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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_media_studies#First_M.A._Media_Studies_program_in_the_U.S.

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Media Studies encompasses the academic investigation of the mass media from perspectives such as sociology, psychology, history, semiotics, and critical discourse analysis. The purpose of media studies is to figure out how media affects society. This is an article on the history of media studies. Including, it's roots, the first type of programs, different types of studies, and where it began.

Media studies in the United States is also known as, Mass Communication and Communication Studies.

Though not yet named as such, media studies' roots are in the Chicago School and thinkers such as John Dewey, Charles Cooley and George Mead. These authors saw American society on the cusp of positive social change toward pure democracy. Mead argued that for an ideal society to exist, a form of communication must be developed to allow the unique individual to appreciate the attitudes, viewpoints and positions of others unlike himself, and allow him to be understood by others as well. Mead believed that this "new media" would allow humans to empathize with others, and therefore moves toward an "ideal of human society." Where Mead sees an ideal society, Dewey names it the "Great Community," and further asserts the assumption that humans are intelligent enough for self-government, and that that knowledge is "a function of association and communication." Similarly, Cooley asserts that political communication makes public opinion possible, which in turn promotes democracy. Each of these authors represent the Chicago School's attention to electronic communication as a facilitator of democracy, its faith in the informed electorate, and its focus on the individual as opposed to the mass.

The social impact of mass communication has been studied at The New School University in New York since its founding in 1919. The first college course to investigate the motion picture was offered here in 1926. Marshall McLuhan's colleague, John Culkin who was one of the first educators of media education in schools, brought his Center for Understanding Media to The New School in 1975 and The New School began offering the Master of Arts degree in Media Studies, one of the first graduate programs of its kind. Today, among other programs, MA in Media Studies is still being offered by School of Media Studies, The New School, which will celebrate 40th anniversary of Media Studies at The New School during the academic year 2015-2016 It has seen more than 2,000 students graduate from the program since it's start. This being largely in part to Culkin believing that the education of media, is a schools responsibility.

Between the First and Second World Wars, the Institute for Propaganda Analysis briefly rose to importance. Their definition of propaganda was

expression of opinion or action by individuals or groups deliberately designed to influence opinion or actions of other individuals or groups with reference to predetermined ends.

Harold Lasswell, who worked in the paradigm of the Chicago School of sociology wrote Propaganda Technique in the World War, which included this definition of propaganda:

Propaganda in the broadest sense is the technique of influencing human action by the manipulation of representations. These representations may take spoken, written, pictorial or musical form.

These definitions of propaganda clearly show that this was a school of thought that focused on media effects, as it highlighted the influence that media could have over its audiences attitudes and actions.

Epitomizing this early school of media effects studies are experiments done by The Experimental Section of the Research Branch of the U.S. War Department's Information and Education Division. In the experiments, the effects of various U.S. wartime propaganda films on soldiers were observed.

Current Propaganda studies are applied into many fields besides politics. Herman described a propaganda model as "a model of media behavior and performance, not of media effects." (Herman, 2000, p. 63) He argued: "They are profit-seeking business, owned by very wealthy people (or other companies); and they are funded largely by advertisers who are also profit-seeking entities, and who want their advertisements to appear in a supportive selling environment." He also presented "five factors: owner ship, advertising, sourcing, flak and anti-communist ideology-work as filters through which information must pass, and that individually and often in cumulative fashion they greatly influence media choices." Until now, there is no conclusion of propaganda, debate still continues.

Typified by the philosophical and theoretical orientations of Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Walter Benjamin, Leo Lowenthal, and Herbert Marcuse, the Frankfurt school contributed greatly to the development and application of critical theory in media studies. Their Marxist critique of market-driven media was critical of its atomizing and leveling effects.

The Frankfurt school also lamented the effects of the "culture industry" on the production and appreciation of art. For example, in A Social Critique of Radio Music, Adorno asserts:

...music has ceased to be a human force and is consumed like other consumers' goods. This produces 'commodity listening'...The listener suspends all intellectual activity.

As the Frankfurt school lamented on the effects of the "culture industry" they also began to identify mass culture and high culture as two distinct entities. Scholars like Benjamin (1936) and Adorno (1945) can be credited with what would eventually become known as popular culture and high culture. Their finite distinction of equating original production with ritualistic behavior as compared with mass culture that finds its identifying symbols in reproductions. These reproductions are souless and lacking in definition and originality.

The less paradigm in media studies since the Second World War has been associated with the ideas, methods and findings of Paul F. Lazarsfeld and his school: media effect studies. Their studies focused on measurable, short-term behavioral 'effects' of media and concluded that the media played a limited role in influencing public opinion. The "Limited-Effects" Model developed by Lazarsfeld and his colleagues from Columbia was highly influential in the development of media studies. The model claims the mass media has "limited-effects" on voting patterns. Voters are influenced, rather, through the 'two-step flow' model, the idea that media messages are disseminated through personal interaction with 'opinion leaders'.

The model of limited- effects was so influential that the question of media "effects" on politics was left largely unaddressed until the late 1960s. Eventually Mass Communication scholars began to study political behavior again and the limited-effects model was called into question.

As a response to the previous emphasis upon media effects, from the 1970s researchers became interested in how audiences make sense of media texts. The " uses and gratifications" model, associated with Jay Blumler and Elihu Katz, reflected this growing interest in the 'active audience'. One such example of this type of research was conducted by Hodge and Tripp, and separately Palmer, about how school-children make sense of the Australian soap opera . They found that pupils could identify with the prisoners: they were "shut in", separated from their friends and wouldn't be there had they not been made to be, etc. Also, the children could compare the wardens to their teachers: "the hard-bitten old [one], the soft new one, the one you could take advantage of..." John Fiske summarises:

The children inserted meanings of the program into their social experience of school in a way that informed both - the meanings of school and the meanings of Prisoner were each influenced by the other, and the fit between them validated the other.

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Media Studies encompasses the academic investigation of the mass media from perspectives such as sociology, psychology, history, semiotics, and critical discourse analysis. The purpose of media studies is to figure out how media affects society. This is an article on the history of media studies .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_(media)

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In communication, media are the outlets or tools used to store and deliver content; semantic information or subject matter of which the media contains. The term generally refers to components of the mass media communications industry, such as print media, publishing, news media, photography, cinema, broadcasting ( radio and television), digital media, and advertising.

The development of early writing and paper enabling longer-distance communication systems such as mail, including in the Persian Empire ( Chapar Khaneh and Angarium) and Roman Empire, can be interpreted as early forms of media. Writers such as Howard Rheingold have framed early forms of human communication, such as the Lascaux cave paintings and early writing, as early forms of media. Another framing of the history of media starts with the Chauvet Cave paintings and continues with other ways to carry human communication beyond the short range of voice: smoke signals, trail markers, and sculpture.

In its modern application, the term media is relating to communication channels was first used by Canadian communications theorist Marshall McLuhan, who stated in Counterblast (1954): "The media are not toys; they should not be in the hands of Mother Goose and Peter Pan executives. They can be entrusted only to new artists because they are art forms." By the mid-1960s, the term had spread to general use in North America and the United Kingdom. According to H. L. Mencken, the phrase mass media was used as early as 1923 in the United States.

The term medium (the singular form of media) is defined as "one of the means or channels of general communication, information, or entertainment in society, as newspapers, radio, or television."

The role of regulatory authorities (license broadcaster institutions, content providers, platforms) and the resistance to political and commercial interference in the autonomy of the media sector are both considered as significant components of media independence. In order to ensure media independence, regulatory authorities should be placed outside of governments' directives. This can be measured through legislation, agency statutes and rules.

In the United States, the Radio Act of 1927 established that the radio frequency spectrum was public property. This prohibited private organizations from owning any portion of the spectrum. A broadcast license is typically given to broadcasters by communications regulators, allowing them to broadcast on a certain frequency and typically in a specific geographical location. Licensing is done by regulators in order to manage a broadcasting medium and as a method to prevent the concentration of media ownership.

Licensing has been criticized for an alleged lack of transparency. Regulatory authorities in certain countries have been accused of exhibiting political bias in favor of the government or ruling party, which has resulted in some prospective broadcasters being denied licenses or being threatened with license withdrawal. As a consequence, there has been a decrease in diversity of content and views in certain countries due to actions made against broadcasters by states via their licensing authorities. This can have an impact on competition and may lead to an excessive concentration of power with potential influence on public opinion. Examples include the failure to renew or retain licenses for editorially critical media, reducing the regulator's competences and mandates for action, and a lack of due process in the adoption of regulatory decisions.

