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The digital divide refers to the gap between those able to benefit from the digital age and those who are not.

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Coronavirus has exposed the digital divide like never before

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Coronavirus has exposed the digital divide like never before

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But almost half of the world’s population has no access to the internet.

Fewer than 1 in 5 people in the least developed countries are connected.

This digital divide impacts women more than men.

From schools setting coursework online to office staff working from home, the internet is the answer to many coronavirus lockdown problems. But what about the billions of people who can't get online?

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COVID-19

Fewer than 1 in 10 households in less economically developed countries world are connected. Image: REUTERS/Amanda Perobelli

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Coronavirus has exposed the digital divide like never before

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Billions of people are going online to stay in touch during the COVID-19 pandemic, but fewer than 1 in 5 people in the least developed countries are connected.

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The coronavirus lockdown risks turning the problem of digital exclusion into a catastrophe of lost education and opportunity for the UK’s poorest and most vulnerable, write researchers Hannah Holmes and Dr Gemma Burgess. 

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The coronavirus lockdown risks turning the problem of digital exclusion into a catastrophe of lost education and opportunity for the UK’s poorest and most vulnerable, write researchers Hannah Holmes and Dr Gemma Burgess. 

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For the past four years, the Cambridge Centre for Housing and Planning Research ( CCHPR) at the University of Cambridge has been researching digital exclusion. While it is a well-known fact that many elderly people are not online, the Centre's research highlights that digital exclusion is not just a generational issue.

Digital exclusion is another facet of the deep inequalities which run through the social fabric of the UK, and is more widespread than many people are aware of. One thing is clear: the public health crisis currently gripping the UK stands to make the impacts of digital exclusion worse for the millions of people affected, and the poorest will be hit the hardest.

Since the onset of social distancing in the UK, some semblance of normality - or at least of productivity - has been possible to maintain only because of the networks of digital technologies and platforms already in place. Lockdown has certainly served to highlight our reliance on virtual means of staying in touch. Critically, it has also thrown into sharp definition the issue of digital exclusion, which has been a reality for the 22% of the UK's population who lack basic digital skills since long before the Covid-19 outbreak.

As an aspect of deprivation in the UK, digital exclusion cannot be overlooked. The likelihood of having access to the internet from home increases along with income, such that only 51% of households earning between £6000-10,000 had home internet access compared with 99% of households with an income of over £40,001. The link between poverty and digital exclusion is clear: if you are poor, you have less chance of being online.

Children living in poverty are already significantly disadvantaged compared to their wealthier peers. Of those who have been eligible for free school meals, or who have been in care or adopted from care, only 25% achieved grades 9-5 in GCSE English and Maths in 2019, compared with 50% of all other pupils.

Now that many disadvantaged children are tasked with picking up all of their learning from home as part of coronavirus social distancing measures, and are unable to access the same online learning resources as children whose parents have access to IT, this gap is surely only set to grow further.

We spoke to five primary school head teachers working in Manchester recently, who shared their experiences of childhood digital exclusion. Several reported that only a handful of children are engaging in the online learning set by their teachers in recent weeks. For some households, wi-fi is just too expensive, as one head teacher explained.

"I was talking to one family on Friday, when I was delivering free meals, and I did take them a paper pack of work, because Mum said it was pay the wi-fi or feed the children this month... Sometimes people simply can't afford to pay for wi-fi," he said.

Lack of access to suitable devices is also causing problems for some children.

"The majority of children in school aren't accessing any of the online learning that we've set them. I know that some of them don't have reliable internet. Most of them who have anything have phones or tablets. They're often shared with siblings, so their access to something appropriate to work on is quite limited," said another head teacher.

And even where internet access is available, some parents don't have the necessary skills to help their children use the most appropriate learning platforms. These children may have to resort to using simple websites which they can access without help. As one head teacher said, some children whose parents aren't able to use interactive platforms have to access their tasks from the school website instead. These children miss out on valuable learning opportunities.

