate for her husband, even in legal matters, in times of necessity.The necessity might arise because of a husband’s absence—if, for example, his occupation required him to spend a great deal of time away from home.

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"Republican Motherhood" is an 18th-century term for an attitude toward women's roles present in the emerging United States before, during, and after the American Revolution. The "Republican Mother" was considered a custodian of civic virtue responsible for upholding the morality of her husband and children. Although it is an anachronism, the period of Republican Motherhood is hard to categorize in the history of Feminism. On the one hand, it reinforced the idea of a domestic women's sphere separate from the public world of men. On the other hand, it encouraged the education of women and invested their "traditional" sphere with a dignity and importance that had been missing from previous conceptions of Women's work.

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The Trail of Tears was a series of forced relocations of approximately 60,000 Native Americans in the United States from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States, to areas to the west of the Mississippi River that had been designated as Indian Territory. The forced relocations were carried out by government authorities following the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1830. The relocated peoples suffered from exposure, disease, and starvation while en route to their new designated reserve, and approximately 13,000 (±4,000) died before reaching their destinations or shortly after from disease. The forced removals included members of the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations, as well as their African slaves. The phrase "Trail of Tears" originates from a description of the removal of many Native American tribes, including the Cherokee Nation relocation in 1838.
Between 1830 and 1850, the Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole, and Cherokee people (including mixed-race and black slaves who lived among them) were forcibly removed from their traditional lands in the Southeastern United States, and later relocated farther west. State and local militias forced Native Americans who were relocated to march to their destinations. The Cherokee removal in 1838 (the last forced removal east of the Mississippi) was brought on by the discovery of gold near Dahlonega, Georgia in 1828, resulting in the Georgia Gold Rush. Approximately 2,000–8,000 of the 16,543 relocated Cherokee perished along the way.

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The reform movements that emerged in the United States during the first half of the nineteenth century were not all American inventions.  Instead, these movements were rooted in a transatlantic world where both sides of the ocean faced similar problems and together collaborated to find similar solutions.  Many if of the same factors that spurred American reformers to action—urbanization, industrialization, class struggle, and more—equally affected Europe. Reformers on both sides of the Atlantic visited and corresponded with one another, exchanging ideas and building networks that proved crucial to shared causes like abolition and women’s rights.

Such exchanges began as part of the larger processes of colonialism and empire-building. American Quakers began to question slavery as early as the late-17th century, and worked with British reformers in the successful campaign that ended the slave trade, and then slavery itself, in the early nineteenth century.  Before, during, and after the Revolution, many Americans continued to admire European thinkers.  Influence extended both east and west.  By foregrounding questions about rights, the American Revolution helped inspire British abolitionists, who in turn offered support to their American counterparts.

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The Cult of Domesticity (also known as The Cult of True Womanhood) was a philosophy that sought to define gender roles in the nineteenth century.  This philosophy took the position that there were “separate spheres” that regulated gender roles in American society; the philosophy was largely accepted by the middle and upper classes.  Fundamentally, the cult held that a women’s place was in the home where her superior virtue was to create a strong morally uplifting environment for her children and husband, whereas a man’s place was in the more corrupting and violent world of work and public affairs where he alone should support the family.

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Theratio of men to women was better among attenders than members, indicating a degree of leructance on the part of men to commit themselves; throughtout the period covered by this chapter , about 2/3 of members were women. Quakers have long ago allowed women to be travelling ministers, and by 1835 twice as many women served in this way. The Wesleyans effectedly prohibited women from preeching in 1803, although John Wesley had recognized their ministry and they had often led evangelistic meetings in cottages; however among the primitive methodists and the Bible Christians they served as local or intinerant preachers. When revival broke out in Ulster, Scotland and Wales from 1859, women once again asumed public roles, with some becoming itinerant evangelists; a number of them were associated with the growing network of undenominational mission halls. Theoretocally the Salvation Army placed woman on an equal footing with men as officers. The justification offered in both cases was typically pragmatic- the novelty of a woman preaching was more likely to draw a crowd. In pracitce, therefore, women found the doors of opportunity closing as revival fires cooled, movements became institutionalized and moved up the social scale, ministry became increasingly professionalized and formal training was required, and the notion of 'separate spheres' became a dominant way of thinking about respective roles of men and women in family and society. This encouraged women to stay at home and give their best attention to housekeeping and motherhood  the last female Primitive Methodist preacher retired in 1862, and whereas in 1829  21 out of 83 travelling preachers among the Bible Christians had been women , only one remained by 1872.