State control is also evident in the increasing politicization of regulatory bodies operationalized through transfers and appointments of party-aligned individuals to senior positions in regulatory authorities. Anatol Lieven in his book explains how Pakistan, a less economically developed country, regulated its media in the 1980s.

In Western Europe, self-regulation provides an alternative to state regulatory authorities. In such contexts, newspapers have historically been free of licensing and regulation, and there has been repeated pressure for them to self-regulate or at least to have in-house ombudsmen. However, it has often been difficult to establish meaningful self-regulatory entities.

In many cases, self-regulations exists in the shadow of state regulation, and is conscious of the possibility of state intervention. In many countries in Central and Eastern Europe, self-regulatory structures seems to be lacking or have not historically been perceived as efficient and effective.

The rise of satellite channels that delivered directly to viewers, or through cable or online systems, renders much larger the sphere of unregulated programing. There are, however, varying efforts to regulate the access of programmers to satellite transponders in parts of the Western Europe, North America, the Arab region and in Asia and the Pacific. The Arab Satellite Broadcasting Charter was an example of efforts to bring formal standards and some regulatory authority to bear on what is transmitted, but it appears to not have been implemented.

Self-regulation is expressed as a preferential system by journalists but also as a support for media freedom and development organizations by intergovernmental organizations such as UNESCO and non-governmental organizations. There has been a continued trend of establishing self-regulatory bodies, such as press councils, in conflict and post-conflict situations.

Major internet companies have responded to pressure by governments and the public by elaborating self-regulatory and complaints systems at the individual company level, using principles they have developed under the framework of the Global Network Initiative. The Global Network Initiative has grown to include several large telecom companies alongside internet companies such as Google, Facebook and others, as well as civil society organizations and academics.

The European Commission's 2013 publication, ICT Technology Sector Guide on Implementing the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, impacts on the presence of independent journalism by defining the limits of what should or should not be carried and prioritized in the most popular digital spaces.

Ranking Digital Rights indicator scores for policy transparency in regards to third-party requests for content or account restriction

Ranking Digital Rights indicator scores for policy transparency in regard to their terms of service enforcement (which impact upon content or account restrictions)

Public pressure on technology giants has motivated the development of new strategies aimed not only at identifying ' fake news', but also at eliminating some of the structural causes of their emergence and proliferation. Facebook has created new buttons for users to report content they believe is false, following previous strategies aimed at countering hate speech and harassment online. These changes reflect broader transformations occurring among tech giants to increase their transparency. As indicated by the Ranking Digital Rights Corporate Accountability Index, most large internet companies have reportedly become relatively more forthcoming in terms of their policies about transparency in regard to third party requests to remove or access content, especially in the case of requests from governments. At the same time, however, the study signaled a number of companies that have become more opaque when it comes to disclosing how they enforce their own terms of service, in restricting certain types of content and account. State governments can also use "Fake news" in order to spread propaganda.

In addition to responding to pressure for more clearly defined self-regulatory mechanisms, and galvanized by the debates over so-called 'fake news', internet companies such as Facebook have launched campaigns to educate users about how to more easily distinguish between 'fake news' and real news sources. Ahead of the United Kingdom national election in 2017, for example, Facebook published a series of advertisements in newspapers with 'Tips for Spotting False News' which suggested 10 things that might signal whether a story is genuine or not. There have also been broader initiatives bringing together a variety of donors and actors to promote fact-checking and news literacy, such as the News Integrity Initiative at the City University of New York's School of Journalism. This 14 million USD investment by groups including the Ford Foundation and Facebook was launched in 2017 so its full impact remains to be seen. It will, however, complement the offerings of other networks such as the International Fact-Checking Network launched by the Poynter Institute in 2015 which seeks to outline the parameters of the field. Instagram has also created a way to potentially expose "fake news" that is posted on the site. After looking into the site, it seemed as more than a place for political memes, but a weaponized platform, instead of the creative space it used to be. Since that, Instagram has started to put warning labels on certain stories or posts if third-party fact checkers believe that false information is being spread. Instagram works with these fact checkers to ensure that no false information is being spread around the site. Instagram started this work in 2019, following Facebook with the idea as they started fact checking in 2016.

Developments in telecommunications has provided media the ability to conduct long-distance communication via analog and digital media:

Modern communication media includes long-distance exchanges between larger numbers of people ( many-to-many communication via email, Internet forums, and telecommunications ports). Traditional broadcast media and mass media favor one-to-many communication (television, cinema, radio, newspaper, magazines, and social media).

Electronic Media, specifically social media has become one of the top forms of media that people use in the twenty-first century. The percent of people that use social media and social networking outlets went from 5% in 2005 to 79% in 2019. Instagram, Twitter, Pinterest, Tiktok, and Facebook are all the most commonly used social media platforms. The average time that an individual spends on social media is 2.5 hours a day. With the exponential increase of social media it has also caused a change in which people communicate with others as well as receive information. About 53% use social media to read/watch the news. Many people use the information specifically from social media influencers to understand more about a topic, business, or organization. Social media has now been made part of everyday news production for journalists around the world.

The gaming community has grown exponentially, and about 63% have taken to playing with others, whether online or in-person. Players online will communicate through the system of microphone applicability either through the game or a third party application such as Discord. The improvements upon connectivity and software allowed for players online to keep in touch and game instantaneously, disregarding location almost entirely. With online gaming platforms it has been noted that they support diverse social gaming communities allowing players to feel a sense of belonging through the screen.

Gaming is an activity shared amongst others regardless of age, allowing for a diverse group of players to connect and enjoy their favorite games with. This helps with creating or maintaining relationships: friendships, family, or a significant other.

As with most interactive media content, games have ratings to assist in choosing appropriate games regarding younger audiences. This is done by ESRB ratings and consists of the following: E for Everyone, E for Everyone 10+, T for Teen, and M for Mature 17+. Whenever a new game is released, it is reviewed by associations to determine a suitable rating so younger audiences do not consume harmful or inappropriate content. With these ratings it helps the risks and effects of gaming on younger audiences because the exposure of media is believed to influence children's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.

The usage and consumption of gaming has tremendously increased within the last decade with estimates of around 2.3 billion people from around the world playing digital and online video games. The growth rate for the global market for gaming was expected to grow 6.2% towards 2020. Areas like Latin America had a 20.1% increase, Asia-Pacific - 9.2%, North America - 4.0%, and Europe -11.7%.

Studies show that digital and online gaming can be used as a communication method to aid in scientific research and create interaction. The narrative, layout, and gaming features all share a relationship that can deliver meaning and value that make games an innovative communication tool. Research-focused games showed a connection towards a greater usage of dialogue within the science community as players had the opportunity to address issues with a game with themselves and scientists. This helped to push the understanding of how gaming and players can help advance scientific research via communication through games.

E-Book

An E-book combines reading and listening media interaction. It is compact and can store a large amount of data which has made them very popular in classrooms.

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In communication, media are the outlets or tools used to store and deliver content; semantic information or subject matter of which the media contains. The term generally refers to components of the mass media communications industry, such as print media, publishing, news media, photography, cinema, broadcasting ( radio and television), digital media, and advertising.

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Personalized search is web search results that are tailored specifically to an individual's interests by incorporating information about the individual beyond the specific query provided. There are two general approaches to personalizing search results, involving modifying the user's query and re-ranking search results.

Google introduced personalized search in 2004 and it was implemented in 2005 to Google search. Google has personalized search implemented for all users, not only those with a Google account. There is not much information on how exactly Google personalizes their searches; however, it is believed that they use user language, location, and web history.

Early search engines, like Google and AltaVista, found results based only on key words. Personalized search, as pioneered by Google, has become far more complex with the goal to "understand exactly what you mean and give you exactly what you want." Using mathematical algorithms, search engines are now able to return results based on the number of links to and from sites; the more links a site has, the higher it is placed on the page. Search engines have two degrees of expertise: the shallow expert and the deep expert. An expert from the shallowest degree serves as a witness who knows some specific information on a given event. A deep expert, on the other hand, has comprehensible knowledge that gives it the capacity to deliver unique information that is relevant to each individual inquirer. If a person knows what he or she wants then the search engine will act as a shallow expert and simply locate that information. But search engines are also capable of deep expertise in that they rank results indicating that those near the top are more relevant to a user's wants than those below.

While many search engines take advantage of information about people in general, or about specific groups of people, personalized search depends on a user profile that is unique to the individual. Research systems that personalize search results model their users in different ways. Some rely on users explicitly specifying their interests or on demographic/cognitive characteristics. However, user-supplied information can be difficult to collect and keep up to date. Others have built implicit user models based on content the user has read or their history of interaction with Web pages.