"We've already had children on the interactive platforms just clarifying things with their teachers about their learning, asking them quick questions, so that they can have feedback from their teachers. So the children that can't access that are going to have a bigger gap in their learning, because they're not going to have had the opportunity to interact with their teacher."

Providing children with paper-based alternatives is itself fraught with difficulty in the current circumstances. And while digital exclusion is always prevalent, the closures mean that some measures that schools usually take to compensate for lack of internet access at home are no longer feasible. Disadvantaged children are losing out on their already limited chances to make up lost ground.

"If you can't get on the online platform, you're stuck with some sort of paper pack," said another head teacher. "And now the rules are you're not allowed out of the house other than for essential journeys, and I'm not entirely sure that coming to a school to pick up a pack of work is an essential journey... So they're just basically cut off really, other than the fact we have made either physical or phone contact with them, but that's all".

"Ordinarily, digital exclusion is not an issue here, because everything we set during normal school working we would run homework clubs for... So everything we do when school's running normally, the kids can usually do in after school clubs, so that everyone can do their homework."

For now, there are measures which can be taken to mitigate the impact of digital exclusion on children's learning. For instance, schools can keep in touch with digitally excluded families via phone calls or text messages to ensure they don't miss important updates. A vast array of educational resources and ideas for home learning have been made available online in recent weeks, many of which are listed on the gov.uk website. Collating those ideas into a short printed guidance sheet to be posted to those families known to be struggling to access online resources may help to fill the gap.

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Coronavirus has intensified the UK's digital divide

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For the past four years, the Cambridge Centre for Housing and Planning Research ( CCHPR) at the University of Cambridge has been researching digital exclusion. While it is a well-known fact that many elderly people are not online, the Centre's research highlights that digital exclusion is not just a generational issue.

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SpaceX is developing a low latency, broadband internet system to meet the needs of consumers across the globe. Enabled by a constellation of low Earth orbit satellites, Starlink will provide fast, reliable internet to populations with little or no connectivity, including those in rural communities and places where existing services are too expensive or unreliable.

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Its dangerously destabalizing to have half the world on the cutting edge of technology while the other half struggles on the bare edge of survival.

Bill Clinton

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Technology is just a tool. In terms of getting the kids working together and motivating them, the teacher is the most important

Bill Gates

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I would not minimize the digital divide, which seperates the computerized world from the rest, nor would I underestimate the importance of traditional books.

Robert Darnton

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No product is made today, no person moves today, nothing is collected, analyzed or communicated without some 'digital technology' being an integral  part of it. That, in itself, specks to the overwhelming 'value' of digital technology

Louis Rossetto

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Internet Speeds by Country - Fastest Internet In The World Map

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Our tables and map visualize average internet speeds of more than 200 countries. Find the fastest internet speed in the world with a single click.

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“While global broadband speeds continue to trend upward, the truth is faster countries are the ones lifting the average, pulling away at speed and leaving the slowest to stagnate.”

Dan Howdle

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The digital divide is the gap between people in society who have full access to digital technologies (such as the internet and computers) and those who do not. Concerns about the digital divide have been particularly acute during the COVID-19 pandemic as the internet and digital devices have played an important role in allowing people to access services, attend medical appointments and stay in touch with friends and family. What impact has the digital divide had on children and adults in the UK during the COVID-19 pandemic and what has been done to tackle it?

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The digital divide is the gap between people in society who have full access to digital technologies (such as the internet and computers) and those who do not. Concerns about the digital divide have been particularly acute during the COVID-19 pandemic as the internet and digital devices have played an important role in allowing people to access services, attend medical appointments and stay in touch with friends and family. What impact has the digital divide had on children and adults in the UK during the COVID-19 pandemic and what has been done to tackle it?

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What impact has the digital divide had on people during the pandemic?