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For ten days in June 1840, abolitionists from both sides of the Atlantic met together at the World Antislavery Convention in Freemason’s Hall in London, England.  The purpose of the convention was to better organize and unite international abolitionist forces in the fight for emancipation.  Ironically, while championing the freedom of black slaves, the convention reinforced a different type of subordination—that of a woman to a man.  The treatment of Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton at the convention led them to begin their own movement—for women’s rights.

The convention was a vastly popular event, with 350 delegates from countless countries and anti-slavery associations throughout the Western world.  In fact, so many people came out to the event that the doors were opened early, and “every available foot of the large hall, with the exception of the platform, was densely crowded.”  The female delegates believed they were to be seated, but upon their arrival they were turned away and forced to the gallery.  Lucretia Mott wrote in her diary “The Friends present were nearly all opposed to women's admission. We were told…that our coming had been announced in London Yearly Meeting, and that they were put on their guard against us”.  In fact, few men at the time were comfortable with female anti-slavery advocates publicly speaking out and serving as leaders in the fight for abolition.

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Who were the “mill girls”? The term “mill girls” was occasionally used in antebellum newspapers and periodicals to describe the young Yankee women, generally 15 - 30 years old, who worked in the large cotton factories. They were also called “female operatives.” Female textile workers often described themselves as mill girls, while affirming the virtue of their class and the dignity of their labor. During early labor protests, they asserted that they were “the daughters of freemen” whose rights could not be “trampled upon with impunity.”

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Barter-trade of goods or services for other goods or services without using money

Cash economy-an economic system in which financial transactions are carried out in cash rather than via direct debit, standing order, bank transfer, or credit card.

Corporate charter-a legal document that sets forth a corporation's basic information, such as its location, profit or nonprofit status, board composition and ownership structure.

Emancipation- is any effort to procure economic and social rights, political rights or equality.

Mills girls-young female workers who came to work in industrial corporations in Lowell, Massachusetts, during the Industrial Revolution in the United States.

The cotton boom- brought in more settlers to the South, increased slavery in the South, and brought increases to the Textile Industry.

Coverture-arises from the legal fiction that a husband and wife are one person.

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In 1794, U.S.-born inventor Eli Whitney patented the cotton gin, a machine that revolutionized the production of cotton by greatly speeding up the process of removing seeds from cotton fiber. By the mid-19th century, cotton had become America’s leading export. Despite its success, the gin made little money for Whitney due to patent-infringement issues. Also, his invention offered Southern planters a justification to maintain and expand slavery even as a growing number of Americans supported its abolition. Based in part on his reputation for creating the cotton gin, Whitney later secured a major contract to build muskets for the U.S. government. Through this project, he promoted the idea of interchangeable parts–standardized, identical parts that made for faster assembly and easier repair of various devices. For his work, he is credited as a pioneer of American manufacturing.

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Emantipation proceeded slowly, but proceeded nontheless. A free black population of fewer than 60.000 in 1790. increased to more than 186.000 by 1810. Growing black communities fought for their civil rights. In a number of New Englad locales, free African Americans could vote and send their children to public schools. Most northern states granted black citizens property rights and trial jury. African Americans owned land and business, founded mutual aid societies, established churches, promoted education, developed print culture, and voted.

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The Market Revolution - Effect on American Indians

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The Market Revolution - Effect on American Indians

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Improved transportation increased the United States’ potential to expand its borders westward. While much of the basis for westward expansion was economic, there was also another reason, which was bound up in the American belief that the country, and the American Indian “heathens” who populated it, were destined to come under the civilizing rule of Euro-American settlers and their superior technology, most notably railroads and the telegraph. While it’s unclear whether that belief was a heartfelt motivation held by most Americans or simply a rationalization of the conquests that followed, the clashes—both physical and cultural—that resulted from this western migration left scars on the country that still are felt today.
The concept of “Manifest Destiny” found its roots in the long-standing traditions of territorial expansion upon which the nation itself was founded. Land developers, railroad magnates, and other investors capitalized on westward settlement into American Indian land. The Pacific Railway Act of 1862 was pivotal in helping settlers move west more quickly. Other railway initiatives would follow, subsequently creating a network linking all corners of the nation.