There are several publicly available systems for personalizing Web search results (e.g., Google Personalized Search and Bing's search result personalization). However, the technical details and evaluations of these commercial systems are proprietary. One technique Google uses to personalize searches for its users is to track log in time and if the user has enabled web history in his browser. If a user accesses the same site through a search result from Google many times, it believes that they like that page. So when users carry out certain searches, Google's personalized search algorithm gives the page a boost, moving it up through the ranks. Even if a user is signed out, Google may personalize their results because it keeps a 180-day record of what a particular web browser has searched for, linked to a cookie in that browser.

In search engines on social networking platforms like Facebook or LinkedIn, personalization could be achieved by exploiting homophily between searchers and results. For example, in People search, searchers are often interested in people in the same social circles, industries or companies. In Job search, searchers are usually interested in jobs at similar companies, jobs at nearby locations and jobs requiring expertise similar to their own.

In order to better understand how personalized search results are being presented to the users, a group of researchers at Northeastern University compared an aggregate set of searches from logged in users against a control group. The research team found that 11.7% of results show differences due to personalization; however, this varies widely by search query and result ranking position. Of various factors tested, the two that had measurable impact were being logged in with a Google account and the IP address of the searching users. It should also be noted that results with high degrees of personalization include companies and politics. One of the factors driving personalization is localization of results, with company queries showing store locations relevant to the location of the user. So, for example, if a user searched for "used car sales", Google may produce results of local car dealerships in their area. On the other hand, queries with the least amount of personalization include factual queries ("what is") and health.

When measuring personalization, it is important to eliminate background noise. In this context, one type of background noise is the carry-over effect. The carry-over effect can be defined as follows: when a user performs a search and follow it with a subsequent search, the results of the second search is influenced by the first search. A noteworthy point is that the top-ranked URLs are less likely to change based on personalization, with most personalization occurring at the lower ranks. This is a style of personalization based on recent search history, but it is not a consistent element of personalization because the phenomenon times out after 10 minutes, according to the researchers.

Several concerns have been brought up regarding personalized search. It decreases the likelihood of finding new information by biasing search results towards what the user has already found. It introduces potential privacy problems in which a user may not be aware that their search results are personalized for them, and wonder why the things that they are interested in have become so relevant. Such a problem has been coined as the "filter bubble" by author Eli Pariser. He argues that people are letting major websites drive their destiny and make decisions based on the vast amount of data they've collected on individuals. This can isolate users in their own worlds or "filter bubbles" where they only see information that they want to, such a consequence of "The Friendly World Syndrome". As a result, people are much less informed of problems in the developing world which can further widen the gap between the North (developed countries) and the South (developing countries).

The methods of personalization, and how useful it is to "promote" certain results which have been showing up regularly in searches by like-minded individuals in the same community. The personalization method makes it very easy to understand how the filter bubble is created. As certain results are bumped up and viewed more by individuals, other results not favored by them are relegated to obscurity. As this happens on a community-wide level, it results in the community, consciously or not, sharing a skewed perspective of events.

An area of particular concern to some parts of the world is the use of personalized search as a form of control over the people utilizing the search by only giving them particular information ( selective exposure). This can be used to give particular influence over highly talked about topics such as gun control or even gear people to side with a particular political regime in different countries. While total control by a particular government just from personalized search is a stretch, control of the information readily available from searches can easily be controlled by the richest corporations. The biggest example of a corporation controlling the information is Google. Google is not only feeding you the information they want but they are at times using your personalized search to gear you towards their own companies or affiliates. This has led to a complete control of various parts of the web and a pushing out of their competitors such as how Google Maps took a major control over the online map and direction industry with MapQuest and others forced to take a backseat.

Many search engines use concept-based user profiling strategies that derive only topics that users are highly interested in but for best results, according to researchers Wai-Tin and Dik Lun, both positive and negative preferences should be considered. Such profiles, applying negative and positive preferences, result in highest quality and most relevant results by separating alike queries from unalike queries. For example, typing in 'apple' could refer to either the fruit or the Macintosh computer and providing both preferences aids search engines' ability to learn which apple the user is really looking for based on the links clicked. One concept-strategy the researchers came up with to improve personalized search and yield both positive and negative preferences is the click-based method. This method captures a user's interests based on which links they click on in a results list, while downgrading unclicked links.

The feature also has profound effects on the search engine optimization industry, due to the fact that search results will no longer be ranked the same way for every user. An example of this is found in Eli Pariser's, The Filter Bubble, where he had two friends type in "BP" into Google's search bar. One friend found information on the BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico while the other retrieved investment information.

The filter bubble has made a heavy effect on the search for information of health. With the influence of search results based upon search history, social network, personal preference and other aspects, misinformation has been a large contributor in the drop of vaccination rate. In 2014/15 there was an outbreak of measles in America with there being 644 reported cases during the time period. The key contributors to this outbreak were anti-vaccine organizations and public figures, who at the time were spreading fear about the vaccine.

Some have noted that personalized search results not only serve to customize a user's search results, but also advertisements. This has been criticized as an invasion on privacy.

An important example of search personalization is Google. There are a host of Google applications, all of which can be personalized and integrated with the help of a Google account. Personalizing search does not require an account. However, one is almost deprived of a choice, since so many useful Google products are only accessible if one has a Google account. The Google Dashboard, introduced in 2009, covers more than 20 products and services, including Gmail, Calendar, Docs, YouTube, etc. that keeps track of all the information directly under one's name. The free Google Custom Search is available for individuals and big companies alike, providing the Search facility for individual websites and powering corporate sites such as that of the New York Times. The high level of personalization that was available with Google played a significant part in helping remain the world's most favorite search engine.

One example of Google's ability to personalize searches is in its use of Google News. Google has geared its news to show everyone a few similar articles that can be deemed interesting, but as soon as the user scrolls down, it can be seen that the news articles begin to differ. Google takes into account past searches as well as the location of the user to make sure that local news gets to them first. This can lead to a much easier search and less time going through all of the news to find the information one want. The concern, however, is that the very important information can be held back because it does not match the criteria that the program sets for the particular user. This can create the " filter bubble" as described earlier.

An interesting point about personalization that often gets overlooked is the privacy vs personalization battle. While the two do not have to be mutually exclusive, it is often the case that as one becomes more prominent, it compromises the other. Google provides a host of services to people, and many of these services do not require information to be collected about a person to be customizable. Since there is no threat of privacy invasion with these services, the balance has been tipped to favor personalization over privacy, even when it comes to search. As people reap the rewards of convenience from customizing their other Google services, they desire better search results, even if it comes at the expense of private information. Where to draw the line between the information versus search results tradeoff is new territory and Google gets to make that decision. Until people get the power to control the information that is being collected about them, Google is not truly protecting privacy. Google's popularity as a search engine and Internet browser has allowed it to gain a lot of power. Their popularity has created millions of usernames, which have been used to collect vast amounts of information about individuals. Google can use multiple methods of personalization such as traditional, social, geographic, IP address, browser, cookies, time of day, year, behavioral, query history, bookmarks, and more. Although having Google personalize search results based on what users searched previously may have its benefits, there are negatives that come with it. With the power from this information, Google has chosen to enter other sectors it owned, such as videos, document sharing, shopping, maps, and many more. Google has done this by steering searchers to their own services offered as opposed to others such as MapQuest.

Using search personalization, Google has doubled its video market share to about eighty percent. The legal definition of a monopoly is when a firm gains control of seventy to eighty percent of the market. Google has reinforced this monopoly by creating significant barriers of entry such as manipulating search results to show their own services. This can be clearly seen with Google Maps being the first thing displayed in most searches.

The analytical firm Experian Hitwise stated that since 2007, MapQuest has had its traffic cut in half because of this. Other statistics from around the same time include Photobucket going from twenty percent of market share to only three percent, Myspace going from twelve percent market share to less than one percent, and ESPN from eight percent to four percent market share. In terms of images, Photobucket went from 31% in 2007 to 10% in 2010 and Yahoo Images has gone from 12% to 7%. It becomes apparent that the decline of these companies has come because of Google's increase in market share from 43% in 2007 to about 55% in 2009.

It can be said that Google is more dominant because they provide better services. However, Experian Hitwise has also created graphs to show the market share of about fifteen different companies at once. This has been done for every category for the market share of pictures, videos, product search, and more. The graph for product search is evidence enough for Google's influence because their numbers went from 1.3 million unique visitors to 11.9 unique visitors in one month. That kind of growth can only come with the change of a process.