Impact on adults

Digital exclusion during the pandemic may affect adults in several ways. For example, they may not be able to readily access health advice, medical appointments, or support services for housing or social care. The pandemic may also have an adverse impact on people seeking work, as those who are less digitally skilled or do not have internet access may struggle to search for and apply to jobs online, and may not be able to access online employment support services. Internet access is important for managing mental health during social distancing, not just for communicating with friends and family, but also because many social and welfare activities, such as gym classes and pub quizzes, are now being offered online. There are also concerns that those without internet access or digital skills may find it harder to access and manage their finances, as banks and retailers have increasingly encouraged their customers to use online services. Moreover, digital exclusion is most prevalent among elderly and disabled people who are at risk of being negatively affected by the pandemic in other ways, such as having higher vulnerability to the virus.

As part of the UK Consumer Digital Index 2020, Lloyds bank surveyed 2,137 people on their attitudes towards digital engagement during the pandemic. 78% of those surveyed said that the pandemic had escalated the need for digital skills and 80% agreed that using technology had provided them with vital support. 37% of participants said they had used more technology than usual to support their health and well-being during the lockdown and 31% had learned new digital skills for work related purposes since the lockdown began. However, 7% of respondents could not get online as much as they would like because they had nobody to help them do so and 55% of respondents said that there are key services that they need in their day-to-day lives that can't be fulfilled by technology.

For adults with access to the internet but insufficient online safety skills or cybersecurity knowledge, the pandemic may put them at higher risk of online harms such as misinformation, fraud and computer viruses. The Consumer Digital Index 2020 found that 37% of the UK's workforce lack the basic skills needed for fully safe and legal online behaviour, and 36% of those surveyed did not think that understanding how to stay safe online had been important to them since the lockdown began. A survey by insurance company Aviva found that 1 in 5 respondents had received coronavirus-related correspondence that they suspected was a financial scam. UK Finance (the trade association for the UK banking sector) published a list of COVID-19 scams that people should be on high alert for. These include fake government emails containing links that steal victims' personal or financial information, and phishing emails claiming a recipient has been in contact with someone with the virus.

Impact on children

Most children across the UK have experienced disruption to their education as school closures and COVID-19 related absences have necessitated home-schooling and online distance learning. Much of the remote teaching offered by schools, as well as resources offered by other organisations, require internet and/or device access. An Ofcom survey carried out between January and March 2020 found that 9% of households containing children did not have home access to a laptop, desktop PC or tablet.

The extent to which children's education may have been impacted due to school closures is likely to vary widely depending on what remote education schools and families have been able to provide. However, there have been concerns that children from disadvantaged backgrounds have experienced the greatest disruption to their education, as they are less likely to have the devices and internet connections required for home learning. A June 2020 report by the Education Endowment Fund said that school closures are likely to have widened the attainment gap between disadvantaged children and their peers.

Section 3 of the Commons Library Briefing Paper Coronavirus and Schools: FAQ (2020) cites some survey evidence on the differences in remote learning, including an April 2020 survey of 4559 children carried out by the UCL Institute for Education that found that one in five of those eligible for free school meals had no access to a computer at home. Another April 2020 survey of over 7,000 teachers by the Sutton Trust found that 15% of teachers in the most deprived schools said that more than a third of their students would not have adequate access to an electronic device for home learning, compared with 2% of teachers in the most affluent schools. 12% of teachers in deprived schools also thought that more than a third of their students would not have sufficient internet access. The survey also found that children from disadvantaged backgrounds are less likely to participate in online lessons, whether live or recorded. There are also differences in how well-prepared different schools were for providing online education during lockdown, with evidence that schools in deprived areas were less well-prepared. For example, the Sutton Trust survey found that 60% of private schools and 37% of state schools in the most affluent areas already had an online platform in place to receive students' work, compared with 23% of the most deprived schools.