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Though the War of 1812 is remembered as a relatively minor conflict in the United States and Britain, it looms large for Canadians and for Native Americans, who see it as a decisive turning point in their losing struggle to govern themselves. In fact, the war had a far-reaching impact in the United States, as the Treaty of Ghent ended decades of bitter partisan infighting in government and ushered in the so-called “Era of Good Feelings.” The war also marked the demise of the Federalist party, which had been accused of being unpatriotic for its antiwar stance, and reinforced a tradition of Anglophobia that had begun during the Revolutionary War. Perhaps most importantly, the war’s outcome boosted national self-confidence and encouraged the growing spirit of American expansionism that would shape the better part of the 19th century.

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David Walker (September 28, 1796 – August 6, 1830)was an American abolitionist, writer, and anti-slavery activist. Though his father was enslaved, his mother was free; therefore, he was free as well. In 1829, while living in Boston, Massachusetts, with the assistance of the African Grand Lodge (later named Prince Hall Grand Lodge, Jurisdiction of Massachusetts), he published An Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World, a call for black unity and self-help in the fight against the oppressive and unjust slavery. In September 1829, Walker published his appeal to African Americans entitled Walker's Appeal, in Four Articles; Together with a Preamble, to the Coloured Citizens of the World, but in Particular, and Very Expressly, to Those of the United States of America, Written in Boston, State of Massachusetts, September 28, 1829. The purpose of the document was to encourage readers to take an active role in fighting their oppression, regardless of the risk, and to press white Americans to realize the moral and religious failure of slavery. The appeal brought attention to the abuses and inequities of slavery and the responsibility of individuals to act according to religious and political principles. At the time, some people were aghast and fearful of the reaction that the pamphlet would provoke. Many abolitionists thought Walker's views were extreme. Historians and liberation theologians cite the Appeal as an influential political and social document of the 19th century. Walker exerted a radicalizing influence on the abolitionist movements of his day and inspired future black leaders and activists.

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Notes on the State of Virginia, by Thomas Jefferson, is at once a compendium of information about the state and a sweeping commentary on natural history, society, politics, education, religion, slavery, liberty, and law. Many consider it the most important American book written before 1800. Jefferson originally composed the work in 1781 in answer to queries posed by a French diplomat, and then revised and expanded it into a description and defense of the young United States as interpreted through a Virginia lens. The book is divided into twenty-three chapters, largely taken from the diplomat's queries, though Jefferson reordered and renumbered them. Notes was first published in Paris in 1785 in an edition of 200. Both a French translation, published in 1786, and the widely circulated London edition of 1787 incorporated important structural changes and a detailed map.

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Effect of the Haitian revolution on America

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Effect of the Haitian revolution on America

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Prior to its independence, Haiti was a French colony known as St. Domingue. St. Domingue’s slave-based sugar and coffee industries had been fast-growing and successful, and by the 1760s it had become the most profitable colony in the Americas. With the economic growth  came increasing exploitation of the African slaves who made up the overwhelming majority of the population. Prior to and after U.S. independence, American merchants enjoyed a healthy trade with St. Domingue.

The French Revolution had a great impact on the colony. St. Domingue’s white minority split into Royalist and Revolutionary factions, while the mixed-race population campaigned for civil rights. Sensing an opportunity, the slaves of northern St. Domingue organized and planned a massive rebellion which began on August 22, 1791.

When news of the slave revolt broke out, American leaders rushed to provide support for the whites of St. Domingue. However, the situation became more complex when civil commissioners sent to St. Domingue by the French revolutionary government convinced one of the slave revolt leaders, Toussaint L’Ouverture, that the new French Government was committed to ending slavery. What followed over the next decade was a complex and multi-sided civil war in which Spanish and British forces also intervened.