In the end, there are two common themes with all of these graphs. The first is that Google's market share has a directly inverse relationship to the market share of the leading competitors. The second is that this directly inverse relationship began around 2007, which is around the time that Google began to use its "Universal Search" method.

One of the most critical benefits personalized search has is to improve the quality of decisions consumers make. The internet has made the transaction cost of obtaining information significantly lower than ever. However, human ability to process information has not expanded much. When facing overwhelming amount of information, consumers need a sophisticated tool to help them make high quality decisions. Two studies examined the effects of personalized screening and ordering tools, and the results show a positive correlation between personalized search and the quality of consumers' decisions.

The first study was conducted by Kristin Diehl from the University of South Carolina. Her research discovered that reducing search cost led to lower quality choices. The reason behind this discovery was that 'consumers make worse choices because lower search costs cause them to consider inferior options.' It also showed that if consumers have a specific goal in mind, they would further their search, resulting in an even worse decision. The study by Gerald Haubl from the University of Alberta and Benedict G.C. Dellaert from Maastricht University mainly focused on recommendation systems. Both studies concluded that a personalized search and recommendation system significantly improved consumers' decision quality and reduced the number of products inspected.

Personalized search gains popularity because of the demand for more relevant information and the fact that most people could really use some personal information such as personalized search gains. Research has indicated low success rates among major search engines in providing relevant results; in 52% of 20,000 queries, searchers did not find any relevant results within the documents that Google returned. Personalized search can improve search quality significantly and there are mainly two ways to achieve this goal.

The first model available is based on the users' historical searches and search locations. People are probably familiar with this model since they often find the results reflecting their current location and previous searches.

There is another way to personalize search results. In Bracha Shapira and Boaz Zabar's "Personalized Search: Integrating Collaboration and Social Networks", Shapira and Zabar focused on a model that utilizes a recommendation system. This model shows results of other users who have searched for similar keywords. The authors examined keyword search, the recommendation system, and the recommendation system with social network working separately and compares the results in terms of search quality. The results show that a personalized search engine with the recommendation system produces better quality results than the standard search engine, and that the recommendation system with social network even improves more.

Recent paper " Search personalization with embeddings " shows that a new embedding model for search personalization, where users are embedded on a topical interest space, produces better search results than strong learning-to-rank models.

While there are documented benefits of the implementation of search personalization, there are also arguments against its use. The foundation of this argument against its use is because it confines internet users' search engine results to material that aligns with the users' interests and history. It limits the users' ability to become exposed to material that would be relevant to the user's search query but due to the fact that some of this material differs from the user's interests and history, the material is not displayed to the user. Search personalization takes the objectivity out of the search engine and undermines the engine. "Objectivity matters little when you know what you are looking for, but its lack is problematic when you do not". Another criticism of search personalization is that it limits a core function of the web: the collection and sharing of information. Search personalization prevents users from easily accessing all the possible information that is available for a specific search query. Search personalization adds a bias to user's search queries. If a user has a particular set of interests or internet history and uses the web to research a controversial issue, the user's search results will reflect that. The user may not be shown both sides of the issue and miss potentially important information if the user's interests lean to one side or another. A study done on search personalization and its effects on search results in Google News resulted in different orders of news stories being generated by different users, even though each user entered the same search query. According to Bates, "only 12% of the searchers had the same three stories in the same order. This to me is prima facie evidence that there is filtering going on". If search personalization was not active, all the results in theory should have been the same stories in an identical order.

Another disadvantage of search personalization is that internet companies such as Google are gathering and potentially selling their users' internet interests and histories to other companies. This raises a privacy issue concerning whether people are comfortable with companies gathering and selling their internet information without their consent or knowledge. Many web users are unaware of the use of search personalization and even fewer have knowledge that user data is a valuable commodity for internet companies.

E. Pariser, author of The Filter Bubble, explains how there are differences that search personalization has on both Facebook and Google. Facebook implements personalization when it comes to the amount of things people share and what pages they "like". An individual's social interactions, whose profile they visit the most, who they message or chat with are all indicators that are used when Facebook uses personalization. Rather than what people share being an indicator of what is filtered out, Google takes into consideration what we "click" to filter out what comes up in our searches. In addition, Facebook searches are not necessarily as private as the Google ones. Facebook draws on the more public self and users share what other people want to see. Even while tagging photographs, Facebook uses personalization and face recognition that will automatically assign a name to face. Facebook's like button utilizes its users to do their own personalization for the website. What posts the user comments on or likes tells Facebook what type of posts they will be interested in for the future. In addition to this, it helps them predict what type of posts they will "comment on, share, or spam in the future." The predictions are combined together to produce one relevancy score which helps Facebook decide what to show you and what to filter out. In 2016, Facebook introduced reactions (Love, Thankful, Haha, Wow, Sad, and Angry) in addition to liking a post. "Facebook has learned that any Reaction left on a post is a strong indicator that the user was more interested in that post than any other 'liked' posts." Facebook is starting to weigh reactions the same way as likes. So even if you leave the "angry" reaction on a post, Facebook will show posts on the user's feed because the user showed an interest in it.

In terms of Google, users are provided similar websites and resources based on what they initially click on. There are even other websites that use the filter tactic to better adhere to user preferences. For example, Netflix also judges from the users search history to suggest movies that they may be interested in for the future. There are sites like Amazon and personal shopping sites also use other peoples history in order to serve their interests better. Twitter also uses personalization by "suggesting" other people to follow. In addition, based on who one "follows", "tweets" and "retweets" at, Twitter filters out suggestions most relevant to the user. LinkedIn personalizes search results at two levels. LinkedIn federated search exploits user intent to personalize vertical order. For instance, for the same query like "software engineer", depending on whether a searcher has hiring or job seeking intent, he or she is served with either people or jobs as the primary vertical. Within each vertical, e.g., people search, result rankings are also personalized by taking into account the similarity and social relationships between searchers and results. Mark Zuckerberg, founder of Facebook, believed that people only have one identity. E. Pariser argues that is completely false and search personalization is just another way to prove that isn't true. Although personalized search may seem helpful, it is not a very accurate representation of any person. There are instances where people also search things and share things in order to make themselves look better. For example, someone may look up and share political articles and other intellectual articles. There are many sites being used for different purposes and that do not make up one person's identity at all, but provide false representations instead.

Search engines such as Google and Yahoo! utilize personalized search to attract possible customers to products that fit their presumed desires. Based on a large amount of collected data aggregated from an individual's web clicks, search engines can use personalized search to put advertisements that may pique the interest of an individual. Utilizing personalized search can help consumers find what they want faster, as well as help match up products and services to individuals within more specialized and/or niche markets. Many of these products or services that are sold via personalized online results would struggle to sell in brick-and-mortar stores. These types of products and services are called long tail items. Using personalized search allows faster product and service discoveries for consumers, and reduces the amount of necessary advertisement money spent to reach those consumers. In addition, utilizing personalized search can help companies determine which individuals should be offered online coupon codes to their products and/or services. By tracking if an individual has perused their website, considered purchasing an item, or has previously made a purchase a company can post advertisements on other websites to reach that particular consumer in an attempt to have them make a purchase.

Aside from aiding consumers and businesses in finding one another, the search engines that provide personalized search benefit greatly. The more data collected on an individual, the more personalized results will be. In turn, this allows search engines to sell more advertisements because companies understand that they will have a better opportunity to sell to high percentage matched individuals then medium and low percentage matched individuals. This aspect of personalized search angers many scholars, such as William Badke and Eli Pariser, because they believe personalized search is driven by the desire to increase advertisement revenues. In addition, they believe that personalized search results are frequently utilized to sway individuals into using products and services that are offered by the particular search engine company or any other company in partnered with them. For example, Google searching any company with at least one brick-and-mortar location will offer a map portraying the closest company location using the Google Maps service as the first result to the query. In order to use other mapping services, such as MapQuest, a user would have to dig deeper into the results. Another example pertains to more vague queries. Searching the word "shoes" using the Google search engine will offer several advertisements to shoe companies that pay Google to link their website as a first result to consumer's queries.

1. ^ Aniko Hannak; Piotr Sapiezynski; Arash Molavi Kakhki; Balachander Krishnamurthy; David Lazer; Alan Mislove; Christo Wilson (2013). Measuring Personalization of Web Search (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 25, 2013.

2. Remerowski, Ted (2013). National Geographic: Inside Google.

3. ^ Ma, Z.; Pant, G.; Sheng, O. (2007). "Interest-based personalized search". ACM Transactions on Information Systems. 25 (5): 5-es. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.105.9203. doi:10.1145/1198296.1198301.