Access to COVID-19 apps

In September, NHSX, a unit of the NHS responsible for digital innovation, launched a mobile phone app for contact tracing in England and Wales. Similar contact tracing apps have also been launched in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Contact tracing is the process of identifying all the people who have come into contact with an infected individual so they can be warned that they may be at risk of illness; mobile phone apps can automate this process. The apps available in the UK are being used as part of wider test, trace and isolate programmes to prevent the spread of the virus.

Concerns have been raised that those who are digitally excluded may not be able to use the app, as they may lack the digital skills required to operate it, may not have a smartphone that can support the app, or may not own a smartphone at all. This could lead to further social exclusion if uptake of the app becomes widespread or access to certain locations or services becomes conditional upon having the app installed. For example, if an employer requested that employees have the app installed before they enter the workplace. There are also concerns that those who are excluded from the app may experience negative health impacts, as vulnerable groups such as the elderly are at higher risk of serious illness from COVID-19 and are also more likely to be digitally excluded. A 2020 Ofcom survey of over 3600 people found that older people and those from lower income households are less likely to own a smartphone, which is needed in order to use contact tracing apps. For example, 5% of respondents in the 35-54 age group did not own a smartphone, compared with 30% in the 55+ age group. An October 2020 survey of around 650 people aged 60+ by Silver Voices, a charity for older people, found that 31% had reported downloading the app. Out of those who had not downloaded it, nearly 6 in 7 said it was because their phone was too old to support it.

To tackle the issue of device access, the Ada Lovelace Institute suggested that devices able to replicate the app's functionality could be distributed to those without smartphones. This approach has been adopted in Singapore, where the Government has handed out wearable Bluetooth-connected contact-tracing tokens for those who don't have a smartphone, as part of its TraceTogether contact tracing app. Initial rollout happened in areas with a higher proportion of older people.

The UK Government does not have plans to distribute wearable Bluetooth devices for non-smartphone owners. It has said that people without the app will still benefit from it, as the app users will help break the chains of virus transmission. The Government also said that the app is only one part of the wider Test and Trace programme and, for those who cannot use it, advice is available via NHS 119 and the phone-based manual contact tracing system.

What has been done to tackle the digital divide during the pandemic?

Access to the internet

98% of households across the UK have access to the physical infrastructure required to receive a 'decent' fixed broadband connection (defined as a connection allowing a download speed of 10 Mbit/s and an upload speed of 1 Mbit/s, see Constituency data: broadband coverage and speeds for regional differences). Therefore, a lack of internet access generally relates to a lack of a broadband or mobile data service. Concerns have been raised that, in addition to those households already lacking internet access, the economic impacts of the pandemic could mean that more households become unable to afford internet access. This may be compounded by the closure of workplaces, schools and public spaces, such as libraries and cafes, meaning that many people have no alternative to accessing the internet from home.

In March, following discussions with the Government, the UK's major internet service and mobile providers agreed to temporarily remove data allowance caps on fixed line broadband services and added free extras to customers' plans as a result of the pandemic. Mobile network operators removed data charges for accessing NHS websites offering information on COVID-19 and when using the NHS COVID-19 app. Some fixed line broadband providers have since reinstated data caps and others have removed certain bonus features that were available earlier in the year. Details of support for customers struggling to pay their broadband or mobile bills are given in section 5.3 of the Commons Library Briefing Paper Coronavirus: Support for household finances (2020).

Other stakeholders have suggested further courses of action may be required. Digital inclusion charity Good Things Foundation has recommended the creation of a 'Data Poverty Lab', which recognises internet access as an essential utility, like electricity. It has suggested initiatives including data donating ( similar to a scheme that exists in Australia, whereby people can donate unused mobile data to others who can't afford it), Wi-Fi sharing between neighbouring households, subsidised broadband schemes, and extending public Wi-Fi in towns and cities.

Access to devices

DevicesDotNow is a UK-wide initiative asking companies to donate IT kit such as laptops, tablets and mobile SIM cards/dongles, which are then distributed to community online centres through the Online Centres Network supported by the Good Things Foundation. The government supports the initiative but has not provided it with funding. In June 2020, the Good Things Foundation reported that DevicesDotNow had distributed around 2000 devices and data packages to vulnerable adults shielding in their homes during the pandemic.