The situation in St. Domingue put the Democratic-Republican party and its leader, Thomas Jefferson, in somewhat of a political dilemma. Jefferson believed strongly in the French Revolution and the ideals it promoted, but as a Virginia slaveholder popular among other Virginia slaveholders, Jefferson also feared the specter of slave revolt. When faced with the question of what the United States should do about the French colony of St. Domingue, Jefferson favored offering limited aid to suppress the revolt, but also suggested that the slaveowners should aim for a compromise similar to that Jamaican slaveholders made with communities of escaped slaves in 1739. Despite their numerous differences on other issues, Secretary of the Treasury and leader of the rival Federalist Party Alexander Hamilton largely agreed with Jefferson regarding Haiti policy.

The Haitian revolution came to North American shores in the form of a refugee crisis. In 1793, competing factions battled for control of the then-capital of St. Domingue, Cap-Français (now Cap-Haïtien.) The fighting and ensuing fire destroyed much of the capital, and refugees piled into ships anchored in the harbor. The French navy deposited the refugees in Norfolk, Virginia. Many refugees also settled in Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. These refugees were predominantly white, though many had brought their slaves with them. The refugees became involved in émigré politics, hoping to influence U.S. foreign policy. Anxieties about their actions, along with those of European radicals also residing in the United States, led to the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts. The growing xenophobia, along with temporarily improved political stability in France and St. Domingue, convinced many of the refugees to return home.

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During his annual address to Congress, President James Monroe proclaims a new U.S. foreign policy initiative that becomes known as the “Monroe Doctrine.” Primarily the work of Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, the Monroe Doctrine forbade European interference in the American hemisphere but also asserted U.S. neutrality in regard to future European conflicts. The origins of the Monroe Doctrine stem from attempts by several European powers to reassert their influence in the Americas in the early 1820s. In North America, Russia had attempted to expand its influence in the Alaska territory, and in Central and South America the U.S. government feared a Spanish colonial resurgence. Britain too was actively seeking a major role in the political and economic future of the Americas, and Adams feared a subservient role for the United States in an Anglo-American alliance. The United States invoked the Monroe Doctrine to defend its increasingly imperialistic role in the Americas in the mid-19th century, but it was not until the Spanish-American War in 1898 that the United States declared war against a European power over its interference in the American hemisphere. The isolationist position of the Monroe Doctrine was also a cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy in the 19th century, and it took the two world wars of the 20th century to draw a hesitant America into its new role as a major global power.

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In political theory and philosophy, the term ‘republicanism’ is generally used in two different, but closely related, senses. In the first sense, republicanism refers to a loose tradition or family of writers in the history of western political thought, including especially: Machiavelli and his fifteenth-century Italian predecessors; the English republicans Milton, Harrington, Sidney, and others; Montesquieu and Blackstone; the eighteenth-century English commonwealthmen; and many Americans of the founding era such as Jefferson, Madison, and Adams. The writers in this tradition emphasize many common ideas and concerns, such as the importance of civic virtue and political participation, the dangers of corruption, the benefits of a mixed constitution and the rule of law, etc.; and it is characteristic of their rhetorical style to draw heavily on classical examples—from Cicero and the Latin historians especially—in presenting their arguments. (In light of the last point, this is sometimes referred to as the ‘classical republican’ or ‘neo-roman’ tradition in political thought.)

Beyond this brief sketch, there exists considerable historiographical controversy—with respect to who the tradition’s members are, and their relative significance; with respect to how we should interpret its underlying philosophical commitments; and with respect to its role (especially vis-à-vis liberalism) in the historical development of modern political thought. This brings us to the second sense of the term ‘republicanism’. In contemporary political theory and philosophy, it most often refers to a specific (and still contested) interpretation of the classical republican tradition, associated especially with the work of Quentin Skinner; together with a research program dedicated to developing insights from this tradition into an attractive contemporary political doctrine, associated especially with the work of Philip Pettit. According to republicans in this second sense (sometimes called ‘civic republicans’ or ‘neo-republicans’), the paramount republican value is political liberty, understood as non-domination or independence from arbitrary power. This entry will primarily discuss republicanism in this second sense.