4. ^ Frias-Martinez, E.; Chen, S.Y.; Liu, X. (2007). "Automatic cognitive style identification of digital library users for personalization". Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology. 58 (2): 237-251. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.163.6533. doi:10.1002/asi.20477.

5. ^ Dou, Z.; Song, R.; Wen, J.R. (2007). A large-scale evaluation and analysis of personalized search strategies. WWW. pp. 581-590. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.604.1047. doi:10.1145/1242572.1242651. ISBN 9781595936547.

6. ^ Teevan, J.; Dumais, S.T.; Horvitz, E. (2005). "Personalizing search via automated analysis of interests and activities" (PDF). SIGIR: 415-422.

7. Ha-Thuc, Viet; Sinha, Shakti (2016). Learning to Rank Personalized Search Results in Professional Networks. Sigir 2016. ACM. pp. 461-462. arXiv:. doi:10.1145/2911451.2927018. ISBN 9781450340694.

8. ^ "Traffic Report: How Google is squeezing out competitors and muscling into new markets" (PDF). Consumer Watchdog. 2 June 2010.

9. ^ Wai-Tin, Kenneth; Dik Lun, L (2010). "Deriving concept-based user profiles from search engine logs". IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering. 22 (7): 969-982. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.150.1496. doi:10.1109/tkde.2009.144.

10. ^ "Google Personalized Results Could Be Bad for Search" Archived 2012-05-18 at the Wayback Machine. Network World. Retrieved July 12, 2010.

11. ^ Hussein, Molla Rashied; Shams, Abdullah Bin; Rahman, Ashiqur; Raihan, Mohsin Sarker; Mostari, Shabnam; Siddika, Nazeeba; Kabir, Russell; Apu, Ehsanul Hoque (2021-10-08). "Real-time credible online health information inquiring: a novel search engine misinformation notifier extension (SEMiNExt) during COVID-19-like disease outbreak".

12. ^ "Traffic Report: How Google is Squeezing out Competitors and Muscling into New Markets" (PDF). ConsumerWatchDog.org.

13. ^ Diehl, K. (2003). "Personalization and Decision Support Tools: Effects on Search and Consumer Decision Making". Advances in Consumer Research. 30 (1): 166-169.

14. ^ Coyle, M. & Smyth, B. (2007). "Information recovery and discovery in collaborative web search". Advances in Information Retrieval. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. pp. 356-367. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-71496-5_33. ISBN 978-3-540-71494-1.

15. ^ "Facebook News Feed Algorithm History | 2017 Update | Wallaroo Media". wallaroomedia.com.

16. ^ Badke, William (February 2012). "Personalization and Information Literacy". Online. 36 (1): 47.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Personalized search is web search results that are tailored specifically to an individual's interests by incorporating information about the individual beyond the specific query provided. There are two general approaches to personalizing search results, involving modifying the user's query and re-ranking search results.

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Gatekeeping is the process through which information is filtered for dissemination, whether for publication, broadcasting, the Internet, or some other mode of communication. The academic theory of gatekeeping is founded in multiple fields of study, including communication studies, journalism, political science, and sociology.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Domesticity

Chelsea Evans

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The Culture of Domesticity (often shortened to Cult of Domesticity) or Cult of True Womanhood is a term used by historians to describe what they consider to have been a prevailing value system among the upper and middle classes during the 19th century in the United States. This value system emphasized new ideas of femininity, the woman's role within the home and the dynamics of work and family. "True women", according to this idea, were supposed to possess four cardinal virtues: piety, purity, domesticity, and submissiveness. The idea revolved around the woman being the center of the family; she was considered "the light of the home".

The women and men who most actively promoted these standards were generally white and Protestant; the most prominent of them lived in New England and the Northeastern United States. Although all women were supposed to emulate this ideal of femininity, black, working class, and immigrant women were often excluded from the definition of "true women" because of social prejudice.

Since the idea was first advanced by Barbara Welter in 1966, many historians have argued that the subject is far more complex and nuanced than terms such as "Cult of Domesticity" or "True Womanhood" suggest, and that the roles played by and expected of women within the middle-class, 19th-century context were quite varied and often contradictory; for example, it has been argued that much of what has been considered as anti-feminist in the past, in fact, helped lead to feminism.

Part of the separate spheres ideology, the "Cult of Domesticity" identified the home as women's "proper sphere". Women were supposed to inhabit the private sphere, running the household and production of food (including servants), rearing the children, and taking care of the husband. According to Barbara Welter (1966), "True Women" were to hold and practice the four cardinal virtues:

1. Piety - Religion was valued because-unlike intellectual pursuits-it did not take a woman away from her "proper sphere," the home, and because it controlled women's longings.

2. Purity - Virginity, a woman's greatest treasure, must not be lost until her marriage night, and a married woman had to remain committed only to her husband.

3. Submission - True women were required to be as submissive and obedient "as little children" because men were regarded as women's superiors "by God's appointment".

4. Domesticity - A woman's proper place was in the home and her role as a wife was to create a refuge for her husband and children. Cooking, needlework, making beds, and tending flowers were considered naturally feminine activities, whereas reading anything other than religious biographies was discouraged.

According to Welter, an ideal True Woman was "frail", too mentally and physically weak to leave her home. The care of her home supposedly made her feminine, and she depended on men to protect her within the shelter of it. Wilma Mankiller agrees, claiming that a "True Woman" was expected to be delicate, soft, and weak. She should not engage in strenuous physical activity that would damage her "much more delicate nervous system."

Frances B. Cogan, however, described an overlapping but competing ideology that she called the ideal of "Real Womanhood," in which women were encouraged to be physically fit and active, involved in their communities, well educated, and artistically accomplished, although usually within the broader idea that women were best suited to the domestic sphere. The conflation of "Domesticity" and "True Womanhood" can be misleading in that dedication to the domestic sphere did not necessarily imply purity, submission, or weakness.

The characteristics of "True Womanhood" were described in sermons, books, and religious texts as well as women's magazines. Prescriptive literature advised women on how to transform their homes into domestic sanctuaries for their husbands and children. Fashion was also stressed because a woman had to stay up to date in order to please her husband. Instructions for seamstresses were often included in magazines. Magazines which promoted the values of the "Cult of Domesticity" fared better financially than those competing magazines which offered a more progressive view in terms of women's roles. In the United States, Peterson's Magazine and Godey's Lady's Book were the most widely circulated women's magazines and were popular among both women and men. With a circulation of 150,000 by 1860, Godey's reflected and supported some of the ideals of the "Cult of True Womanhood." The magazine's paintings and pictures illustrated the four virtues, often showing women with children or behind husbands. It also equated womanhood with motherhood and being a wife, declaring that the "perfection of womanhood (...) is the wife and mother". The magazine presented motherhood as a woman's natural and most satisfying role and encouraged women to find their fulfillment and their contributions to society mainly within the home. At the same time, the long-time editor of Godey's, Sarah Josepha Hale, encouraged women to improve themselves intellectually, to write, and to take action that would improve the moral character of their communities and their nation. Hale promoted Vassar College, advocated for female physicians, and published many of the most important female writers of the 19th century. Frances B. Cogan argued that Godey's supported "Real Womanhood" more than "True Womanhood." Reflecting the ideals of both "True Womanhood" and "Real Womanhood," Godey's considered mothers as crucial in preserving the memory of the American Revolution and in securing its legacy by raising the next generation of citizens.

The Cult of Domesticity affected married women's labor market participation in the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. "True Women" were supposed to devote themselves to unpaid domestic labor and refrain from paid, market-oriented work. Consequently, in 1890, 4.5% of all married women were "gainfully employed," compared with 40.5% of single women. Women's complete financial dependence upon their husbands proved disastrous, however, when wives lost their husbands through death or desertion and were forced to fend for themselves and their children. This division between the domestic and public spheres had effects on women's power and status. In the society as a whole, particularly in political and economic arenas, women's power declined. Within the home, however, they gained symbolic power.

The legal implications of this ideology included the passage of protective labor laws, which also limited women's employment opportunities outside the home. These laws, as well as subsequent Supreme Court rulings such as Muller v. Oregon, were based on the assumption that women's primary role was that of mother and wife, and that women's non-domestic work should not interfere with their primary function. As a result, women's working hours were limited and night work for women was prohibited, essentially costing many female workers their jobs and excluding them from many occupations.