England

During the 2020 summer term, the Department for Education provided laptops, tablets and 4G routers to disadvantaged children who could not access these from other sources such as their school. Young people who qualified for this support included: disadvantaged Year 10 pupils, care leavers and children aged 0-19 with a social worker. Over the summer term the Government delivered around 220,000 devices (including laptops and tablets) and around 51,000 4G routers.

As part of its 2019 education technology strategy, the Government launched a network of 'demonstrator' schools and colleges to support other schools and colleges in using technology effectively. During the pandemic, the Department for Education changed the aims of the demonstrator programme to focus on helping schools and colleges access training and advice on remote teaching.

Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland

In Scotland, the Scottish Government is encouraging flexible use of The Attainment Scotland Funding (which supports schools to close the attainment gap between the most and least disadvantaged pupils) to support disadvantaged pupil's remote learning, for example by providing them with devices.

In Wales the Welsh Government pledged up to £3 million to enable local authorities to provide digitally excluded schoolchildren with internet connections and devices. They have also distributed 1000 devices to care homes and hospitals to help people access digital health services and stay connected to loved ones.

A report by the Education Policy Institute, commissioned by the Nuffield Foundation, analysed the education policy responses of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland during the height of the pandemic, including the timeliness of the provision of digital devices to disadvantaged students. It found that Wales acted quickly to provide students with equipment, with stocks of laptops and routers distributed by the end of May. In England, most devices were distributed in mid/late June, meaning some pupils may have had only a few weeks of access to the devices before the end of the summer term. The analysis found that Northern Ireland and Scotland were slower to roll out devices, with distribution completed by or after the end of the school term.

Access to digital skills

A number of organisations are offering online courses to help people improve their digital skills. Good Things Foundation offers online resources to help with basic digital skills. These include its 'Learn My Way' and 'Make it Click' courses. During the pandemic, it launched a new resource ( 'Using the internet to get ready for coronavirus') for tutors to help others carry out tasks such as finding health information online and conducting video calls.

At the beginning of the pandemic the UK Government launched The Skills Toolkit, a new, free online learning platform to improve workplace skills. The platform offered furloughed employees an opportunity to maintain their skills development. In September 2020, the Government announced £8 million of funding for digital skills 'boot camps', to expand on trials carried out in the West Midlands and Greater Manchester. It also committed to expanding the range of courses offered in the Skills Toolkit.

Protection against online harms

During the school closures, c oncerns were raised that children who do have internet and device access at home, but may not have good online safety skills, would be spending longer online and could thus be more exposed to online harms such as inappropriate content or cyberbullying . The UK G overnment has published a list of resources for parents and carers to keep children safe online during coronavirus and separate advice for safeguarding children and teachers during remote learning. In September 2020 it published its revised ' to include additional information and support on safe remote education . The G overnment has also published advice for individuals and businesses on how to protect themselves from fraud and cybercrime during the pandemic .

Following its , in December 2020 the G overnment published draft proposals for its O nline S afety legislation. The new laws will require companies to take measures to remove and limit the spread of illegal content online , a nd protect children from being exposed to online harms such as bullying . Ofcom will be responsible for enforcing the legislation and will have the power to levy fines of u p to £18 million or 10% of a company's annual glo bal turnover .

In March 2020 the Government set up a Counter Disinformation Unit , specifically to identify and respond to COVID-19 misinformation and scams. In November , the Government announce d t h at it had agreed a package of measures with social media companies t o limit the spread of misinformation about COVID-19 vaccines . The measures included a principle that no company should profit from COVID-19 vaccine misinformation , and a commit ment to quick responses to flagg ed content . Ofcom has collated a range of online resources that focus on debunking common misconceptions or harmful claims about COVID- 19 , as well as tools to help people find reliable news and information about the virus.