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On April 5, 1764, Parliament passed a modified version of the Sugar and Molasses Act (1733), which was about to expire. Under the Molasses Act colonial merchants had been required to pay a tax of six pence per gallon on the importation of foreign molasses. But because of corruption, they mostly evaded the taxes and undercut the intention of the tax — that the English product would be cheaper than that from the French West Indies. This hurt the British West Indies market in molasses and sugar and the market for rum, which the colonies had been producing in quantity with the cheaper French molasses. The First Lord of the Treasury, and Chancellor of the Exchequer Lord Grenville was trying to bring the colonies in line with regard to payment of taxes. He had beefed up the Navy presence and instructed them to become more active in customs enforcement. Parliament decided it would be wise to make a few adjustments to the trade regulations. The Sugar Act reduced the rate of tax on molasses from six pence to three pence per gallon, while Grenville took measures that the duty be strictly enforced. The act also listed more foreign goods to be taxed including sugar, certain wines, coffee, pimiento, cambric and printed calico, and further, regulated the export of lumber and iron.

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John Locke's views on education are based on his empirical theory of human knowledge in his famous work “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding”. When born, the mind of the child is like a blank slate — “tabula rasa”, to be filled later with the data derived from sensory experience. It logically ensues that education plays a crucial role in the moral development and social integration of any human being. Education means shaping according to each individual's temperament and skills, exercised without brutality, but in a rigorous and pragmatic manner.

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The Boston Massacre was a deadly riot that occurred on March 5, 1770, on King Street in Boston. It began as a street brawl between American colonists and a lone British soldier, but quickly escalated to a chaotic, bloody slaughter. The conflict energized anti-British sentiment and paved the way for the American Revolution.The Boston Massacre had a major impact on relations between Britain and the American colonists. It further incensed colonists already weary of British rule and unfair taxation and roused them to fight for independence. One of the quotes that describe this moment best to me is the following- “None of them was a hero. The victims were troublemakers who got more than they deserved. The soldiers were professionals…who shouldn’t have panicked. The whole thing shouldn’t have happened.”

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The Tea Act was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain. The goal was to reduce the massive amount of tea held by the financially troubled British East India Company in its London warehouses and to help the financially struggling company survive. A related objective was to undercut the price of illegal tea, smuggled into Britain's North American Colonies.This was supposed to convince the colonists to purchase Company tea on which the Townshend  duties were paid, thus implicitly agreeing to accept Parliament's right of taxation. Smuggled tea was a large issue for Britain and the East India Company, since approximately 86% of all tea in America at the time was smuggled Dutch tea. The Act granted the Company the right to directly ship its tea to North America and the right to duty-free export of tea from Britain, although the ta imposed by the Townshend Act and collected in the colonies remained in force.
The company's authorized consignees were harassed, and in many colonies successful efforts were made to prevent the tea from being landed. In Boston, this resistance culminated in the Boston Tea Party on December 16, 1773, when colonists(some disguised as Native Americans) boarded tea ships anchored in the harbour and dumped their tea cargo overboard. Parliamentary reaction to this event included passage of the Coercive Acts, designed to punish Massachusetts for its resistance, and the appointment of General Thomas Gage as royal governor of Massachusetts.

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Plantation life created a society with clear class divisions. A lucky few were at the top, with land holdings as far as the eyes could see. Most Southerners did not experience this degree of wealth. The contrast between rich and poor was greater in the South than in the other English colonies, because of the labor system necessary for its survival. Most Southerners were Yeoman farmers, indentured servants, or slaves. The plantation system also created changes for women and family structures as well.

The Tidewater aristocrats were the fortunate few who lived in stately plantation manors with hundreds of servants and slaves at their beck and call. Most plantation owners took an active part in the operations of the business. Surely they found time for leisurely activities like hunting, but on a daily basis they worked as well. The distance from one plantation to the next proved to be isolating, with consequences even for the richest class. Unlike New England, who required public schooling by law, the difficulties of travel and the distances between prospective students impeded the growth of such schools in the South. Private tutors were hired by the wealthiest families. The boys studied in the fall and winter to allow time for work in the fields during the planting times. The girls studied in the summer to allow time for weaving during the colder months. Few cities developed in the South. Consequently, there was little room for a merchant middle class. Urban professionals such as lawyers were rare in the South. Artisans often worked right on the plantation as slaves or servants.