The Cult of Domesticity "privatized" women's options for work, for education, for voicing opinions, or for supporting reform. Arguments of significant biological differences between the sexes (and often of female inferiority) led to pronouncements that women were incapable of effectively participating in the realms of politics, commerce, or public service. Women were seen as better suited to parenting. Also, because of the expected behaviors, women were assumed to make better teachers of younger children. Catharine Beecher, who proselytised about the importance of education and parenting, once said, "Woman's great mission is to train immature, weak, and ignorant creatures [children] to obey the laws of God...first in the family, then in the school, then in the neighborhood, then in the nation, then in the world...." One of the first public jobs for women was teaching. One estimate says that, with the growth of public education in the northern tier of states, one-quarter of all native-born Massachusetts women in the years between 1825 and 1860 were schoolteachers at some point in their lives.

Connection to the women's movement

Women's rights advocates of the late 18th and early 19th Centuries, such as Mary Wollstonecraft, Frances Wright, and Harriet Martineau, were widely accused of disrupting the natural order of things and condemned as unfeminine. "They are only semi-women, mental hermaphrodites," wrote Henry F. Harrington in the Ladies' Companion. However, after the Jacksonian Era (1812 to 1850) saw the expansion of voting rights to virtually all white males in the United States, many women believed it was their opportunity for increased civil liberties. Early feminist opposition to many of the values promoted by the Cult of Domesticity (especially concerning women's suffrage, political activism, and legal independence) culminated in the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848.

Susan M. Cruea postulated that although the "Cult of True Womanhood" set many societal restrictions that took away women's working rights and freedom, it nonetheless laid the groundwork for the later development of feminism by crediting women with a moral authority which implicitly empowered them to extend their moral influence outside the home. The ideal woman was expected to act as a status symbol for men and reflect her husband's wealth and success, and was to create babies and care for them so that her husband's legacy of success would continue, but she was also seen as the " Angel in the House " whose purpose was to guide her family morally. Because of the perceived importance of the role, this ideology was imprinted on girls at a very young age; these girls were taught to value their virginity as the "'pearl of great price' which was her greatest asset" and to develop the skills to manage a household and rear children, but they were also taught to see themselves as "a pillar of strength and virtue" who was key not only in providing her husband a proper image but in raising boys who would later have a direct impact on the success of the nation.

During the Progressive Era, the ideal of the New Woman emerged as a response to the Cult of True Womanhood. The New Woman, frequently associated with the suffrage movement, represented an ideal of femininity which was strongly opposed to the values of the Cult of True Womanhood. With demands expressed in the Declaration of Sentiments, written at the Seneca Falls convention in 1848, women finally gained ratification of a constitutional amendment and the right to vote in 1920. After emancipation, these New Women could be identified by as "cigarette-smoking, lipsticked and rouged, jazz-dancing, birth-control-using types known as 'modern girls' or flappers."

The Second World War brought about a restructuring of the labor market as women stepped into the war effort on the home front. In the era after the end of the Second World War, many of the ideas of the "Cult of Domesticity" were stressed again as American society sought to integrate veterans and emphasize the revival of family life. Once the troops returned home, men were encouraged to embrace family life and enter companionship marriages. Veterans returned home to be the head of the family and women who had been involved in high-paying and high-skilled wartime jobs were pushed back into the home. The remaking of the private life was central to this era. Anti-communist sentiments structured much of the American life, emphasizing the free enterprise system which brought about a period of economic prosperity and a consumer culture.

In the 1950s, American television shows often presented series that depicted fictional families in which the mother's primary work was to raise the children and run the household. Men's and women's spheres were increasingly separated as many families lived in suburban settings, from which men commuted to other cities for work. However, this image of separate spheres disguised the reality that all groups of women continued to work for pay; many did not stop working after the men returned home from the war, they were instead forced into lower-paying jobs. Wages were low and there was little room for advancement. Women that did enter into professional fields were under intense scrutiny for going against the feminine domestic ideal. Despite neo-domestic ideals, many middle-class mothers were burdened by women's double shift of working in the home and also a job. At the same time, women had independent lives during the day and were often active in volunteer and community activities, particularly around issues of education, health, children, and welfare. The "Cult of Domesticity" paved the way for the nuclear family. Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique summed up the expectations of female nature of this time, with a focus on "consumerism, sexualized marriage, and civic activism." Opposition to those ideas influenced the second wave of feminism.

Domesticity and media have always been interconnected. One of the first films ever shown was a family centered piece entitled, "Le Repas de Bébé" or "Baby's Meal". This 1895 Lumière brothers film depicted a french couple feeding their infant breakfast. Older content including domestic themes, often served to represent white, nuclear, families and female centered tropes. The "women's weepie" being one common trope, in which mothers sacrificed their own personal identity and well being in order to provide for their children. This is a drastic difference from the " femme fatale " trope which demonstrates a rejection of domestic life and family connection in favor of romance, sexuality, danger, and drama. There are more inclusive representations of domesticity in today's media versus the more limited, heteronormative examples of the past.

Domesticity has long served as a home base for discussions on polarizing subjects. Sexuality, politics, gender, race, all are seen in domestic centric content. It is also seen across every genre. Comedy, drama, talk, reality, horror, all are well represented. Family life, relationships, in addition to other domestic themes are amongst the most popular with consumers as well. Proven by programming such as Modern Family, which was one of the highest grossing shows during its run on air. Media of the past gave us shows like, Leave It To Beaver, a very cliché example of the nuclear family. A working dad, devoted mother, and a couple of kids. With the entrance of women into the workforce, the increase of divorce rates, and rise of single parents, those themes became less widely applicable. Shows like The Fosters, which highlight blended families are becoming more common.

With less societal expectations of nuclear families, we have made way for the depiction of "chosen families" or non-biological groups who provide support in a familial type way. More common but not limited to LGBTQ+ centered programming. Examples include the friend group on , or even in science fiction show, The Mandalorian. Where the main character takes in a foreign creature as his own. The genre of science fiction is far from removed from including its own domestic themes. Shown in series like, Buffy The Vampire Slayer where the main character of Buffy is framed as a tough, strong, action hero but also values the domestic feminity of being a young woman.

In another contrast from the outdated nuclear family structure, there is much more representation of people of color in modern domestic media content. However, we still often only see limited and often stereotypical presentation of particularly women of color. Today, more powerful, successful, black families are at the core of some of the most popular modern programs such as, .

LGBTQ+ themes are also expanding the present media displays of domesticity. Programming such as demonstrate this through a blend of typical domestic representation such as home design, self presentation, and interracial queer representation.

The heteronormative qualities displayed in early domestic values were also challenged in the show, Transparent. Where one parent reveals they are transgender and decides to transition whilst managing a family life. Representation of transgender identities are becoming more frequent in media. Even family lifestyle network, TLC airs a popular show, I Am Jazz about a transgender teenager and her family. Though the introduction of a transgender lead may be a relatively new idea, the themes discussed are no different than seen in most family programming. Such as dating, crushes, school, and dealing with sibling relationships.

Workplaces are another common setting in which similar themes are seen. Coworkers often behave in a familial manner and have unique interpersonal connections. This interpretation of domesticity has become permanently embedded into popular culture with cult favorites like , Parks and Recreation, Grey's Anatomy, . With households working more combined hours than ever before, workplaces sometimes serve as social support. Especially when home life is less than ideal. Classic domestic themes like relationship disputes or love do not have to be limited to the biological family.

In a large departure from the traditional domestic value of purity, modern media has shone a light upon the traditionally taboo topic of teen pregnancy. The emergence of this theme was seen in films like, . Or the controversial MTV series, 16 and Pregnant; which amongst the topic of teen pregnancy also discussed safe sex and adoption. The show, whilst modern in its nature, also connects to traditional domestic themes such as purity. It promotes the importance of young women patrolling their bodies and the notion of being a good mother as most important over education or social activities.

Within the intersection of domesticity and media, traditional domestic values are not erased, but rather expanded to include modern representations. Home life, sexuality, and independence are now being reflected by the diversity in media rather than restricted to limited representation.

The home and the idea of domesticity were so important in 19th-century culture that historians speak of the "cult" of domesticity. The phrase "True Womanhood" was used by mid 19th-century authors who wrote about the subject of women.

Bibliography

DuBois, Ellen Carol; Dumenil, Lynn (2005). Through Women's Eyes: An American History. Boston: Bedford/St.Martin's. ISBN 978-0-312-24731-7.

Lavender, Catherine. "Notes on The Cult of Domesticity and True Womanhood" (PDF). The College of Staten Island/City University of New York.

Ellis, Sarah Stickney (1843). The Women of England, their Social Duties and Domestic Habits. J. & H.G. Langley.