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The digital divide is the gap between people in society who have full access to digital technologies (such as the internet and computers) and those who do not. Concerns about the digital divide have been particularly acute during the COVID-19 pandemic as the internet and digital devices have played an important role in allowing people to access services, attend medical appointments and stay in touch with friends and family.

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“The Internet is not a luxury, it is a necessity.”
– President Barack Obama

“Technology touches everyone, everywhere, and I want to be part of that.”
– Caitlyn, from Boston, of Girls Who Code

“There is a strong consensus that every American household needs to have broadband access.”
– Julián Castro, Secretary of Housing and Urban Development

“I’m empowered to do something!”
– Lisa Brown, Byte Back Office Track graduate and MOS Excel student

“It’s no longer a luxury. This is serious. It’s really a social justice issue. It’s a 21st-century civil rights issue.”
– Cheptoo Kositany-Buckner, deputy director of strategic initiatives at the Kansas City Public Library and advocate for closing the digital divide

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Published: August 20, 2015

The digital divide refers to the gap between those who have access to technology (including computers and Internet) and those who don't. Economic and social inequality limit digital equality. In the United States, race, income, age, and level of education compared to levels of Internet adoption prove that this divide exists.

1. "The Internet is not a luxury, it is a necessity."
- President Barack Obama

Obama said this during an announcement of ConnectHome, a program launched in July 2015 to offer free Internet service to 275,000 low-income households in twenty-seven cities and one tribal nation.

2. "Technology touches everyone, everywhere, and I want to be part of that."
- Caitlyn, from Boston, of Girls Who Code

Girls Who Code works to educate, inspire, and equip young women with the skills and resources to pursue academic and career opportunities in computing fields.

3. "There is a strong consensus that every American household needs to have broadband access."
- Julián Castro, Secretary of Housing and Urban Development

Castro believes that progress toward digital equality will be made as the public sector, private sector, and nonprofits work together.

4. "I'm empowered to do something!"
- Lisa Brown, Byte Back Office Track graduate and MOS Excel student

Access to computer education has opened up professional opportunities for Lisa and improved her quality of life.

5. "It's no longer a luxury. This is serious. It's really a social justice issue. It's a 21st century civil rights issue."
- Cheptoo Kositany-Buckner, deputy director of strategic initiatives at the Kansas City Public Library and advocate for closing the digital divide

In Kansas City, 80 percent of households in low-income, minority neighborhoods don't own computers or have in-home Internet connections.

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Published: August 20, 2015 The digital divide refers to the gap between those who have access to technology (including computers and Internet) and those who don't. Economic and social inequality limit digital equality. In the United States, race, income, age, and level of education compared to levels of Internet adoption prove that this divide exists.

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Versace sent out crystal-traced minidresses as well as tailored black jackets with swishy pants. Credit... Valerio Mezzanotti for The New York Times

MILAN - Something has shifted in Milan.

For decades the Italian fashion world was shaped by the oppositional influence of two poles: sex and the cerebellum. Their tension informed the aesthetic narrative of the country, and of fashion week. Armani vs. Versace; Umberto Eco vs. Sophia Loren; Prada vs. Gucci; Silvio Berlusconi vs. Mario Draghi - you know how this goes.

Image

Well, no longer.

Blame it on the new administration in Rome, with its emphasis on productivity and export-boosting Made in Italy promotion, or the Internet and its ability to disrupt - well, pretty much everything - but over the weekend it became clear that two new magnetic forces were redefining the industry.

Heritage and the digital age; the past and the future; craft vs. technology - call it what you will. The expression is the same, and it has made allies of the most surprising brands.

After all, there was Versace, for years synonymous with an Amazonian, no-holds-barred va-va-voom, but this season titled "#Greek" for the house's signature Greek key motif, updated for the Twitter generation. It appeared in electric shades on intarsia sweaters and simple day dresses, mixed it up with tailored black jackets and swishy trousers, not to mention deconstructed "Versace" branding; and then spawned emojis and @s in a crystal-traced virtual conversation-in-a-minidress (or three) that popped loudly enough to be read on any small screen.