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During Russian colonial regime, Georgia, along with other countries of the South Caucasus, provided silk to textile factories in Russia, only small part of it was processed in local factories. Since 1920s, great attention was paid to the development of sericulture in the Soviet Union. There were almost all the stages of silk making in Georgia. Georgian natural silk fabric (chiffon) was highly demanded not only in the former Soviet countries but in Europe as well. It is noteworthy that natural silk fabric is still in great demand. Nowadays, according to international organizations, such as USAID and IFC, Georgia has a good potential for textile manufacturing and is one of the most competitive in international market. In addition, portfolio of the Partnership Fund of Georgia includes several investment schemes connected with silk manufacturing, including promoting production of clothes, thread and fiber.

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By the time it became a Royal colony in 1752, petitions began circling around the settlement for the original charter to be revoked. Georgia soon became known for its plantations and slavery. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the Constitution after the American Revolution in 1788.
The three reasons for settlement were Charity, Economics, and Defense. 1) Charity: King George II had his prisons filled with people who didn't deserve to be there, and he needed a place to put them, because the place was overflowing. This made it easier for James Oglethorpe to convince King George II to let him use the new colony as a place for debtors. 2) Economics: If people went to the colony, not only would they be paying of their debts, but also, it goes into Mercantilism, where Great Britain could use Georgia and export all of the raw materials and use them for the wealth of Great Britain, because the small country simply did not have enough natural recourses to sustain everyone. 3) Defense: The English were worried about the Spanish who controlled Florida. They wanted to create Georgia as a buffer colony, to protect South Carolina, because it had a lot of recourses. With Georgia acting as a buffer colony, if the Spanish decided to attack, they would have to cross Georgia territory. The defenders would keep the Spanish at bay for as long as they could, and hope that British reinforcements would soon arrive to aid the defenders.

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Women were important in the settlement of colonial Georgia from its very beginning in 1733. The founding Trustees of the Georgia colony understood "how necessary a Part Women are in a family" and wanted them to fulfill their traditional roles. There were fewer women in the colonial South which increased their power in a way. They were highly sought after by overwhelimng number of eager men. The high death rate in this regipn resulted in a typical marriage being dissolved within seven years. Consequently there was a good dealof remarriage, and a complex web of half-brothers and half-sisters evolved. Woman needed to administer the property in the absence of the male which caused many to develop managerial skills. However, being a minority had its downside. Female slaves and indentured servants were often victims of aggressive male masters. Like in New England, women were completely excluded from the political process. And if we were to continue to compare their situation we would see that in the Puritan society the male gender was as well overwhelmingly dominant, which was reflected in just about every area of public life. Women could not own property independently, and therefore could not vote, a privilege that was awarded to “freemen”. Women were excluded from enacting laws, serving in courts, creating taxes, and supervising land distribution, all of which were government functions. The role of religion was also divided by gender, since nearly every English person living in New England was Christian in some form. Yet in this area, women were also seen as lesser to God than men were. Men were inferior to God and women were inferior to men, so went the logic of social hierarchy. And after reading all of this, we must ask ourselves why the female role is still viewed as such in the 21st century by a large percent of our population?

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Quakers have always been committed to education. They believed from the outset that it could nurture ‘that of God’ in everyone, and should therefore be available to all. And all meant girls as well as boys. It also meant that education, like faith, should be relevant to daily life, and put to good use. In the early days, in Britain, when education was available to a privileged few, and focussed on Latin, this was a remarkable approach.
The belief that there is that of God in every person led as well to the Quaker practices of careful listening, compassion, non-violence, full equality of women, and social action in pursuit of social justice.
Nowadays there are Quaker schools/Friends Schools on all continents.

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Concept of government in which the state or a well-established network of social institutions plays a key role in the protection and promotion of the economic and social well-being of citizens. It is based on the principles of equality of opportunity, equitable distribution of wealth, and public responsibility for those unable to avail themselves of the minimal provisions for a good life. The general term may cover a variety of forms of economic and social organization.

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Quakers are a religious group who focus on simplicity and respect in all facets of life. There are still tons of Quakers today, with some of them dressing in “simple” clothing, while others have adapted more to modern trends and styles. There are no priests or ministers in the Quaker faith. Rather, everyone has the same connection with God. They rely on the “Christ within,” the idea that God can be found in everyone. Early on in the formation of the religion, Margaret Fell pioneered a strong role for women as important figures in the family and community. Women’s meetings were held in addition to wider meetings, and women in the Quaker community are still very much respected. One of the reasons that the Puritans often accused Quakers of witchcraft was because of their closeness with nature and desire to understand the science behind why things worked the way they did.