Keister, Lisa A. (2011). Inequality: A Contemporary Approach to Race, Class, and Gender. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 228-230. ISBN 978-0-521-68002-8.

Mankiller, Wilma Pearl, ed. (1998). The Reader's Companion to U.S. Women's History. Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-67173-3.

Wegener, Signe O. (2005). James Fenimore Cooper versus the Cult of Domesticity: Progressive Themes of Femininity and Family in the Novels. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-2128-2.

Welter, Barbara (1966). "The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820-1860" (PDF). American Quarterly. 18 (2): 151-174. doi:10.2307/2711179. JSTOR 2711179. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-11-13.

Welter, Barbara (1977). Dimity Convictions: The American Woman in the Nineteenth Century. Ohio University Press. ISBN 0-8214-0352-4.

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The Culture of Domesticity (often shortened to Cult of Domesticity) or Cult of True Womanhood is a term used by historians to describe what they consider to have been a prevailing value system among the upper and middle classes during the 19th century in the United States.

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Catherine Morris

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism_and_media

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Feminism is defined as "the doctrine advocating social, political, and all other rights of women equal to those of men". Feminists range across a variety of genders, races, ethnic backgrounds, and religions. Throughout the years, feminists have used a wide variety of media to spread their messages. This media, includes but is not limited to, newspaper, literature, radio broadcasts, television, social media, film, and video games. Without media to distribute their ideas, feminism movements would not have been as impactful and could have succumbed to potential setbacks.

The history of feminism dates back to the 19th century and continues through present day. Feminism can be broken down into three distinct sections: first-wave, second-wave, and third-wave.

The terms "suffragette" and "feminist" refer to different movements, particularly in the early 1900s. Suffragists aimed to make it possible for women to vote in elections, but reinforced the notion that women should remain domestic (caring for the home, family, and community). Feminists, on the other hand, not only supported suffrage, but also were advocates for women to be entitled to the "same level of participation, economic independence, and social and sexual freedoms as men," (Finn, 2012).

First-wave feminism refers to the feminist movement of the 19th and early 20th century. At this time, women had little control over their lives. Generally, they were housewives who were uneducated and possessed no property or economic rights. Their lives were overwhelmingly limited creating discontent in the context of being limited to roles such as motherhood or wife-hood.

Feminists of the time (mostly middle-class white women) focused on the legal disabilities of women, especially women's suffrage. The first wave began at the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848, in which Elizabeth Cady Stanton drafted the Seneca Falls Declaration. The Declaration outlined the feminist's political strategies and philosophies. Suffragists worked together to attract more women to their cause, they went against traditional methods such as propaganda and lobbying that were previously learned during Radical Reconstruction and the abolitionist movements.

The first-wave was fueled by The Second Great Awakening, which allowed women to have more leadership roles in society, and the abolition and temperance movements. Women were generally excluded from these movements, prompting suffragists to demand women's suffrage. However, not all suffragists considered themselves feminists; they were eager for the right to vote, but not in favor of gender equality. Suffragists and feminists had their first success when New York passed the Married Women's Property Act in 1860, which legalized property ownership for women. They also had success when Congress ratified the 19th Amendment in 1920, allowing women the right to vote.

The feminists' message during first-wave feminism was primarily spread through newspaper and other printed media such as pamphlets and bulletins.

Feminists attempted to draw attention by forming women-only organizations, such as the National Organization for Women (NOW), and publishing papers that advocated women's equality, such as "The BITCH Manifesto". Radical feminists promoted the idea that "gender is an absolute rather than a relative category". An early depiction of this view includes Valerie Solanas's, S.C.U.M Manifesto written in 1967. The major legislative focus of the wave was on the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which guaranteed social equality regardless of sex. The ERA made it to Congress for ratification, but failed to be ratified. The second-wave is said to have ended in the early 1980s with the discussion of sexuality and pornography, issues that were discussed during the third wave. With more advanced technology in the second wave, feminists used newspapers, television, radio, and published papers to spread their message.

Prior to 1960, both men and women accepted the reality of traditional gender and family roles. But, when the second-wave feminism began, women challenged these roles both at home and at work. (Beck, 1998). Betty Friedan's 1963 book, The Feminine Mystique, has been said to have spurred the second-wave movement due to its discussion of the unhappiness of (white, middle-class) women "with their limited gender roles and their sense of isolation in the suburban nuclear family," (Mendes, 2011).

It was also during this period (around the 1960s and 1970s) that women's portrayal on television was changing, in part due to the eventual release of "female sexual and political energy", (Douglas, 1994). Before this time, women's sexuality could be considered a "taboo" topic, creating for a revolutionary change in the portrayal of women on television. Examples of these different female roles include but are not limited to: Morticia Addams ( The Addams Family), Samantha Stevens ( Bewitched), and Mary Richards ( The Mary Tyler Moore Show). All of the aforementioned women were either magical in some way and/or a strong female character, which differed from the more stereotypical-housewife roles from the 1950s. In addition, many roles in this era portrayed the woman as independent, thus not needing or seeking out a man.

Third-wave feminism started beginning in the early 1990s and continues into the present. This movement grew as a response of the supposed failures and criticism of the second-wave movement. The goals of the movement were broadened from the second wave to focus on ideas such as lesbian theory, abolishing gender roles and stereotypes, and defending sex work, pornography, and sex-positivity. The movement has a focus on lesbian and African American women as distinct from traditional feminists, and it has weakened many traditional concepts, such as those notions of gender, heteronormativity, and "universal womanhood". This conversation on social media on womanhood has strengthened the understanding of the "economy of the celebrity". (Keller)

Third-wave feminism depends mostly on social media to spread its goals. Social media outlets such as Twitter and Facebook are consistently covered in feminist messages, and hashtag campaigns are steadily spread to convey feminist ideas (#heforshe, #yesallwomen, #whyistayed). Many television shows also feature dominant, strong women and encourage the idea that women are equal to men (, Orange Is the New Black, and Buffy the Vampire Slayer).

Press (2011) wrote that third-wave feminism focuses more on women's sexual freedom, which has come a long way since the time of second-wave feminism. Disparities such as the "orgasm gap" still exist (Armstrong, England & Fogarty, 2010), which describes the sexual inequalities between men and women involving sexual gratification. The media also continues to oppose the existence of women's sexual freedom, noted with the continued use of the word "slut" as well as the emphasized importance of virginity, which is often displayed in popular culture.

Though most journalists aim to create an objective view of their subjects, feminism has long been portrayed in a negative light. Feminism's portrayal is fueled by the idea that the media seems to lean toward opposition; pinning women again men creates the mostly negative roles women become portrayed by. A study by Lind and Saio (2006) revealed that feminists rarely appear in the media and are often demonized. They are often portrayed as different from "regular" women, and are not associated with day-to-day activities, but rather, public activities and events. Feminists are also not often portrayed as victims and are more frequently associated with the women's movement and their goals compared to regular women (meaning if a woman isn't a labeled "feminist" she often isn't associated with the movement, despite being female). Creedon (1993) wrote, "feminists are constantly framed as deviant sexually, a bunch of man-haters out to destroy 'family values.'" In the media, the term "feminism" is often opposed to the term "family", leading to the idea that feminists can't be family women. This negative portrayal over the decades has led many young women rejecting the idea of feminism, in part due to feminists being labeled as "man bashers". Other labels associated with feminism include: "bubblehead", "Amazons", "angries", "radical", and "hairy", (Jones, 1992). Most media decision-makers are male, although women are beginning to enter the field of journalism. The contemporary women's movement has predominantly been ignored through mainstream media, leaving only room for a few high-profile exceptions. The Miss America pageant of 1968 was one of the first high-profile cases to be publicized. Although to the feminist movement's dismay, the coverage was both distorted and sensationalized. During the occurrence of the event, the term "bra-burner" label for women unearthed itself. The practice of labeling feminists with derogatory terms has been a method to silence its supporters and promote fear of speaking out.

Davis (1991) wrote in her book, Moving the Mountain: The Women's Movement in America, that the media coverage on the feminist movement wasn't necessarily negative, as it was the media that spotlighted the movement in 1969. In addition, Davis notes that the media is the source that publicized the movement's issues, heroines, and activities and allowed the movement to reach individuals it may have not otherwise.

In recent years, social media platforms like Twitter and Facebook have led to widespread discussion on issues ranging from domestic abuse to street harassment, catcalling, and abortion. In 2012, feminists in Turkey created Facebook groups to organize and mobilize protests and marches against legislation of a nationwide abortion ban. Feminists in other parts of the European Union began to take notice and promoted the issue in their respective Facebook groups and the legislation was eventually dropped from the legislative agenda.