It sounds riotous, but was, in fact, cleverly calculated. When Versace puts a pinstripe on the runway, you know something new is going on.

Especially because it wasn't the only one; pinstripes also showed up at Aquilano.Rimondi, where the designers Tommaso Aquilano and Roberto Rimondi abandoned their usual Roman Baroque for an altogether simpler gray flannel and navy enlivened by the occasional belt of grommets or silver paillettes (a little reminiscent of past Prada, but a welcome palette cleanser). Meanwhile, in a wishy-washy collection apparently inspired by China, though generically full of leopard and fringe and degrade chiffon, even Roberto Cavalli threw out an oddly business-like piece or five via a black and white windowpane check that appeared in a sleeveless coat dress, sequined trouser and shaggy fur.

The message was getting through, though nowhere so clearly as at Bottega Veneta, where the creative director Tomas Maier said, he wanted "a bolder approach" and then went all in with an celebration of the pixelated world via dots on trousers, shirts, vests and coats, often all at the same time and in a variety of colors. This segued into an oversize industrial grid on capes and coats, occasionally interspersed with vinyl squares, before it all got layered up, one atop the other, in the shell of a small dress, with lace over lines over dots, and then blacked out in tuxedo suiting.

It was a complicated equation, but an interesting one, and continued in different forms via the geometry visible at Marco de Vincenzo, who built his collection out of circles and rectangles in wool, cable knit, lozenge appliqués, and Lurex, as well as the graphism at Jil Sander, where the designer Rodolfo Paglialunga seems to be coming into his own.

So there were understated classic Sanderisms, such as the navy coat and matching trouser, and color blocking through pieces (a pale pink shirt with a lemon polo neck atop a pair of fir-green pants), but there were also glossy furs and pony skins cut and spliced in diagonal stripes to catch the light in different ways; the lines of an unfinished diagram on a white slip dress or perfectly tailored black coat; and narrow leather strips, like so many bits (bytes?) of binary code, on a skirt and sweatshirt top.

Call it algorithmic chic; the opposite of the handwork that was on display at Tod's, where Alessandra Facchinetti produced her best collection to date by leavening lacelike leather shirts with a pair of velvet pants, weaving leaf patterns into leather skirts and pairing them with perfect cotton shirts, and combining the two (top and bottom) in a featherweight but relaxed whip-stitched leather shirt dress. Or Antonio Marras, where lace and rose appliqués and ruffles gave a rich romance to generous portrait-collared coats, trapeze dresses and the artsy tunic/trouser combination.

The appeal of one is intellectual and streamlined; the other tactile and humanistic (indeed, Mr. Marras dedicated his collection to his friend, the seventy-something former model Benedetta Barzini, whose runway heyday was the 1960s, and put her on the catwalk at the end to rousing applause). Both are resonant; they just push different buttons.

And sometimes they even work together, as at Marni, where no-nonsense graphic tunics, trousers and tops in worsted wool and tweed cut with military-like precision and bound by a wide leather circlet at the waist were softened by fraying, hand-cut edges and then racheted up with patch pockets and sleeves in an almost feral deep-dish fur.

Floral jacquards in muted shades of navy, forest green and mustard hinted at the bucolic without collapsing into froth, and the whole had its own raw self-propulsion. Gravity at work.

Interested in Fashion Week? Follow the conversation at nytimes.com/insidefashionweek.

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Dressing for the Digital Divide (Published 2015)

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MILAN - Something has shifted in Milan. For decades the Italian fashion world was shaped by the oppositional influence of two poles: sex and the cerebellum. Their tension informed the aesthetic narrative of the country, and of fashion week. Armani vs. Versace; Umberto Eco vs. Sophia Loren; Prada vs.