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The main difference between the puritans and the Quakers is that puritans viewed humanity as being hopelessly sinful and believed that most people were destined for eternal damnation while some were chosen by God for salvation. The chosen few went through a process of conversion by testifying and exercising holy behavior while Quakers thought that God lives inside everybody and they believed in the “inner light” that enabled a person to view humanity in the most positive way. Puritans also discriminated Native Americans whereas Quakers supported the Native Americans by building for them numerous schools and allowing them to have leadership positions.

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Quakers have been a significant part of the movements for the abolition of slavery, to promote equal rights for women, and peace. Early Quaker defenses of their female members were sometimes equivocal, however, and after the Restoration of 1660 the Quakers became increasingly unwilling to publicly defend women when they adopted tactics such as disrupting services. Women's meetings were organized as a means to involve women in more modest, feminine pursuits. Writers such as Dorcas Dole and Elizabeth Stirredge turned to subjects seen as more feminine in that period.Some Quaker men sought to exclude them from church public concerns with which they had some powers and responsibilities, such as allocating poor relief and in ensuring that Quaker marriages could not be attacked as immoral.

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The House of Burgesses was the elected representative element of the Virginia General Assembly, the legislative body of the Colony of Virginia. With the creation of the House of Burgesses in 1642, the General Assembly, which had been established in 1619, became a bicameral institution. From 1642 to 1776, the House of Burgesses was an instrument of government alongside the royally-appointed colonial governor and the upper-house Council of State in the General Assembly.

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Pocahontas’s birth name was actually Matoaka, which is roughly translated to “Bright Stream Between the Hills”. She was also called Amonute, which no one has ever been able to translate.

She was the daughter of Powhatan, the Chief of the entire group of Native Tsenacommacah nations.

In 1613, after being kidnapped by Captain Samuel Argall in order to be held for ransom for the Englishmen who were allegedly being held by her people during the First Anglo-Powhatan War, Pocahontas was taught Christianity, baptised and given the name Rebecca, which referred to the biblical Rebecca, mother of Jacob and Esau, and was a symbol of her role as the mother of two nations. After her marriage to John Rolfe, a eight-year peace pact was established between the local tribes and the English, which was rapidly deteriorated and resulted in violence and tragic pattern of expropriation when she suddenly died at the age of 21.

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Jamestown-life and labour in the Chesapeake

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Jamestown-life and labour in the Chesapeake

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Jamestown - life and labor in the Chesapeake

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•Bicameral•
(of a parliament, congress, etc.)
-having two parts, such as the Senate and the House of Representatives in the US

•The starving time•
-was the winter of 1609-1610, when food shortages, fractured leadership, and a siege by Powhatan Indian warriors killed two of every three colonists at James Fort. From its beginning, the colony struggled to maintaining a food supply. Trade relations with the Virginia Indian tribes were strained because a severe seven-year drought stressed food supplies for everyone in the region.

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The Anglo–Powhatan Wars were three wars fought between settlers of the Virginia Colony and Algonquin Indians of the Powhatan Confederacy in the early seventeenth century. The first war started in 1610 and ended in a peace settlement in 1614. The second war lasted from 1622 to 1626. The third war lasted from 1644 until 1646 and ended when Opechancanough was captured and killed.

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Pagan- a person holding religious beliefs other than those of the main world religions.

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Fought from 1676 to 1677, it began with a local dispute with the Doeg Indians on thePotomac River. Chased north by Virginia militiamen, who also attacked the otherwise uninvolvedSusquehannocks, the Indians began raiding the Virginia frontier. The governor, Sir William Berkeley, persauded the General Assembly to adopt a plan that isolated the Susquehannocks while bringing in Indian allies on Virginia's side.

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Mercantilism is a national economic policy that is designed to maximize the exports, and minimize the imports, of a nation.

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The Mayflower Compact was the first governing document of Plymouth Colony. It was written by the male passengers of the Mayflower, consisting of separatist Puritans, adventurers, and tradesmen.

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The Puritans were a group of people who grew discontent in the Church of England and worked towards religious, moral and societal reforms.
Their name originates from the fact that they wanted to purify the Church of England from the Catholics.