In the wake of the Ray Rice domestic abuse scandal, in which video evidence showed the Baltimore Ravens running back knocking his then fiancée, Janay Palmer, unconscious, writer Beverly Gooden started the Twitter hashtag #WhyIStayed. This hashtag highlighted personal experiences of herself and other women who stayed in abusive relationships. This quickly spawned subsequent hashtags including "#WhyILeft" which many used to describe the final incident of abuse or reason for leaving.

In 2013, The Representation Project created a mobile app called #NotBuyingIt which allows users to connect with each other and quickly tweet or otherwise engage sexist media ranging from advertisements to soundbites and quotes from public figures. It is often used during football season where Super Bowl ads are notoriously deemed sexist. In the aftermath of the University of California- Santa Barbara shootings, thousands of women across the internet began tweeting experiences of sexism experienced in their daily lives with the hashtag #YesAllWomen. In June 2014, as a response to the US Supreme court's decision inBurwell v. Hobby Lobby, there were thousands of tweets containing #HobbyLobby, #JoinTheDissent and #NotMyBossBusiness expressing emotions ranging from disdain to rage at the Supreme Court's decision to allow employers not to cover certain contraceptives on a religious basis. According to Matthew Slutsky at Change.org, social media has opened the forums on these issues to not only feminists and other activists, but to anyone who wants to discuss them.

#MeToo Movement

In 2017, actress Alyssa Milano brought the #MeToo Movement to light when she asked her twitter followers to reply with #metoo if they had experienced sexual assault. While Milano's actions have received backlash for taking credit for a movement that was started by an African American women the movement has stood to expose sexual harassment and assault within the work place. Following the social media popularity it was reported that 30% of women and 4% of men reported experiencing sexual assault within the U.S. academic medical field. While Milano brought popularity to the movement following allegations against Harvey Weinstein she did not create the movement or the phrase. Activist Tarana Burke originally started the movement in 2007. She started using the term "me too" to show solidarity with girls and women who had and were experiencing sexual assault. This movement reached all aspects of life in the United States including Hollywood, politics, education, news outlets, and even agriculture. The #MeToo movement has allowed not only a shift or norms but a shift in policies, education, and trainings in order to create better reporting systems and prevent sexual misconduct from occurring.

In addition, celebrities such as Emma Watson have also taken a pro-feminist stance through social media. In 2014, the UN Women's Ambassador stated, "I am from Britain and think it is right that as a woman I am paid the same as my male counterparts. I think it is right that I should be able to make decisions about my own body. I think it is right that women be involved on my behalf in the policies and decision-making of my country. I think it is right that socially I am afforded the same respect as men. But sadly I can say that there is no one country in the world where all women can expect to receive these rights." Her speech also goes into depth about the negative connotation the word feminist has because of social media and how we as a society can take a stand for gender equality.

Studies into political campaigning have proven that women tweet more aggressively than their male counterparts, as platforms such as Twitter allow women to bypass traditional media and bring attention to their own raw narrative. In 2018 the use of feminist social media came to the forefront in the referendum to appeal the abortion laws in Ireland. Grassroots campaign groups, like TogetherForYes, strategised their social media to campaign and influence a positive 'yes' vote to amend abortion laws. When tackling these feminist issues, social media can bring somewhat traditional private issues into the public, an exposure that can encourage positive change as emotions are mobilised across an online network, reaching people who can not only vote, but also those who can encourage voters, to support their women counterparts.

Film is an aspect of media that contributes to the socialization of citizens. Feminist themes in film have become more commonplace within modern history and feminist film theory was born out of several disciplines of psychoanalysis conjoining with the emerging film industry and the views of sexuality and gender roles.

In her 1970 essay " Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema", Laura Mulvey diagnosed two major issues within Hollywood that she felt allowed for an inaccurate portrayal of the feminine experience up until that point in time. Her first claim, that "men and women are differentially positioned by cinema", states that women are positioned in roles as inferior or subservient to men. The lead roles or main action roles are normally held by men. She argued that this perpetuates the stereotypes that females are incapable and that males are dominating and the leaders of the group. The second claim is that women are portrayed in film as "objects for masculine desire and fetishistic gazing", writing that this relates directly to the sexuality of females and that the prevalence of a romantic element to a female's role shows that beyond a romantic or sexual element, women in the plot line are essentially worthless. Sophie Mayer's 2016 publication Political Animals: The New Feminist Cinema focuses on feminist film theory in the 21st century and argues that many of the same issues pointed out in Mulvey's essay continue to be an issue. Mayer focuses instead on other elements of film beside plot to view through a feminist lens. She also looks at other cinematic elements such as costuming that expand the volume of works that can be reviewed with feminist film theory.

Video games have become a new form of media that derives from other media, such as books, films, and music. It is a new model that can interact with old forms of media and then create new contents or means of entertainment and interaction. With the development of video games, female characters play a significant role in the gaming world. However, most of the female characters are usually being objectified by video games. Especially, there are a large number of female characters who are objectified as sex workers in commercial video games. Yao et al. state that female heroines in action-based video games often wear sexy outfits barely covering their bodies. Moreover, Yao et al. also indicate that sexualized female characters may prime males' thoughts about sex and encourage them to view women as objects, fueling the belief of negative female stereotypes. As a result, objectifying females has severely affected gender equality, and it also becomes a method that game companies use to attract male players. From the development history of video games, males have always been the main customers, so game companies do not intend to consider the feelings of female players. Bonnie Ruberg states that the reason for having discrimination against female characters is not because of the erotic labor but the devaluation behavior that presents in the games. Moreover, in her article "Representing sex workers in video games: feminisms, fantasies of exceptionalism, and the value of erotic labor", she criticizes the game's description and portrayal of female characters, and she also promotes that video games need a diversity of feminisms.

Though hardcopy newspapers do not carry the readership they once did, they played a historically important role in the circulation of feminist ideas within Western societies. Newspapers were the dominant form of mass media throughout the 1800s and early 1900s, beginning to decline only after the proliferation of radio and television news. Feminist newspaper allowed women and their group interests to voice their opinion to a larger audience with more consistency and accuracy than word of mouth, helping lay the groundwork for organized movements to take hold. Throughout the 1800s, several feminist newspapers were started with varying degrees of success. The German Feminist newspaper founded by Mathilde Franziska Anneke, Frauenzeitung, managed to produce a single issue. In contrast, Louise Otto-Peters's Frauen-Zeitung, a weekly German Feminist newspaper, lasted from April 1849 to at least the middle of 1852. The readership and lifespan of feminist newspapers varies widely, but there are several examples that are known for their contributions to the cause of feminism through this form of mass media.[citation needed ]

La Voix des Femmes (English: The Voice of Women) was founded by Eugénie Niboyet and remained in print from 1848 to 1852. It was the first French feminist daily newspaper and enjoyed great success. Its decline was due to the rise of conservatism under Napoleon.

(English: The Sling) was another French feminist daily newspaper created by Marguerite Durand. It ran from 9 December 1897, to March 1905. It was run and written solely by women. It notably achieved a readership of 50,000 in Paris, before financial problems led to its closure.

A group of women from the Kreuzberg Women's Centre created the German feminist newspaper Courage in 1976. The paper published many articles on taboo subjects that were issues for feminists, such as abortion, sexual violence, and forced prostitution. The newspaper declared bankruptcy in 1984 because of the loss of readership due to negative coverage from male press and competing feminist papers.

The Revolution was an American weekly newspaper created by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton as a reaction to the National Woman Suffrage Association's call to put women's suffrage on hold, to deal with the issue of African American male suffrage. The establishment of the newspaper in January 1868 helped keep the women's suffrage movement alive during the post-civil war era. However, Anthony's ideological commitments, including her opposition to "quack medicine" and "Restellism", limited available income for the newspaper. Bankruptcy was declared in 1870, and Anthony shouldered the $10,000 debt.

The Independent Women's Forum (IWF) published the Media Directory of Women Experts as a way of providing journalists with names of women that could give conservative opinions on topics.

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Feminism is defined as "the doctrine advocating social, political, and all other rights of women equal to those of men". Feminists range across a variety of genders, races, ethnic backgrounds, and religions. Throughout the years, feminists have used a wide variety of media to spread their messages.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suggestion_Theory

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_colonialism

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Television criticism - Wikipedia

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Television criticism is the act of writing or speaking about television programming to evaluate its worth, meaning, and other aspects[1]. Such criticism can be found in daily newspapers, on culture discussion shows (on TV and radio), and in specialist books and periodicals, all of which are in direc…